Bioeconomy#Materials

Biobased economy, bioeconomy or biotechonomy is an economic activity involving the use of biotechnology and biomass in the production of goods, services, or energy. The terms are widely used by regional development agencies, national and international organizations, and biotechnology companies. They are closely linked to the evolution of the biotechnology industry and the capacity to study, understand, and manipulate genetic material that has been possible due to scientific research and technological development. This includes the application of scientific and technological developments to agriculture, health, chemical, and energy industries.{{cite journal|last1=Smyth|first1=S. J.|last2=Aerni|first2=P.|last3=Castle|first3=D.|last4=Demont|first4=M.|last5=Falck-Zepeda|first5=J. B.|last6=Paarlberg|first6=R.|last7=Phillips|first7=P. W. B.|last8=Pray|first8=C. E.|last9=Savastano|first9=S.|last10=Wesseler|last11=Zilberman|first11=D.|year=2011|title=Sustainability and the bioeconomy: Policy recommendations from the 15th ICABR conference|journal=AgBioForum|volume=14|issue=3|pages=180–186}}{{cite journal|last1=Wesseler|last2=Spielman|first2=D. S.|last3=Demont|first3=M.|year=2011|title=The Future of Governance in the Global Bioeconomy: Policy, Regulation, and Investment Challenges for the Biotechnology and Bioenergy Sectors|journal=AgBioForum|volume=13|issue=4|pages=288–290}}File:Lab Grown Meat explained by New Harvest.webm and Xprize explaining the development of cultured meat and a "post-animal bio-economy" driven by lab-grown protein (meat, eggs, milk)]] The terms bioeconomy (BE) and bio-based economy (BBE) are sometimes used interchangeably. However, it is worth to distinguish them: the biobased economy takes into consideration the production of non-food goods, whilst bioeconomy covers both bio-based economy and the production and use of food and feed.{{Cite journal|last1=Staffas|first1=Louise|last2=Gustavsson|first2=Mathias|last3=McCormick|first3=Kes|date=2013-06-20|title=Strategies and Policies for the Bioeconomy and Bio-Based Economy: An Analysis of Official National Approaches|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=5|issue=6|pages=2751–2769|doi=10.3390/su5062751|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}} More than 60 countries and regions have bioeconomy or bioscience-related strategies, of which 20 have published dedicated bioeconomy strategies in Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and the Americas.{{cite web |title=Bioeconomy for a sustainable future |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb6564en |page=6 |access-date=2022-09-16 |website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}

The bioeconomy is emerging as a transformative force for sustainable development by integrating advances in biotechnology, digital technologies, and circular economy principles. It leverages renewable biological resources such as crops, forests, fish, animals, and microorganisms to produce food, materials, and energy while addressing global challenges such as climate change, resource depletion, and food security. Technological advancements—such as gene editing, bioprocessing, and bioprinting—are driving innovation, enabling the creation of sustainable solutions across sectors. These include bioplastics, biofuels, and bio-based materials that reduce reliance on fossil fuels and minimize environmental impact.

Additionally, initiatives like the European Union’s Bioeconomy Strategy illustrate the global commitment to fostering bioeconomy development. The strategy focuses on regional innovation, circular systems, and reducing carbon emissions. Notable examples include Brazil’s sugarcane ethanol production, Finland’s wood-fiber packaging innovations, and the Netherlands’ algae-based bioplastics industry. These efforts highlight how bioeconomy practices can generate economic value while protecting ecosystems and promoting sustainability.

By aligning economic growth with environmental stewardship, the bioeconomy offers a path toward a sustainable, low-carbon future. This transformative approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of economic, environmental, and social systems, fostering long-term resilience and well-being.

Definitions

Bioeconomy has large variety of definitions. The bioeconomy comprises those parts of the economy that use renewable biological resources from land and sea – such as crops, forests, fish, animals and micro-organisms – to produce food, health, materials, products, textiles and energy.{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/839878465|title=Innovating for sustainable growth: a bioeconomy for Europe|date= 2012|publisher=European Union. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation.|isbn=978-92-79-25376-8|location=Luxembourg|oclc=839878465}} The definitions and usage does however vary between different areas of the world. {{Cite journal |last1=Roos |first1=Annie |last2=Blomquist |first2=Mimmi |last3=Bhatia |first3=Riina |last4=Ekegren |first4=Katarina |last5=Rönnberg |first5=Jonas |last6=Torfgård |first6=Lovisa |last7=Tunberg |first7=Maria |date=2021-11-17 |title=The digitalisation of the Nordic bioeconomy and its effect on gender equality |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research |volume=36 |issue=7–8 |pages=639–654 |doi=10.1080/02827581.2021.1996629 |s2cid=240328487 |issn=0282-7581|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021SJFR...36..639R }}

An important aspect of the bioeconomy is understanding mechanisms and processes at the genetic, molecular, and genomic levels, and applying this understanding to creating or improving industrial processes, developing new products and services, and producing new energy. Bioeconomy aims to reduce our dependence on fossil natural resources, to prevent biodiversity loss and to create new economic growth and jobs that are in line with the principles of sustainable development.{{cite book |last1=E Alakangas |last2=A Arasto |last3=E Hakkarainen |last4=A Harlin |last5=J Honkatukia |last6=P Kangas |last7=T Koljonen |last8=E Kurkela |last9=R Lantto |last10=A Lehtilä |last11=T Liitiä |last12=J Manninen |last13=K Melin |last14=K Niemelä |last15=E Nordlund |last16=A Oasmaa |last17=K Onarheim |last18=P Vainikka |title=Growth by integrating bioeconomy and low-carbon economy: Scenarios for Finland until 2050 |url=https://edepot.wur.nl/449686 |editor1=Arasto, Antti |editor2=Koljonen, Tiina |editor3=Similä, Lassi |year=2018 |isbn=978-951-38-8699-8 |location=Espoo |publisher=VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland |oclc=1035157127}}

=Earlier definitions=

The term 'biotechonomy' was used by Juan Enríquez and Rodrigo Martinez at the Genomics Seminar in the 1997 AAAS meeting. An excerpt of this paper was published in Science."Enríquez-Cabot, Juan. "Genomics and the World's Economy." Science 281 (14 August 1998): 925-926.

In 2010, it was defined in the report "The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) in Europe: Achievements and Challenges" by Albrecht & al. as follows: The bio-economy is the sustainable production and conversion of biomass, for a range of food, health, fibre and industrial products and energy, where renewable biomass encompasses any biological material to be used as raw material.”{{cite tech report |last1=J. Albrecht |last2=D. Carrez |last3=P. Cunningham |last4=L.Daroda |last5=R. Mancia |last6=L. Máthé |last7=A. Raschka |last8=M. Carus |last9=S.Piotrowski |date=2010-09-14 |title=The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) in Europe: Achievements and Challenges |url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.36049.94560 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.36049.94560}}

According to a 2013 study, "the bioeconomy can be defined as an economy where the basic building blocks for materials, chemicals and energy are derived from renewable biological resources".

The [https://gbs2015.com/ First Global Bioeconomy Summit] in Berlin in November 2015 defines bioeconomy as "knowledge-based production and utilization of biological resources, biological processes and principles to sustainably provide goods and services across all economic sectors". According to the summit, bioeconomy involves three elements: renewable biomass, enabling and converging technologies, and integration across applications concerning primary production (i.e. all living natural resources), health (i.e. pharmaceuticals and medical devices), and industry (i.e. chemicals, plastics, enzymes, pulp and paper, bioenergy).{{Cite web|title=An Overview on How Sustainability is Addressed in Official Bioeconomy Strategies at International, National and Regional Levels|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5998e.pdf|website=fao.org}}

History

Enríquez and Martinez' 2002 Harvard Business School working paper, "Biotechonomy 1.0: A Rough Map of Biodata Flow", showed the global flow of genetic material into and out of the three largest public genetic databases: GenBank, EMBL and DDBJ. The authors then hypothesized about the economic impact that such data flows might have on patent creation, evolution of biotech startups and licensing fees.Juan Enríquez, Rodrigo Martinez. "Biotechonomy 1.0: A Rough Map of Biodata Flow", Harvard Business School working paper # 03-028, August 2002. An adaptation of this paper was published in Wired magazine in 2003.Rodrigo Martinez, Juan Enríquez, Jonathan West. "DNA Space. The Geography of the Genome", Wired, June 2003. p. 160.

The term 'bioeconomy' became popular from the mid-2000s with its adoption by the European Union and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development as a policy agenda and framework to promote the use of biotechnology to develop new products, markets, and uses of biomass.{{Cite book|title=Neoliberal Bio-economies? The Co-construction of Markets and Natures|last=Birch|first=Kean|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2019|isbn=978-3-319-91424-4|location=London|pages=64–67}} Since then, both the EU (2012) and OECD (2006) have created dedicated bioeconomy strategies, as have an increasing number of countries around the world.{{Cite web|title=Schematic showing the biomass and processes used in Zeafuels|url=https://biooekonomierat.de/en/international/|access-date=Jan 6, 2021|website=biooekonomierat.de}} Often these strategies conflate the bioeconomy with the term 'bio-based economy'. For example, since 2005 the Netherlands has sought to promote the creation of a biobased economy.{{Cite web|url=https://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/|title=BioBased Economy – De Nederlandse BioBased Economy community|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}} Pilot plants have been started i.e. in Lelystad (Zeafuels), and a centralised organisation exists (Interdepartementaal programma biobased economy), with supporting research (Food & Biobased Research) being conducted.{{Cite web|title=TransIP - Reserved domain|url=http://www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/acrres_afbeelding.jpg|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426050549/http://www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/acrres_afbeelding.jpg|archive-date=Apr 26, 2012|access-date=Jan 6, 2021|website=www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl}} Other European countries have also developed and implemented bioeconomy or bio-based economy policy strategies and frameworks.

In 2012, president Barack Obama of the USA announced intentions to encourage biological manufacturing methods, with a National Bioeconomy Blueprint.[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/26/business/energy-environment/white-house-promotes-a-bioeconomy.html White House Promotes a Bioeconomy] April 26, 2012

Aims

Global population growth and over consumption of many resources are causing increasing environmental pressure and climate change. Bioeconomy tackles with these challenges. It aims to ensure food security and to promote more sustainable natural resource use as well as to reduce the dependence on non-renewable resources, e.g. fossil natural resources and minerals. In some extent bioeconomy also helps economy to reduces greenhouse gas emissions and assists in mitigating and adapting to climate change.{{cite book |title=Review of the 2012 European Bioeconomy Strategy |year=2017 |isbn=978-92-79-74382-5 |location=Luxembourg |publisher=Directorate-General for Research and Innovation |doi=10.2777/086770 |doi-access=free |oclc=1060956843}}

Genetic modification

{{See also|Genetically modified crops#By-products|Genetically modified organism|Algae fuel|Cellulosic ethanol|#Agriculture|#Medicine, nutritional science and the health economy}}

Organisms, ranging from bacteria over yeasts up to plants are used for production of enzymatic catalysis. Genetically modified bacteria have been used to produce insulin, artemisinic acid was made in engineered yeast. Some bioplastics (based on polyhydroxylbutyrate or polyhydroxylalkanoates) are produced from sugar using genetically modified microbes.{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-05-circular-bioeconomy-synthetic-biology.html|title=Building a circular bioeconomy with synthetic biology|website=phys.org|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}

Genetically modified organisms are also used for the production of biofuels. Biofuels are a type of carbon-neutral fuel.

Research is also being done towards CO₂ fixation using a synthetic metabolic pathway. By genetically modifying E. coli bacteria so as to allow them to consume CO₂, the bacterium may provide the infrastructure for the future renewable production of food and green fuels.{{Cite web|url=https://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/life-sciences/greenest-diet-bacteria-switch-eating-carbon-dioxide|title=The Greenest Diet: Bacteria Switch to Eating Carbon Dioxide|date=27 November 2019 |access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}[http://www.weizmann.ac.il/WeizmannCompass/sections/briefs/diet-for-the-planet Diet for the planet]

One of the organisms (Ideonella sakaiensis) that is able to break down PET (a plastic) into other substances has been genetically modified to break down PET even faster and also break down PEF. Once plastics (which are normally non-biodegradable) are broken down and recycled into other substances (i.e. biomatter in the case of Tenebrio molitor larvae) it can be used as an input for other animals.

Genetically modified crops are also used. Genetically modified energy crops for instance may provide some additional advantages such as reduced associated costs (i.e. costs during the manufacturing process{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Rebecca A. |last2=Cass |first2=Cynthia L. |last3=Mazaheri |first3=Mona |last4=Sekhon |first4=Rajandeep S. |last5=Heckwolf |first5=Marlies |last6=Kaeppler |first6=Heidi |last7=de Leon |first7=Natalia |last8=Mansfield |first8=Shawn D. |last9=Kaeppler |first9=Shawn M. |last10=Sedbrook |first10=John C. |last11=Karlen |first11=Steven D. |last12=Ralph |first12=John |title=Suppression of CINNAMOYL-CoA REDUCTASE increases the level of monolignol ferulates incorporated into maize lignins |journal=Biotechnology for Biofuels |date=2 May 2017 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=109 |doi=10.1186/s13068-017-0793-1 |pmid=28469705 |pmc=5414125 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017BB.....10..109S }} ) and less water use. One example are trees have been genetically modified to either have less lignin, or to express lignin with chemically labile bonds.{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25354-redesigned-crops-could-produce-far-more-fuel/|title=Redesigned crops could produce far more fuel|first=Hal|last=Hodson|website=New Scientist|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/content/Plant-genetic-engineering-for-biofuel-production-towards-45102|title=Plant genetic engineering for biofuel production: towards affordable cellulosic ethanol. | Learn Science at Scitable|website=www.nature.com|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}

With genetically modified crops however, there are still some challenges involved (hurdles to regulatory approvals, market adoption and public acceptance).{{cite journal| pmid=17701080 | doi=10.1007/s11248-007-9122-y | volume=16 | issue=6 | title=Genetically modified crops for the bioeconomy: meeting public and regulatory expectations | year=2007 | journal=Transgenic Res | pages=675–88 | last1 = Chapotin | first1 = SM | last2 = Wolt | first2 = JD| s2cid=37104746 }}

Fields

According to European Union Bioeconomy Strategy updated in 2018 the bioeconomy covers all sectors and systems that rely on biological resources (animals, plants, micro-organisms and derived biomass, including organic waste), their functions and principles. It covers all primary production and economic and industrial sectors that base on use, production or processing biological resources from agriculture, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture. The product of bioeconomy are typically food, feed and other biobased products, bioenergy and services based on biological resources. The bioeconomy aims to drive towards sustainability, circularity as well as the protection of the environment and will enhance biodiversity.{{cite book |author=Directorate-General for Research and Innovation |title=A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe: Strengthening the connection between economy, society and the environment: updated bioeconomy strategy |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-79-94144-3 |location=Luxembourg |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |doi=10.2777/792130 |doi-access=free |oclc=1099358181}}

In some definitions, bioeconomy comprises also ecosystem services that are services offered by the environment, including binding carbon dioxide and opportunities for recreation. Another key aspect of the bioeconomy is not wasting natural resources but using and recycling them efficiently.{{Cite web|publisher=The Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy|title=Sustainable growth from bioeconomy – The Finnish Bioeconomy Strategy|url=https://biotalous.fi/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Finnish_Bioeconomy_Strategy_110620141.pdf|url-status=live|website=Bioeconomy.fi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505173432/http://biotalous.fi:80/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Finnish_Bioeconomy_Strategy_110620141.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-05 }}

According to EU Bioeconomy Report 2016, the bioeconomy brings together various sectors of the economy that produce, process and reuse renewable biological resources (agriculture, forestry, fisheries, food, bio-based chemicals and materials and bioenergy).{{cite book |author=Joint Research Centre |date=2017-06-09|title=Bioeconomy report 2016 |url=https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/b3a3b800-4f18-11e7-a5ca-01aa75ed71a1 |location=Luxembourg |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |doi=10.2760/20166 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-927965711-5}}

=Agriculture=

{{See also|Food microbiology|Biochar|Pesticide#Alternatives|Agricultural technology|Regenerative agriculture}}

File:First cultured hamburger fried.png hamburger]]

{{Further|Cellular agriculture#Applications|Sustainable food system}}

{{Transclude lead excerpt | 1=Cellular agriculture | paragraphs= | files= | fileargs= | errors= }}

However, not all synthetic nutrition products are animal food products such as meat and dairy – for instance, as of 2021 there are also products of synthetic coffee that are reported to be close to commercialization.{{cite news |last1=Lavars |first1=Nick |title=Lab-grown coffee cuts out the beans and deforestation |url=https://newatlas.com/science/lab-grown-coffee-beans-deforestation/ |access-date=18 October 2021 |work=New Atlas |date=20 September 2021}}{{cite news |last=Nittle |first=Nadra |title=Eco-friendly, lab-grown coffee is on the way, but it comes with a catch |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/16/lab-grown-coffee-eco-friendly |access-date=14 January 2024 |work=The Guardian |date=16 October 2021}}{{cite web |title=Sustainable coffee grown in Finland – {{!}} VTT News |url=https://www.vttresearch.com/en/news-and-ideas/sustainable-coffee-grown-finland-land-drinks-most-coffee-capita-produces-its-first |website=www.vttresearch.com |date=15 September 2021 |access-date=18 October 2021 |language=en}} Similar fields of research and production based on bioeconomy agriculture are:

Microbial food cultures and genetically engineered microbial production (e.g. of spider silk{{cite news |title=Spider silk made by photosynthetic bacteria |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-spider-silk-photosynthetic-bacteria.html |access-date=16 August 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807092649/https://phys.org/news/2020-07-spider-silk-photosynthetic-bacteria.html |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Foong |first1=Choon Pin |last2=Higuchi-Takeuchi |first2=Mieko |last3=Malay |first3=Ali D. |last4=Oktaviani |first4=Nur Alia |last5=Thagun |first5=Chonprakun |last6=Numata |first6=Keiji |title=A marine photosynthetic microbial cell factory as a platform for spider silk production |journal=Communications Biology |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=2020-07-08 |issn=2399-3642 |doi=10.1038/s42003-020-1099-6 |page=357 |pmid=32641733 |pmc=7343832 }} or solar-energy-based protein powder){{cite news |title=Growing food with air and solar power: More efficient than planting crops |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-food-air-solar-power-efficient.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Leger |first1=Dorian |last2=Matassa |first2=Silvio |last3=Noor |first3=Elad |last4=Shepon |first4=Alon |last5=Milo |first5=Ron |last6=Bar-Even |first6=Arren |title=Photovoltaic-driven microbial protein production can use land and sunlight more efficiently than conventional crops |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=29 June 2021 |volume=118 |issue=26 |pages=e2015025118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2015025118 |pmid=34155098 |s2cid=235595143 |language=en |issn=0027-8424|pmc=8255800 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11815025L |doi-access=free }}
Controlled self-assembly of plant proteins (e.g. of spider silk similar plant-proteins-based plastics alternatives){{cite news |title='Vegan spider silk' provides sustainable alternative to single-use plastics |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-vegan-spider-silk-sustainable-alternative.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Kamada |first1=Ayaka |last2=Rodriguez-Garcia |first2=Marc |last3=Ruggeri |first3=Francesco Simone |last4=Shen |first4=Yi |last5=Levin |first5=Aviad |last6=Knowles |first6=Tuomas P. J. |title=Controlled self-assembly of plant proteins into high-performance multifunctional nanostructured films |journal=Nature Communications |date=10 June 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=3529 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-23813-6 |pmid=34112802 |pmc=8192951 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.3529K |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}
Cell-free artificial synthesis (e.g. of starch{{cite news |title=World-first artificial synthesis of starch from CO2 outperforms nature |url=https://newatlas.com/science/artificial-synthesis-starch-from-co2/ |access-date=18 October 2021 |work=New Atlas |date=28 September 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Tao |last2=Sun |first2=Hongbing |last3=Qiao |first3=Jing |last4=Zhu |first4=Leilei |last5=Zhang |first5=Fan |last6=Zhang |first6=Jie |last7=Tang |first7=Zijing |last8=Wei |first8=Xinlei |last9=Yang |first9=Jiangang |last10=Yuan |first10=Qianqian |last11=Wang |first11=Wangyin |last12=Yang |first12=Xue |last13=Chu |first13=Huanyu |last14=Wang |first14=Qian |last15=You |first15=Chun |last16=Ma |first16=Hongwu |last17=Sun |first17=Yuanxia |last18=Li |first18=Yin |last19=Li |first19=Can |last20=Jiang |first20=Huifeng |last21=Wang |first21=Qinhong |last22=Ma |first22=Yanhe |title=Cell-free chemoenzymatic starch synthesis from carbon dioxide |journal=Science |date=24 September 2021 |volume=373 |issue=6562 |pages=1523–1527 |doi=10.1126/science.abh4049 |pmid=34554807 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1523C |s2cid=237615280 |language=EN|doi-access=free }})
Bioproduced imitation foods (e.g. meat analogues and milk substitutes)

Many of the foods produced with tools and methods of the bioeconomy may not be intended for human consumption but for non-human animals such as for livestock feed, insect-based pet food or sustainable aquacultural feed. There are various startups and research teams around the world who use synthetic biology to create animal feed.{{cite news |title=China to make protein for livestock from carbon monoxide |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-make-protein-livestock-carbon-monoxide-2021-11-01/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=Reuters |date=1 November 2021 |language=en}}

Moreover, crops could be genetically engineered in ways that e.g. safely increase yields, reduce the need for pesticides or ease indoor production.

One example of a product highly specific to the bioeconomy that is widely available is algae oil which is a dietary supplement that could substitute possibly less sustainable, larger-market-share fish oil supplements.{{cite journal |last1=Arterburn |first1=Linda M. |last2=Oken |first2=Harry A. |last3=Bailey Hall |first3=Eileen |last4=Hamersley |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Kuratko |first5=Connye N. |last6=Hoffman |first6=James P. |title=Algal-Oil Capsules and Cooked Salmon: Nutritionally Equivalent Sources of Docosahexaenoic Acid |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |date=1 July 2008 |volume=108 |issue=7 |pages=1204–1209 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2008.04.020 |pmid=18589030 |language=en |issn=0002-8223}}{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Lisa |last2=Symington |first2=Amy M. |title=Algal-oil supplements are a viable alternative to fish-oil supplements in terms of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3; DHA) |journal=Journal of Functional Foods |date=1 December 2015 |volume=19 |pages=852–858 |doi=10.1016/j.jff.2014.06.023 |language=en |issn=1756-4646}}

==Vertical farming==

==Fungiculture==

For example, there is ongoing research and development for indoor high-yield mechanisms.{{cite news |last1=Katsnelson |first1=Alla |title=Cultivating Coveted Morels Year-Round and Indoors |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/26/science/morel-mushrooms-growing.html |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=26 April 2022}}

===Mycoprotein===

= Algaculture =

File:Microalgae cultivation facility along the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawai’i.jpg

= Waste management, recycling and biomining =

{{See also|Polymer degradation#Biological degradation|Plastisphere#Degradation by microorganisms}}

Biobased applications, research and development of waste management may form a part of the bioeconomy. Bio-based recycling (e-waste,{{cite journal |last1=Ilyas |first1=Sadia |last2=Srivastava |first2=Rajiv R. |last3=Kim |first3=Hyunjung |last4=Das |first4=Subhankar |last5=Singh |first5=Vinay K. |title=Circular bioeconomy and environmental benignness through microbial recycling of e-waste: A case study on copper and gold restoration |journal=Waste Management |date=15 February 2021 |volume=121 |pages=175–185 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2020.12.013 |pmid=33360816 |bibcode=2021WaMan.121..175I |s2cid=229693482 |language=en |issn=0956-053X}} plastics recycling, etc.) is linked to waste management and relevant standards and requirements of production and products. Some of the recycling of waste may be biomining and some biomining could be applied beyond recycling.{{cite web |last1=Mitha |first1=Farhan |title=Biomining: Turning Waste into Gold Sustainably with Microbes |url=https://www.labiotech.eu/in-depth/biomining-sustainable-microbes/ |website=Labiotech.eu |access-date=26 October 2021 |date=18 November 2020}}

For example, in 2020, biotechnologists reported the genetically engineered refinement and mechanical description of synergistic enzymes – PETase, first discovered in 2016, and MHETase of Ideonella sakaiensis – for faster depolymerization of PET and also of PEF, which may be useful for depollution, recycling and upcycling of mixed plastics along with other approaches.{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=New super-enzyme eats plastic bottles six times faster |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/28/new-super-enzyme-eats-plastic-bottles-six-times-faster |access-date=12 October 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012004245/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/28/new-super-enzyme-eats-plastic-bottles-six-times-faster |url-status=live }}{{cite news |title=Plastic-eating enzyme 'cocktail' heralds new hope for plastic waste |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-plastic-eating-enzyme-cocktail-heralds-plastic.html |access-date=12 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011210353/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-plastic-eating-enzyme-cocktail-heralds-plastic.html |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Knott |first1=Brandon C. |last2=Erickson |first2=Erika |last3=Allen |first3=Mark D. |last4=Gado |first4=Japheth E. |last5=Graham |first5=Rosie |last6=Kearns |first6=Fiona L. |last7=Pardo |first7=Isabel |last8=Topuzlu |first8=Ece |last9=Anderson |first9=Jared J. |last10=Austin |first10=Harry P. |last11=Dominick |first11=Graham |last12=Johnson |first12=Christopher W. |last13=Rorrer |first13=Nicholas A. |last14=Szostkiewicz |first14=Caralyn J. |last15=Copié |first15=Valérie |last16=Payne |first16=Christina M. |last17=Woodcock |first17=H. Lee |last18=Donohoe |first18=Bryon S. |last19=Beckham |first19=Gregg T. |last20=McGeehan |first20=John E. |title=Characterization and engineering of a two-enzyme system for plastics depolymerization |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=24 September 2020 |volume=117 |issue=41 |pages=25476–25485 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2006753117 |pmid=32989159 |pmc=7568301 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11725476K |language=en |issn=0027-8424 |doi-access=free }} Such approaches may be more environmentally-friendly as well as cost-effective than mechanical and chemical PET-recycling, enabling circular plastic bio-economy solutions via systems based on engineered strains.{{cite journal |last1=Gautom |first1=Trishnamoni |last2=Dheeman |first2=Dharmendra |last3=Levy |first3=Colin |last4=Butterfield |first4=Thomas |last5=Alvarez Gonzalez |first5=Guadalupe |last6=Le Roy |first6=Philip |last7=Caiger |first7=Lewis |last8=Fisher |first8=Karl |last9=Johannissen |first9=Linus |last10=Dixon |first10=Neil |title=Structural basis of terephthalate recognition by solute binding protein TphC |journal=Nature Communications |date=29 October 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=6244 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26508-0 |pmid=34716322 |pmc=8556258 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.6244G |s2cid=240229196 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}} Moreover, microorganisms could be employed to mine useful elements from basalt rocks via bioleaching.{{cite news |last1=Crane |first1=Leah |title=Asteroid-munching microbes could mine materials from space rocks |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2259373-asteroid-munching-microbes-could-mine-materials-from-space-rocks/ |access-date=9 December 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=7 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207190406/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2259373-asteroid-munching-microbes-could-mine-materials-from-space-rocks/ |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Cockell |first1=Charles S. |last2=Santomartino |first2=Rosa |last3=Finster |first3=Kai |last4=Waajen |first4=Annemiek C. |last5=Eades |first5=Lorna J. |last6=Moeller |first6=Ralf |last7=Rettberg |first7=Petra |last8=Fuchs |first8=Felix M. |last9=Van Houdt |first9=Rob |last10=Leys |first10=Natalie |last11=Coninx |first11=Ilse |last12=Hatton |first12=Jason |last13=Parmitano |first13=Luca |last14=Krause |first14=Jutta |last15=Koehler |first15=Andrea |last16=Caplin |first16=Nicol |last17=Zuijderduijn |first17=Lobke |last18=Mariani |first18=Alessandro |last19=Pellari |first19=Stefano S. |last20=Carubia |first20=Fabrizio |last21=Luciani |first21=Giacomo |last22=Balsamo |first22=Michele |last23=Zolesi |first23=Valfredo |last24=Nicholson |first24=Natasha |last25=Loudon |first25=Claire-Marie |last26=Doswald-Winkler |first26=Jeannine |last27=Herová |first27=Magdalena |last28=Rattenbacher |first28=Bernd |last29=Wadsworth |first29=Jennifer |last30=Craig Everroad |first30=R. |last31=Demets |first31=René |title=Space station biomining experiment demonstrates rare earth element extraction in microgravity and Mars gravity |journal=Nature Communications |date=10 November 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5523 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19276-w |pmid=33173035 |pmc=7656455 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5523C |language=en |issn=2041-1723 }}.

= Medicine, nutritional science and the health economy =

In 2020, the global industry for dietary supplements was valued at $140.3 billion by a "Grand View Research" analysis.{{cite web |title=Dietary Supplements Market Size & Trends Report, 2021-2028 |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/dietary-supplements-market |access-date=2021-07-30 | location = San Francisco, CA | work = Grand View Research |language=en}} Certain parts of the health economy may overlap with the bioeconomy,{{cite web |title=The global bioeconomy |url=https://ebrary.net/169442/geography/global_bioeconomy |website=Ebrary |access-date=26 October 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Haapala |first1=Antti |last2=Härkönen |first2=Janne |last3=Leviäkangas |first3=Pekka |last4=Kess |first4=Pekka |last5=Häggman |first5=Hely |last6=Arvola |first6=Jouko |last7=Stoor |first7=Tuomas |last8=Ämmälä |first8=Ari |last9=Karppinen |first9=Katja |last10=Leppilampi |first10=Mari |last11=Niinimäki |first11=Jouko |title=Bioeconomy potential - focus on Northern Finland |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Economy |date=1 January 2015 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=66–90 |doi=10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408 |issn=1756-5804}} including anti-aging- and life extension-related products and activities, hygiene/beauty products, functional food, sports performance related products and bio-based tests (such as of one's microbiota) and banks (such as stool banks{{cite journal |last1=McLeod |first1=Carmen |last2=Nerlich |first2=Brigitte |last3=Jaspal |first3=Rusi |title=Fecal microbiota transplants: emerging social representations in the English-language print media |journal=New Genetics and Society |date=3 July 2019 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=331–351 |doi=10.1080/14636778.2019.1637721 |s2cid=195390497 |issn=1463-6778|doi-access=free }} including oral "super stool" capsules{{cite news |title=Super poo: the emerging science of stool transplants and designer gut bacteria |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jan/03/super-poo-the-emerging-science-of-stool-transplants-and-designer-gut-bacteria |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=2 January 2022 |language=en}}) and databases (mainly DNA databases), all of which can in turn be used for individualized interventions, monitoring as well as for the development of new products. The pharmaceutical sector, including the research and development of new antibiotics, can also be considered to be a bioeconomy sector.

=Forest bioeconomy=

{{Further|#Climate change adaptation and mitigation|#Woodchips and pellets}}

The forest bioeconomy is based on forests and their natural resources, and covers a variety of different industry and production processes. Forest bioeconomy includes, for example, the processing of forest biomass to provide products relating to, energy, chemistry, or the food industry. Thus, forest bioeconomy covers a variety of different manufacturing processes that are based on wood material and the range of end products is wide.{{Cite web|title=Green bioeconomy|url=https://mmm.fi/en/bioeconomy/green-bioeconomy|access-date=December 11, 2020|website=Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Finland}}

Besides different wood-based products, recreation, nature tourism and game are a crucial part of forest bioeconomy. Carbon sequestration and ecosystem services are also included in the concept of forest bioeconomy.

Pulp, paper, packaging materials and sawn timber are the traditional products of the forest industry. Wood is also traditionally used in furniture and construction industries. But in addition to these, as a renewable natural resource, ingredients from wood can be valorised into innovative bioproducts alongside a range of conventional forest industry products. Thus, traditional mill sites of large forest industry companies, for example in Finland, are in the process of becoming biorefineries. In different processes, forest biomass is used to produce textiles, chemicals, cosmetics, fuels, medicine, intelligent packaging, coatings, glues, plastics, food and feed.{{Cite book|title=Wood-Based Bioeconomy Solving Global Challenges|publisher=Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment Enterprise and Innovation Department|year=2017|isbn=978-952-327-215-6|editor-last=Lilja|editor-first=Kari|pages=9–10|editor-last2=Loukola-Ruskeeniem|editor-first2=Kirsti}}

= Blue bioeconomy =

The blue bioeconomy covers businesses that are based on the sustainable use of renewable aquatic resources as well water related expertise areas. It covers the development and marketing of blue bioeconomy products and services. In that respect, the key sectors include business activities based on water expertise and technology, water-based tourism, making use of aquatic biomass, and the value chain of fisheries. Furthermore, the immaterial value of aquatic natural resources is also very high. Water areas have also other values beyond being platforms of economic activities. It provides human well-being, recreation and health.{{Cite web|title=Blue bioeconomy|url=https://mmm.fi/en/bioeconomy/blue-bioeconomy|access-date=2020-12-17|website=Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö|language=en-US}}

According to the European Union the blue bioeconomy has the focus on aquatic or marine environments, especially, on novel aquaculture applications, including non-food, food and feed.{{cite book |title=Blue Bioeconomy Forum: Highlights: Synthesis of the roadmap and a selection of viable and innovative projects |author1=EASME |author2=Technopolis Group |author3=Wageningen Research |year=2020 |isbn=978-92-9202-730-8 |location=Luxembourg |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |doi=10.2826/746132 |doi-access=free |oclc=1140706262}}

In the European [https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/swd-2017-128_en.pdf Report on the Blue Growth Strategy - Towards more sustainable growth and jobs in the blue economy] (2017) the blue bioeconomy is defined differently to the blue economy. The blue economy means the industries that are related to marine environment activities, e.g. shipbuilding, transport, coastal tourism, renewable energies (such as off-shore windmills), living and non-living resources.{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Kate |last2=Dalton |first2=Gordon |last3=Masters |first3=Ian |title=Building Industries at Sea: 'Blue Growth' and the New Maritime Economy |date=2018 |publisher=River Publisher |isbn=978-87-93609-25-9 |doi=10.13052/rp-9788793609259 |doi-access=free |s2cid=135401447 |oclc=1366491029}}

= Energy =

{{See also|Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present#Bioenergy and biotechnology|Cellulosic ethanol#Production methods|Ethanol fermentation}}

The bioeconomy also includes bioenergy, biohydrogen, biofuel and algae fuel.

According to World Bioenergy Association 17.8 % out of gross final energy consumption was covered with renewable energy. Among renewable energy sources, bioenergy (energy from bio-based sources) is the largest renewable energy source. In 2017, bioenergy accounted for 70% of renewable energy consumption.{{Cite web|publisher=World Bioenergy Association|title=Global bioenergy statistics 2019|url=https://worldbioenergy.org/uploads/191129%20WBA%20GBS%202019_LQ.pdf|access-date=13 November 2020|website=worldbioenergy.org}}

The role of bioenergy varies in different countries and continents. In Africa it is the most important energy sources with the share of 96%. Bioenergy has significant shares in energy production in the Americas (59%), Asia (65%) and Europe (59%). The bioenergy is produced out of a large variety of biomass from forestry, agriculture and waste and side streams of industries to produce useful end products (pellets, wood chips, bioethanol, biogas and biodiesel) for electricity, heat and transportation fuel around the world.

Biomass is a renewable natural resource but it is still a limited resource. Globally there are huge resources, but environmental, social and economic aspects limit their use. Biomass can play an important role for low-carbon solutions in the fields of customer supplies, energy, food and feed. In practice, there are many competing uses.

The biobased economy uses first-generation biomass (crops), second-generation biomass (crop refuge), and third-generation biomass (seaweed, algae). Several methods of processing are then used (in biorefineries) to gather the most out of the biomass. This includes techniques such as

Anaerobic digestion is generally used to produce biogas, fermentation of sugars produces ethanol, pyrolysis is used to produce pyrolysis-oil (which is solidified biogas), and torrefaction is used to create biomass-coal.{{cite web |title=4. Bioenergy conversion technologies. |url=http://www.fao.org/3/t1804e/t1804e06.htm |website=www.fao.org |access-date=1 August 2021}} Biomass-coal{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} and biogas is then burnt for energy production, ethanol can be used as a (vehicle)-fuel, as well as for other purposes, such as skincare products.{{Cite web|url=https://www.acrres.nl/|title=Home|website=Acrres|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}

Biobased energy can be used to manage intermittency of variable renewable energy like solar and wind.

==Woodchips and pellets==

==Getting the most out of the biomass==

For economic reasons, the processing of the biomass is done according to a specific pattern (a process called cascading). This pattern depends on the types of biomass used. The whole of finding the most suitable pattern is known as biorefining. A general list shows the products with high added value and lowest volume of biomass to the products with the lowest added value and highest volume of biomass:Kijk magazine, number 8, 2011

fine chemicals/medicines
food
chemicals/bioplastics
transport fuels
electricity and heat

Recent studies have highlighted the potential of traditionally used plants, in providing value-added products in remote areas of the world. A study conducted on tobacco plants proposed a non-exhaustive list of compounds with potential economic interest that can be sourced from these plants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Laszlo C, Kaminski K, Guan H, Fatarova M, Wei J, Bergounioux A, Schlage WK, Schorderet-Weber S, Guy PA, Ivanov NV, Lamottke K, Hoeng J | title = Fractionation and Extraction Optimization of Potentially Valuable Compounds and Their Profiling in Six Varieties of Two Nicotiana Species | journal = Molecules | volume = 27 | issue = 22 | page = 8105 | date = November 2022 | pmid = 36432206 | pmc = 9694777 | doi = 10.3390/molecules27228105 | doi-access = free }}

= Other fields and applications =

Bioproducts or bio-based products are products that are made from biomass. The term “bioproduct” refers to a wide array of industrial and commercial products that are characterized by a variety of properties, compositions and processes, as well as different benefits and risks.{{cite book |url=https://www.cesarnet.ca/biocap-archive/images/pdfs/BioproductsPrimerE.pdf |title=Primer on bioproducts |date=2004 |publisher=Pollution Probe |author1=Pollution Probe |author2=BIOCAP Canada Foundation |isbn=978-0-919764-57-6 |location=Toronto, Ont. |oclc=181844396}}

Bio-based products are developed in order to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and non-renewable resources. To achieve this, the key is to develop new bio-refining technologies to sustainably transform renewable natural resources into bio-based products, materials and fuels, e.g.{{Cite journal|date=2015-07-01|title=The role of biomass and bioenergy in a future bioeconomy: Policies and facts|journal=Environmental Development|language=en|volume=15|pages=3–34|doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2015.03.006|issn=2211-4645|last1=Scarlat|first1=Nicolae|last2=Dallemand|first2=Jean-François|last3=Monforti-Ferrario|first3=Fabio|last4=Nita|first4=Viorel|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015EnvDe..15....3S }}

== Transplantable organs and induced regeneration ==

{{main|Synthetic biology#Other transplants and induced regeneration}}

== Microtechnology (medicine and energy) ==

{{Transcluded section|source=Synthetic biology |part=Nanoparticles, artificial cells and micro-droplets }}

{{#section-h:Synthetic biology|Nanoparticles, artificial cells and micro-droplets}}

== Climate change adaptation and mitigation ==

Activities and technologies for bio-based climate change adaptation could be considered as part of the bioeconomy. Examples may include:

reforestation (alongside forest protection) {{see above|above}}
algaculture carbon sequestration {{see above|above}}
artificial assistance to make coral reefs more resilient against climate change{{cite news |title=Probiotics help lab corals survive deadly heat stress |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/probiotics-lab-coral-heat-stress-death-reef-survival-ocean-warming |access-date=22 September 2021 |work=Science News |date=13 August 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Santoro |first1=Erika P. |last2=Borges |first2=Ricardo M. |last3=Espinoza |first3=Josh L. |last4=Freire |first4=Marcelo |last5=Messias |first5=Camila S. M. A. |last6=Villela |first6=Helena D. M. |last7=Pereira |first7=Leandro M. |last8=Vilela |first8=Caren L. S. |last9=Rosado |first9=João G. |last10=Cardoso |first10=Pedro M. |last11=Rosado |first11=Phillipe M. |last12=Assis |first12=Juliana M. |last13=Duarte |first13=Gustavo A. S. |last14=Perna |first14=Gabriela |last15=Rosado |first15=Alexandre S. |last16=Macrae |first16=Andrew |last17=Dupont |first17=Christopher L. |last18=Nelson |first18=Karen E. |last19=Sweet |first19=Michael J. |last20=Voolstra |first20=Christian R. |last21=Peixoto |first21=Raquel S. |title=Coral microbiome manipulation elicits metabolic and genetic restructuring to mitigate heat stress and evade mortality |journal=Science Advances |date=August 2021 |volume=7 |issue=33 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abg3088 |pmid=34389536 |pmc=8363143 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.3088S |language=EN}}
restoration of seagrass, mangroves and salt marshes {{see above|above}}{{cite news |title=The problem with blue carbon: can seagrass be replanted … by hand? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/05/seagrass-meadows-could-turn-tide-of-climate-crisis-aoe |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=5 November 2021 |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Macreadie |first1=Peter I. |last2=Costa |first2=Micheli D. P. |last3=Atwood |first3=Trisha B. |last4=Friess |first4=Daniel A. |last5=Kelleway |first5=Jeffrey J. |last6=Kennedy |first6=Hilary |last7=Lovelock |first7=Catherine E. |last8=Serrano |first8=Oscar |last9=Duarte |first9=Carlos M. |title=Blue carbon as a natural climate solution |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |date=December 2021 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=826–839 |doi=10.1038/s43017-021-00224-1 |bibcode=2021NRvEE...2..826M |language=en |issn=2662-138X|hdl=10754/673304 |s2cid=240290913 |hdl-access=free }}

== Materials ==

There is a potential for biobased-production of building materials (insulation, surface materials, etc.) as well as new materials in general (polymers, plastics, composites, etc.). Photosynthetic microbial cells have been used as a step to synthetic production of spider silk.

=== Bioplastics ===

Bioplastics are not just one single material. They comprise a whole family of materials with different properties and applications. According to European Bioplastics, a plastic material is defined as a bioplastic if it is either bio-based plastic, biodegradable plastic, or is a material with both properties. Bioplastics have the same properties as conventional plastics and offer additional advantages, such as a reduced carbon footprint or additional waste management options, such as composting.{{Cite web|title=What are bioplastics?|url=https://www.european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=www.european-bioplastics.org}}

Bioplastics are divided into three main groups:

Bio-based or partially bio-based non-biodegradable plastics such as bio-based PE, PP, or PET (so-called drop-ins) and bio-based technical performance polymers such as PTT or TPC-ET
Plastics that are both bio-based and biodegradable, such as PLA and PHA or PBS
Plastics that are based on fossil resources and are biodegradable, such as PBAT

Additionally, new materials such as PLA, PHA, cellulose or starch-based materials offer solutions with completely new functionalities such as biodegradability and compostability, and in some cases optimized barrier properties. Along with the growth in variety of bioplastic materials, properties such as flexibility, durability, printability, transparency, barrier, heat resistance, gloss and many more have been significantly enhanced.

Bioplastics have been made from sugarbeet, by bacteria.[https://bloom-bioeconomy.eu/2020/04/01/video-series-on-bioeconomy-bioplastics-from-sugar-beets/ Video Series on Bioeconomy – Bioplastics from Sugar Beets].{{Cite web|title=Bioplastics from sugerbeet video created by project "Boosting European Citizen's Knowledge and Awareness of Bio-Economy Research and Innovation" that is European Union Horizon project under programme H2020-EU.3.2.4.3. - Supporting market development for bio-based products and processes.|url=https://bloom-bioeconomy.eu/2020/07/16/video-series-on-bioeconomy-bioplastic-from-bacteria/|access-date=25 November 2020|website=Bloom-bioeconomy.eu|date=16 July 2020}}

==== Examples of bioplastics ====

Paptic: There are packaging materials which combine the qualities of paper and plastic. For example, Paptic is produced from wood-based fibre that contains more than 70% wood. The material is formed with foam-forming technology that saves raw material and improves the qualities of the material. The material can be produced as reels, which enables it to be delivered with existing mills. The material is spatter-proof but is decomposed when put under water. It is more durable than paper and maintains its shape better than plastic. The material is recycled with cardboards.{{Cite web|title=Fact sheet of PAPTIC®|url=https://ec.europa.eu/easme/sites/easme-site/files/pap_fact_sheet_new.pdf|access-date=17 December 2020|website=ec.europa.eu/easme|publisher=Fact sheet of EASME - Executive Agency for SMEs under European Commission}}

==== Examples of bio-composites ====

Sulapac tins are made from wood chips and biodegradable natural binder and they have features similar to plastic. These packaging products tolerate water and fats, and they do not allow oxygen to pass. Sulapac products combine ecology, luxury and are not subject to design limitations. Sulapac can compete with traditional plastic tins by cost and is suitable for the same packing devices.{{Cite web|last=Haimi|first=Suvi|date=25 April 2017|title=The biodegradable Sulapac® material aims to challenge plastic|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/the-biodegradable-sulapac-material-aims-to-challenge-plastic/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}
Woodio produces wood composite sinks and other bathroom furniture. The composite is produced by moulding a mixture of wood chips and crystal clear binder. Woodio has developed a solid wood composite that is entirely waterproof. The material has similar features to ceramic, but can be used for producing energy at the end of its lifespan, unlike ceramic waste. Solid wood composite is hard and can be moulded with wooden tools.{{Cite web|last=Pasanen|first=Teemu|date=17 June 2017|title=Woodio's waterproof wood composite elevates wood to a new level|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/woodios-waterproof-wood-composite-elevates-wood-to-a-new-level/|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}
Woodcast is a renewable and biodegradable casting material. It is produced from woodchips and biodegradable plastic. It is hard and durable in room temperature but when heated is flexible and self-sticky. Woodcast can be applied to all plastering and supporting elements. The material is breathable and X-ray transparent. It is used in plastering and in occupational therapy and can be moulded to any anatomical shape. Excess pieces can be reused: used casts can be disposed of either as energy or biowaste. The composite differs from traditional lime cast in that it doesn’t need water and it is non-toxic. Therefore gas-masks, gauntlets or suction fans are not required when handling the cast.{{Cite web|date=4 June 2014|title=Woodcast|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/woodcast-2/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}{{Cite web|date=14 December 2016|title=Splinting material made from wood and bioplastics|url=https://forest.fi/products-services/splinting-material-made-from-wood-and-bioplastics/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=forest.fi}}{{Cite web|date=n.d.|title=Revolutionary casting material|url=https://woodcastmedical.com/about/casting|website=woodcastmedical.com}}

=== For sustainable packaging ===

{{Transcluded section|source=Sustainable packaging# Alternatives to conventional plastics|part= }}

{{#section-h:Sustainable packaging| Alternatives to conventional plastics}}

== Textiles ==

The textile industry, or certain activities and elements of it, could be considered to be a strong global bioeconomy sector. Textiles are produced from natural fibres, regenerated fibres and synthetic fibres (Sinclair 2014). The natural fibre textile industry is based on cotton, linen, bamboo, hemp, wool, silk, angora, mohair and cashmere.{{Citation|title=Textiles Used in Fashion Design|date=2008|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474218214.ch-006|work=Textiles and Fashion|pages=156–189|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc|doi=10.5040/9781474218214.ch-006|isbn=978-1-4742-1821-4|access-date=2020-12-17|url-access=subscription}}. p. 5

Activities related to textile production and processing that more clearly fall under the domain of the bioeconomy are developments such as the biofabrication of leather-like material using fungi,{{cite news |title=Leather jackets made in labs? This fashion designer wants to make it happen |url=https://grist.org/science/leather-jackets-made-in-labs-this-fashion-designer-wants-to-make-it-happen/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=Grist |date=12 November 2015 |language=en-us}}{{cite news |last1=Gamillo |first1=Elizabeth |title=This Mushroom-Based Leather Could Be the Next Sustainable Fashion Material |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/this-mushroom-based-leather-could-be-the-next-sustainable-fashion-material-180979170/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mitchell |last2=Gandia |first2=Antoni |last3=John |first3=Sabu |last4=Bismarck |first4=Alexander |title=Leather-like material biofabrication using fungi |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00606-1 |s2cid=221522085 |language=en |issn=2398-9629}} fungal cotton substitutes,{{cite news |title=Sustainable textiles made from fungi |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/materials/sustainable-textiles-fungi/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=cosmosmagazine.com |date=23 March 2022 |language=en-AU}} and renewable fibers from fungal cell walls.{{cite journal |last1=Svensson |first1=Sofie E. |last2=Ferreira |first2=Jorge A. |last3=Hakkarainen |first3=Minna |last4=Adolfsson |first4=Karin H. |last5=Zamani |first5=Akram |title=Fungal textiles: Wet spinning of fungal microfibers to produce monofilament yarns |journal=Sustainable Materials and Technologies |date=1 July 2021 |volume=28 |pages=e00256 |doi=10.1016/j.susmat.2021.e00256 |language=en |issn=2214-9937|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021SusMT..2800256S }}

Textile fibres can be formed in chemical processes from bio-based materials. These fibres are called bio-based regenerated fibres. The oldest regenerated fibres are viscose and rayon, produced in the 19th century. The first industrial processes used a large amount of wood as raw material, as well as harmful chemicals and water. Later the process of regenerating fibres developed to reduce the use of raw materials, chemicals, water and energy.

In the 1990s the first more sustainable regenerated fibres, e.g. Lyocell, entered the market with the commercial name of Tencel. The production process uses wood cellulose and it processes the fibre without harmful chemicals.

The next generation of regenerated fibres are under development. The production processes use less or no chemicals, and the water consumption is also diminished.{{cite web |editor-last=Knuuttila |editor-first=Kirsi |date=2020 |title=Uudet bio- ja kierrätyspohjaiset tekstiilimateriaalit ja niiden ominaisuuksien testaaminen |trans-title=New bio- and recycled-based textile materials and testing their properties |url=https://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-830-570-8 |language=fi |access-date=2025-01-14 |publisher=JAMK University of Applied Sciences |via=Theseus}}

Issues

= Degrowth, green growth and circular economy =

The bioeconomy has largely been associated with visions of "green growth".{{cite journal |last1=Hausknost |first1=Daniel |last2=Schriefl |first2=Ernst |last3=Lauk |first3=Christian |last4=Kalt |first4=Gerald |title=A Transition to Which Bioeconomy? An Exploration of Diverging Techno-Political Choices |journal=Sustainability |date=April 2017 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=669 |doi=10.3390/su9040669 |language=en|doi-access=free }} A study found that a "circular bioeconomy" may be "necessary to build a carbon neutral future in line with the climate objectives of the Paris Agreement".{{cite journal |last1=Hoehn |first1=Daniel |last2=Laso |first2=Jara |last3=Margallo |first3=María |last4=Ruiz-Salmón |first4=Israel |last5=Amo-Setién |first5=Francisco José |last6=Abajas-Bustillo |first6=Rebeca |last7=Sarabia |first7=Carmen |last8=Quiñones |first8=Ainoa |last9=Vázquez-Rowe |first9=Ian |last10=Bala |first10=Alba |last11=Batlle-Bayer |first11=Laura |last12=Fullana-i-Palmer |first12=Pere |last13=Aldaco |first13=Rubén |title=Introducing a Degrowth Approach to the Circular Economy Policies of Food Production, and Food Loss and Waste Management: Towards a Circular Bioeconomy |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=3379 |doi=10.3390/su13063379 |language=en|doi-access=free |hdl=10902/21665 |hdl-access=free }} However, some are concerned that with a focus or reliance on technological progress a fundamentally unsustainable socioeconomic model might be maintained rather than be changed.{{cite book |last1=Pietzsch |first1=Joachim |title=Bioeconomy for Beginners |date=6 March 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-662-60390-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkHVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 |language=en}} Some are concerned it that may not lead to a ecologization of the economy but to an economization of the biological, "the living" and caution that potentials of non-bio-based techniques to achieve greater sustainability need to be considered. A study found that the, as of 2019, current EU interpretation of the bioeconomy is "diametrically opposite to the original narrative of Baranoff and Georgescu-Roegen that told us that expanding the share of activities based on renewable resources in the economy would slow down economic growth and set strict limits on the overall expansion of the economy".{{cite journal |last1=Giampietro |first1=Mario |title=On the Circular Bioeconomy and Decoupling: Implications for Sustainable Growth |journal=Ecological Economics |date=1 August 2019 |volume=162 |pages=143–156 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.05.001 |s2cid=201329805 |language=en |issn=0921-8009|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019EcoEc.162..143G }} Furthermore, some caution that "Silicon Valley and food corporations" could use bioeconomy technologies for greenwashing and monopoly-concentrations. The bioeconomy, its potentials, disruptive new modes of production and innovations may distract from the need for systemic structural socioeconomic changes{{cite journal |last1=Forster |first1=Piers M. |last2=Forster |first2=Harriet I. |last3=Evans |first3=Mat J. |last4=Gidden |first4=Matthew J. |last5=Jones |first5=Chris D. |last6=Keller |first6=Christoph A. |last7=Lamboll |first7=Robin D. |last8=Quéré |first8=Corinne Le |last9=Rogelj |first9=Joeri|author9-link=Joeri Rogelj |last10=Rosen |first10=Deborah |last11=Schleussner |first11=Carl-Friedrich |last12=Richardson |first12=Thomas B. |last13=Smith |first13=Christopher J. |last14=Turnock |first14=Steven T. |title=Current and future global climate impacts resulting from COVID-19 |journal=Nature Climate Change |date=7 August 2020 |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=913–919 |doi=10.1038/s41558-020-0883-0 |bibcode=2020NatCC..10..913F |s2cid=221019148 |language=en |issn=1758-6798|doi-access=free }}{{citation|last1= Ripple |first1=William J.|display-authors=etal.|date=July 28, 2021 |title=World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency 2021 |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biab079/6325731 |journal=BioScience |volume=71|issue=9|pages=894–898|doi=10.1093/biosci/biab079 |access-date=July 29, 2021|hdl=1808/30278 |hdl-access=free }} and provide a false illusion of technocapitalist utopianism/optimism that suggests technological fixes{{Cite journal|last1=McCormick|first1=Kes|last2=Kautto|first2=Niina|date=2013|title=The Bioeconomy in Europe: An Overview|journal=Sustainability|volume=5|issue=6|pages=2589–2608|doi=10.3390/su5062589|doi-access=free}} may make it possible to sustain contemporary patterns and structures, pre-empting structural changes.

=Unemployment and work reallocation=

Many farmers depend on conventional methods of producing crops and many of them live in developing economies. Cellular agriculture for products such as synthetic coffee could, if the contemporary socioeconomic context (the socioeconomic system's mechanisms such as incentives and resource distribution mechanisms like markets) remains unaltered (e.g. in nature, purposes, scopes, limits and degrees), threaten their employment and livelihoods as well as the respective nation's economy and social stability. A study concluded that "given the expertise required and the high investment costs of the innovation, it seems unlikely that cultured meat immediately benefits the poor in developing countries" and emphasized that animal agriculture is often essential for the subsistence for farmers in poor countries.{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental & Resource Economics |year=2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 |pmid=33758465 |pmc=7977488 |bibcode=2021EnREc..79...33T |language=en}} However, not only developing countries may be affected.{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Peter |last2=Blaustein-Rejto |first2=Daniel |title=Social and Economic Opportunities and Challenges of Plant-Based and Cultured Meat for Rural Producers in the US |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |date=2021 |volume=5 |pages=10 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2021.624270 |issn=2571-581X|doi-access=free }}

= Patents, intellectual property and monopolies =

Observers worry that the bioeconomy will become as opaque and free of accountability as the industry it attempts to replace, that is the current food system. The fear is that its core products will be mass-produced, nutritionally dubious meat sold at the homogeneous fast-food joints of the future.{{cite news |title=Man v food: is lab-grown meat really going to solve our nasty agriculture problem? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/29/lab-grown-meat-factory-farms-industrial-agriculture-animals |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=29 July 2021 |language=en}}

The medical community has warned that gene patents can inhibit the practice of medicine and progress of science.{{cite journal | last1 = Andrews | first1 = LB | year = 2000 | title = Genes and Patent Policy: Rethinking IP Rights | journal = Nature Reviews Genetics | volume = 3 | issue = 10 | pages = 803–8 | doi=10.1038/nrg909| pmid = 12360238 | s2cid = 13822192 }} This can also apply to other areas where patents and private intellectual property licenses are being used, often entirely preventing the use and continued development of knowledge and techniques for many years or decades. On the other hand, some worry that without intellectual property protection as the type of R&D-incentive, particularly to current degrees and extents, companies would no longer have the resources or motives/incentives to perform competitive, viable biotech research – as otherwise they may not be able to generate sufficient returns from initial R&D investment or less returns than from other expenditures that are possible.Marchant GE. 2007. Genomics, Ethics, and Intellectual Property. Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices. Ch 1.5:29-38 "Biopiracy" refers to "the use of intellectual property systems to legitimize the exclusive ownership and control over biological resources and biological products that have been used over centuries in non-industrialized cultures".{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Chris |title=Intellectual property rights, the bioeconomy and the challenge of biopiracy |journal=Genomics, Society and Policy |date=15 December 2008 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=26 |doi=10.1186/1746-5354-4-3-26 |s2cid=35186396 |issn=1746-5354|doi-access=free |pmc=5424966 }}

Rather than leading to sustainable, healthy, inexpensive, safe, accessible food being produced with little labor locally – after knowledge- and technology transfer and timely, efficient innovation – the bioeconomy may lead to aggressive monopoly-formation and exacerbated inequality.{{cite book |last=Braun |first=Veit |title=Bioeconomy and Global Inequalities: Socio-Ecological Perspectives on Biomass Sourcing and Production |chapter=Tools of Extraction or Means of Speculation? Making Sense of Patents in the Bioeconomy |date=2021 |pages=65–84 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-68944-5_4 |location=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-3-030-68943-8 |s2cid=236731518 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Birch |first1=Kean |title=Rethinking Value in the Bio-economy: Finance, Assetization, and the Management of Value |journal=Science, Technology, & Human Values |date=1 May 2017 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=460–490 |doi=10.1177/0162243916661633 |pmid=28458406 |pmc=5390941 |s2cid=1702910 |language=en |issn=0162-2439}}{{additional citation needed|date=October 2021}} For instance, while production costs may be minimal, costs – including of medicine{{cite journal |last1=Löfgren |first1=Hans |title=The Competition State and the Private Control of Healthcare |journal=Global Health Governance |date=2009 |pages=245–264 |doi=10.1057/9780230249486_12 |location=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-349-30228-4}} – may be high.

= Innovation management, public spending and governance =

It has been argued that public investment would be a tool governments should use to regulate and license cellular agriculture. Private firms and venture capital would likely seek to maximise investor value rather than social welfare. Moreover, radical innovation is considered to be more risky, "and likely involves more information asymmetry, so that private financial markets may imperfectly manage these frictions". Governments may also help to coordinate "since several innovators may be needed to push the knowledge frontier and make the market profitable, but no single company wants to make the early necessary investments". And investments in the relevant sectors seem to be a bottleneck hindering the transition toward a bioeconomy.{{Cite journal |last1=Hinderer |first1=Sebastian|last2=Brändle |first2=Leif|last3=Kuckertz|first3=Andreas|date=2021 |title=Transition to a Sustainable Bioeconomy|journal=Sustainability |volume=13 |issue=15 |pages=8232 |doi=10.3390/SU13158232 |doi-access=free }}

Governments could also help innovators that lack the network "to naturally obtain the visibility and political influence necessary to obtain public funds" and could help determine relevant laws.{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental and Resource Economics |date=1 May 2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 |pmid=33758465 |pmc=7977488 |bibcode=2021EnREc..79...33T |language=en |issn=1573-1502}}

By establishing supporting infrastructure for entrepreneurial ecosystems they can help creating a beneficial environment for innovative bioeconomy startups.{{Cite journal |last1=Kuckertz |first1=Andreas|last2=Berger|first2=Elisabeth S.C.|last3=Brändle |first3=Leif|title=Entrepreneurship and the sustainable bioeconomy transformation |journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions | date=2020 |volume=37 |pages=332–344 |doi=10.1016/j.eist.2020.10.003 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EIST...37..332K }} Enabling such bioeconomy startups to act on the opportunities provided through the bioeconomy transformation further contributes to its success.{{Cite journal |last1=Hinderer |first1=Sebastian|last2=Kuckertz|first2=Andreas|date=2022 |title=The bioeconomy transformation as an external enabler of sustainable entrepreneurship|url= https://doi.org/10.1002/BSE.3056 |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment| volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=2947–2963|doi=10.1002/BSE.3056 |hdl=10419/266672|hdl-access=free}}

In popular media

Biopunk – so called due to similarity with cyberpunk – is a genre of science fiction that often thematizes the bioeconomy as well as its potential issues and technologies. The novel The Windup Girl portrays a society driven by a ruthless bioeconomy and ailing under climate change.{{cite journal |last1=Idema |first1=Tom |title=When the levees break: global heating, watery rhetoric and complexity in Paolo Bacigalupi's The Windup Girl |journal=Green Letters |date=2 January 2020 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=51–63 |doi=10.1080/14688417.2020.1752509 |s2cid=219811345 |issn=1468-8417|doi-access=free }} In the more recent novel Change Agent prevalent black market clinics offer wealthy people unauthorized human genetic enhancement services and e.g. custom narcotics are 3D-printed locally or smuggled with soft robots.{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Adi |title=Change Agent is a terrible book that will make a great movie |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/18/15162608/change-agent-daniel-suarez-movie-option-genetic-engineering-review |website=The Verge |access-date=29 October 2021 |language=en |date=18 April 2017}}{{cite web |last1=Aune |first1=Clayton J. |title=Building the Hyper-Capable Operator: Should the Military Enhance Its Special Operations Warriors? |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1120842 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029160833/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1120842 |url-status=live |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |publisher=Naval War College – Newport, R.I.|language=en |date=7 June 2019}} Solarpunk is another emerging genre that focuses on the relationship between human societies and the environment and also addresses many of the bioeconomy's issues and technologies such as genetic engineering, synthetic meat and commodification.{{cite journal |last1=Farver |first1=Kenneth |title=Negotiating the Boundaries of Solarpunk Literature in Environmental Justice |url=https://cedar.wwu.edu/wwu_honors/124/ |journal=WWU Honors College Senior Projects |date=1 April 2019}}{{cite book |last=Mohr |first=Dunja M. |chapter=Anthropocene Fiction: Narrating the 'Zero Hour' in Margaret Atwood's MaddAddam Trilogy |title=Writing Beyond the End Times? The Literatures of Canada and Quebec |editor1=Ursula Mathis-Moser |editor2=Marie Carrière |date=2017 |location=Innsbruck |publisher=Innsbruck University Press |isbn=978-3-903122-97-0 |doi=10.29173/af29426 |doi-access=free |s2cid=234317090 |edition=1st |pages=25-45 |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/39934/9783903122970.pdf#page=26 |access-date=14 January 2025}}

References

External links

{{website|https://ec.europa.eu/knowledge4policy/bioeconomy_en/|European Commission's Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy}}
[https://www.fao.org/in-action/sustainable-and-circular-bioeconomy/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Sustainable and circular bioeconomy]

Category:Biotechnology

Category:Alternative energy economics

Category:Industries (economics)

Category:Sustainable development

Category:Economy by field