Biomphalaria glabrata#Genetics

Biomphalaria glabrata is a Neotropical species. Its native distribution includes the Caribbean: Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic,{{Cite journal

| last1 = Steffey | first1 = E. P.

| last2 = Howland Jr | first2 = D.

| title = Isoflurane potency in the dog and cat

| journal = American Journal of Veterinary Research

| volume = 38

| issue = 11

| pages = 1833–1836

| year = 1977

| pmid = 931167

}} Saint Lucia,{{cite journal |last1=Pointier |first1=J.P. |title=The introduction of Melanoides tuberculata (Mollusca: Thiaridae) to the island of Saint Lucia (West Indies) and its role in the decline of Biomphalaria glabrata, the snail intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni |journal=Acta Tropica |date=June 1993 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=13–18 |doi=10.1016/0001-706x(93)90064-i |pmid=8103624 }} Haiti (first report in 1891),{{cite journal |last1=Raccurt |first1=Christian P. |last2=Sodeman |first2=William A. |last3=Rodrick |first3=Gary L. |last4=Boyd |first4=William P. |title=Biomphalaria glabrata in Haiti |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |date=January 1985 |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=455–457 |doi=10.1016/0035-9203(85)90063-x |pmid=4082255 }} Martinique, Guadeloupe,{{cite journal | last1 = Sturrock | first1 = R. F. | year = 1974 | title = Ecological notes on habitats of the freshwater snail Biomphalaria glabrata, intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni on St. Lucia, West Indies | url = http://academic.uprm.edu/publications/cjs/VOL14/P149-150.PDF | journal = Caribbean Journal of Science | volume = 14 | issue = 3–4| pages = 149–162 }} Antigua, Vieques, Saint Martin, Saint Kitts, Curaçao, Dominica (it was probably replaced by other Biomphalaria species in Dominica or it was eradicated),{{cite journal |last1=Reeves |first1=Will K. |last2=Dillon |first2=Robert T. |last3=Dasch |first3=Gregory A. |title=Freshwater snails (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from the Commonwealth of Dominica with a discussion of their roles in the transmission of parasites |journal=American Malacological Bulletin |date=March 2008 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=59–63 |doi=10.4003/0740-2783-24.1.59 |s2cid=6282227 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/241808 }} Montserrat and in South America: Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil.

This species has recently expanded its native range,{{Cite journal

| last1 = Pointier | first1 = J. P.

| last2 = David | first2 = P.

| last3 = Jarne | first3 = P.

| title = Biological invasions: The case of planorbid snails

| journal = Journal of Helminthology

| volume = 79

| issue = 3

| pages = 249–256

| year = 2005

| pmid = 16153319

| doi=10.1079/JOH2005292

| s2cid = 11158571

}}. but there is reduced its abundance in the Caribbean, because of competition with non-indigenous species and environmental change.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Morgan | first1 = J. A.

| last2 = Dejong | first2 = R. J.

| last3 = Snyder | first3 = S. D.

| last4 = Mkoji | first4 = G. M.

| last5 = Loker | first5 = E. S.

| title = Schistosoma mansoni and Biomphalaria: Past history and future trends

| journal = Parasitology

| volume = 123 Suppl

| issue = 7

| pages = S211–S228

| year = 2001

| pmid = 11769285 | doi=10.1017/s0031182001007703

| s2cid = 23030603

}}

It inhabits new localities in the time of flooding.

Like all planorbids, the shell of Biomphalaria glabrata is planispiral, in other words coiled flat like a rope, and the spire of the shell is sunken. Also, like all planorbids, this species has a sinistral shell, in other words, the coiling of the shell is left-handed. However, like all the snails in the subfamily Planobinae, this snail carries its coiled shell upside down, and thus the shell appears to be dextral in coiling. In other families of snails the spire is situated on top of the shell, here what shows on top of the shell is in fact the umbilicus.

Biomphalaria glabrata was discovered and described under the name Planorbis glabratus by American naturalist Thomas Say in 1818.{{cite journal |author-link1=Thomas Say |last1=Say |first1=T. |date=June 1818 |title=Account of two new genera, and several new species, of fresh water and land shells |journal=Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=276–284 |url=https://archive.org/stream/journalofacademy01acaduoft#page/280/mode/1up }} Say's type description reads as follows:

{{Cquote|1=Shell sinistral; whorls about five, glabrous or obsoletely rugose, polished, destitute of any appearance of carina; spire perfectly regular, a little concave; umbilicus large, regularly and deeply concave, exhibiting all the volutions to the summit; aperture declining, remarkably oblique with respect to the transverse diameter. Breadth nearly nine-tenths of an inch.}}

Unfortunately Say listed an incorrect type locality: North Carolina. The shell was probably actually from the West Indian island of Guadeloupe.{{cite journal |last1=Paraense |first1=W Lobato |title=The schistosome vectors in the Americas |journal=Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz |date=September 2001 |volume=96 |issue=suppl |pages=7–16 |doi=10.1590/s0074-02762001000900002 |pmid=11586421 |doi-access=free |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fa21/db90c0d785a772a36caccf952150eb0dbecd.pdf }}

The shell of animals from natural habitats is usually olivaceous (olive drab) in color. The width of the shell of adults snails is 6–10 mm.{{cite journal |last1=Baeza Garcia |first1=Alvaro |last2=Pierce |first2=Raymond J. |last3=Gourbal |first3=Benjamin |last4=Werkmeister |first4=Elisabeth |last5=Colinet |first5=Dominique |last6=Reichhart |first6=Jean-Marc |last7=Dissous |first7=Colette |last8=Coustau |first8=Christine |last9=Wynn |first9=Thomas A. |title=Involvement of the Cytokine MIF in the Snail Host Immune Response to the Parasite Schistosoma mansoni |journal=PLOS Pathogens |date=23 September 2010 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=e1001115 |doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1001115 |pmid=20886098 |pmc=2944803 |doi-access=free }}

An adult shell consist of aragonite and sometimes there is also under 1.5% of vaterite especially near the margin of the shell.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Hasse | first1 = B.

| last2 = Ehrenberg | first2 = H.

| last3 = Marxen | first3 = J. C.

| last4 = Becker | first4 = W.

| last5 = Epple | first5 = M.

| title = Calcium Carbonate Modifications in the Mineralized Shell of the Freshwater SnailBiomphalaria glabrata

| doi = 10.1002/1521-3765(20001016)6:20<3679::AID-CHEM3679>3.0.CO;2-#

| journal = Chemistry

| volume = 6

| issue = 20

| pages = 3679–3685

| year = 2000

| pmid = 11073237

| pmc =

}}

The anatomy of the mantle cavity is described in Sullivan et al. (1974){{Cite journal

| last1 = Sullivan | first1 = J. T.

| last2 = Cheng | first2 = T. C.

| title = Structure and function of the mantle cavity of Biomphalaria glabrata (Mollusca: Pulmonata)

| journal = Transactions of the American Microscopical Society

| volume = 93

| issue = 3

| pages = 416–420

| year = 1974

| pmid = 4854431

| doi=10.2307/3225446

| jstor = 3225446

}}, [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3225446 JSTOR]. and Jurberg et al. (1997).{{cite journal |last1=Jurberg |first1=Pedro |last2=Cunha |first2=Rodolfo A |last3=Rodrigues |first3=Marcelo Luis |title=Behavior of Biomphalaria glabrata Say, 1818 (Gastropoda: Planorbidae): I. Morphophysiology of the Mantle Cavity |journal=Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz |date=March 1997 |volume=92 |issue=2 |pages=287–295 |doi=10.1590/s0074-02761997000200026 |pmid=24159674 |doi-access=free |s2cid=25179919 |citeseerx=10.1.1.732.9688 }}

{{Expand section|date=December 2009}}

The genome length is estimated as about 929,10 Mb (millions of base pairs; 0.95 ± 0.01 pg),{{cite journal | last1 = Gregory | first1 = T. R. | year = 2003 | title = Genome size estimates for two important freshwater molluscs, the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) and the schistosomiasis vector snail (Biomphalaria glabrata) | url = http://www.sgnis.org/publicat/papers/greg2003.pdf | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/5nkxyWlGw?url=http://www.sgnis.org/publicat/papers/greg2003.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2010-02-23 | journal = Genome | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 841–844 | doi = 10.1139/g03-069 | pmid = 14608401 }}{{Cite journal|last1=Adema|first1=Coen M.|last2=Hillier|first2=LaDeana W.|last3=Jones|first3=Catherine S.|last4=Loker|first4=Eric S.|last5=Knight|first5=Matty|last6=Minx|first6=Patrick|last7=Oliveira|first7=Guilherme|last8=Raghavan|first8=Nithya|last9=Shedlock|first9=Andrew|date=2017-05-16|title=Whole genome analysis of a schistosomiasis-transmitting freshwater snail|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=8|doi=10.1038/ncomms15451|pmid=28508897|pmc=5440852|issn=2041-1723|page=15451|bibcode=2017NatCo...815451A}} which is a small genome size among gastropods.15px Knight M., Adema C. M., Raghavan N., Loker E. S., Lewis F. A. & Tettelin H. (2003) "Obtaining the genome sequence of the mollusc Biomphalaria glabrata: a major intermediate host for the parasite causing human schistosomiasis". Online at http://www.genome.gov/Pages/Research/Sequencing/SeqProposals/BiomphalariaSEQv.2.pdf National Human Genome Research Institute. Accessed 20 November 2009 Sequencing of the whole genome was approved as a priority by National Human Genome Research Institute in August 2004,[http://www.genome.gov/10002154 Approved Sequencing Targets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120727144954/https://www.genome.gov/10002154 |date=27 July 2012 }}. Last updated 14 September 2009. Accessed 21 November 2009 Its participants also included the "Biomphalaria glabrata Genome Initiative" and the Genome Center at Washington University in St. Louis. The complete genome was sequenced in 2017.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39928036|title=Snail's DNA secrets unlocked in fight against river disease|last=Briggs|first=Helen|date=2017-05-16|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-05-16|language=en-GB}}

The chromosomes in this snail are small, and the haploid number of chromosomes is 18.Goldman M. A., Loverde P. T., Chrisman C. L., & Franklin D. A. (1984) "Chromosomal evolution in planorbid snails of the genera Bulinus and Biomphalaria". Malacologia [https://archive.org/details/malacologia251984inst 25](2): [https://archive.org/stream/malacologia251984inst#page/427/mode/1up 427]-446.

A complete genome sequence from the mitochondria of this species has been available since 2004: the mitochondrial genome sequence has 13670 nucleotides.{{cite journal | last1 = DeJong | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Emery | first2 = A. M. | last3 = Adema | first3 = C. M. | year = 2004 | title = The mitochondrial genome of Biomphalaria glabrata (Gastropoda: Basommatophora), intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = 5| pages = 991–997 | doi = 10.1645/GE-284R | pmid = 15562597 | s2cid = 25744207 }}[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=genome&cmd=Search&dopt=DocSum&term=txid6526[Organism%3Anoexp] ], accessed 20 November 2009.

The ancestor of Biomphalaria glabrata colonized Africa, and speciated into all of the African Biomphalaria species.

A cladogram showing phylogenic relations of species in the genus Biomphalaria:{{Cite journal

| doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003769

| last1 = Dejong | first1 = R. J.

| last2 = Morgan | first2 = J. A.

| last3 = Paraense | first3 = W. L.

| last4 = Pointier | first4 = J. P.

| last5 = Amarista | first5 = M.

| last6 = Ayeh-Kumi | first6 = P. F.

| last7 = Babiker | first7 = A.

| last8 = Barbosa | first8 = C. S.

| last9 = Brémond | first9 = P.

| last10 = Pedro Canese | first10 = A.

| last11 = De Souza | first11 = C. P.

| last12 = Dominguez | first12 = C.

| last13 = File | first13 = S.

| last14 = Gutierrez | first14 = A.

| last15 = Incani | first15 = R. N.

| last16 = Kawano | first16 = T.

| last17 = Kazibwe | first17 = F.

| last18 = Kpikpi | first18 = J.

| last19 = Lwambo | first19 = N. J.

| last20 = Mimpfoundi | first20 = R.

| last21 = Njiokou | first21 = F.

| last22 = Noël Poda | first22 = J.

| last23 = Sene | first23 = M.

| last24 = Velásquez | first24 = L. E.

| last25 = Yong | first25 = M.

| last26 = Adema | first26 = C. M.

| last27 = Hofkin | first27 = B. V.

| last28 = Mkoji | first28 = G. M.

| last29 = Loker | first29 = E. S.

| title = Evolutionary relationships and biogeography of Biomphalaria (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) with implications regarding its role as host of the human bloodfluke, Schistosoma mansoni

| journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution

| volume = 18

| issue = 12

| pages = 2225–2239

| year = 2001

| pmid = 11719572

| doi-access = free

}}, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070320021418/http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/18/12/2225 text].

{{clade

|label1=Biomphalaria

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|label1=African species

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria stanleyi

|2=Biomphalaria pfeifferi

}}

|2=Biomphalaria camerunensis

}}

|label2=Nilotic species complex

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria sudanica

|2=Biomphalaria choanomphala

}}

|2=Biomphalaria alexandrina

}}

|2=Biomphalaria smithi

}}

}}

|2=Biomphalaria glabrata

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|label1=Biomphalaria straminea complex

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria kuhniana

|2=Biomphalaria straminea

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria straminea

|2=Biomphalaria intermedia

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria amazonica

|2=Biomphalaria sp.

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria tenagophila

|2=Biomphalaria occidentalis

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria prona

|2=Biomphalaria andecola

}}

|2=Biomphalaria sp. (? Biomphalaria havanensis)

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Biomphalaria sp. (? Biomphalaria havanensis)

|2=Biomphalaria temascalensis

}}

|2=Biomphalaria obstructa

}}

}}

|2=Biomphalaria helophila

}}

|2=Biomphalaria peregrina

}}

|2=Biomphalaria schrammi

}}

}}

Biomphalaria glabrata inhabits small streams, ponds and marshes. These snails can survive in aestivation for a few months when removed from their freshwater habitat or when the habitat dries out.{{cite journal |last1=Majoros |first1=Gábor |last2=Fehér |first2=Zoltán |last3=Deli |first3=Tamás |last4=Földvári |first4=Gábor |title=Establishment of Biomphalaria tenagophila snails in Europe |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |date=November 2008 |volume=14 |issue=11 |pages=1812–1814 |doi=10.3201/eid1411.080479 |pmid=18976582 |pmc=2630743 }} For example, the snail lives in banana plantation drains in Saint Lucia.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Sturrock | first1 = R. F.

| title = Distribution of the snail Biomphalaria glabrata, intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni, within a St Lucian field habitat

| journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization

| volume = 52

| issue = 3

| pages = 267–272

| year = 1975

| pmid = 1084797

| pmc = 2366373

}}

Biomphalaria glabrata can also survive up to 16 hours in anaerobic water using lactic acid fermentation.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Brand | first1 = T. V.

| last2 = Baernstein | first2 = H. D.

| last3 = Mehlman | first3 = B.

| title = Studies on the anaerobic metabolism and the aerobic carbohydrate consumption of some fresh water snails

| journal = The Biological Bulletin

| volume = 98

| issue = 3

| pages = 266–276

| year = 1950

| pmid = 15420230

| doi=10.2307/1538675

| jstor = 1538675

| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/4922

}}, [http://www.biolbull.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/3/266 article and PDF]

Like other species, this snail is "light sensitive" and can be disrupted by artificial light.{{cite journal | last1 = Pimentel-Souza | first1 = F. | last2 = Schall | first2 = V. T. | last3 = Lautner | first3 = R. Jr. | last4 = Barbosa | first4 = N. D. C. | last5 = Schettino | first5 = M | last6 = Fernandes | first6 = N. | year = 1984 | title = Behavior of Biomphalaria glabrata (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) under different lighting conditions | journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume = 62 | issue = 11| pages = 2328–2334 | doi = 10.1139/z84-340 }}

Biomphalaria glabrata feeds on bacterial films, algae, diatoms and decaying macrophytes.[http://biology.unm.edu/biology/esloker/pi/WhatIsBiomphalaria_glabrata.pdf What is Biomphalaria glabrata?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604150552/http://biology.unm.edu/biology/esloker/pi/WhatIsBiomphalaria_glabrata.pdf |date=4 June 2010 }} UNM Biology Department Home Page. Accessed 20 November 2009.

They can be fed using fish food and lettuce when they are kept in captivity.

Biomphalaria glabrata snails lay egg masses at rather a high rate (about 1 per day).Pimentel D. (October 1957) "Life history of Australorbis glabratus, the intermediate snail host of Schistosoma mansoni in Puerto Rico". Ecol 38(4): [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1943122 576]-580. One snail can lay 14,000 eggs during its whole life span.

The periostracum of the embryonic shell (inside the egg) begin to grow in 48-hour old embryos. Amorphous calcium carbonate appear in 54-60-hour old embryos. Calcification (formation of aragonite) of the embryonic shell starts in the time interval between 60-hour old embryos and 72-hour-old ones.{{cite journal | last1 = Marxen | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Prymak | first2 = O. | last3 = Beckmann | first3 = F. | last4 = Neues | first4 = F. | last5 = Epple | first5 = M. | year = 2008 | title = Embryonic shell formation in the snail Biomphalaria glabrata: a comparison between scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and synchrotron radiation micro computer tomography (SRµCT) | journal = Journal of Molluscan Studies | volume = 74 | issue = 1| pages = 19–26 | doi = 10.1093/mollus/eym044 | doi-access = free }} The weight of the shell of 72-hour-old embryo is 0.64 μg.

The weight of the embryonic shell in 5-day-old (120-hours-old) embryos a very short time before hatching, is 30.3 μg, and the width is 500 μm.{{cite journal |last1=Neues |first1=Frank |last2=Epple |first2=Matthias |title=X-ray Microcomputer Tomography for the Study of Biomineralized Endo- and Exoskeletons of Animals |journal=Chemical Reviews |date=12 November 2008 |volume=108 |issue=11 |pages=4734–4741 |doi=10.1021/cr078250m |pmid=18754688 }} The juvenile snail hatches from 5 to 6 days old eggs. The weight of the juvenile shell is 2.04 mg in four weeks after hatching. There is no vaterite in juvenile shells.

The growth rate, maximum birth rate, and longevity of Biomphalaria glabrata was studied by Pimentel (1957). There can be up to seven generations in one year in laboratory. The generation time (the time it takes a snail from developing from an egg to laying an egg of its own) is 4–6 weeks. The lifespan is 15–18 months in natural conditions. The lifespan in laboratory conditions can be up to 18–24 months, but usually it is 9–12 months.The Genome Center at Washington University in St. Louis. [http://genome.wustl.edu/genomes/view/biomphalaria_glabrata/ Biomphalaria glabrata] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030065052/http://genome.wustl.edu/genomes/view/biomphalaria_glabrata |date=30 October 2011 }} Accessed 21 November.

Biomphalaria glabrata is a simultaneous hermaphrodite, but self-fertilization is also possible. The mucus of this snail species contains species-specific signals that allow individual snails to identify others of the same species,{{cite journal | last1 = Townsend | first1 = C. R. | year = 1974 | title = Mucus trail following by the snail Biomphalaria glabrata (Say) | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 22 | issue = 1| pages = 170–177 | doi = 10.1016/S0003-3472(74)80066-7 }} but the causative mucus components decay within 10 to 30 min.{{cite journal | last1 = Wells | first1 = M. J. | last2 = Buckley | first2 = S.K.L. | year = 1972 | title = Snails and trails | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 20 | issue = 2| pages = 345–355 | doi = 10.1016/S0003-3472(72)80057-5 }} The typically unilateral copulations{{cite journal | last1 = Trigwell | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Dussart | first2 = G. B. J. | last3 = Vianey-Liaud | first3 = M. | year = 1997 | title = Pre-copulatory behaviour of the freshwater hermaphrodite snail Biomphalaria glabrata (Say, 1818) (Gastropoda: Pulmonata)" | journal = Journal of Molluscan Studies | volume = 63 | pages = 116–120 | doi = 10.1093/mollus/63.1.116 | doi-access = free }} are initiated when a male actor mounts the shell of a prospective mate. The male actor then moves towards the frontal left edge of the partner's shell, where he probes the female gonopore with his penis to subsequently achieve penis intromission. Following a typically 5–87 min penis intromission with usually successful sperm transfer,{{cite journal | last1 = Vianey-Liaud | first1 = M | year = 1995 | title = Bias in the production of heterozygous pigmented embryos from successively mated Biomphalaria glabrata (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) albino snails | journal = Malacological Review | volume = 28 | pages = 97–106 }} the male actor retracts to terminate copulation. Mating roles are subsequently exchanged in about 45% of all copulations, with the male actor now taking the female role, and vice versa. In 2009, Biomphalaria glabrata was a subject of the study focusing on the Coolidge effect in simultaneous hermaphrodites. The result of this research is that Biomphalaria glabrata shows the absence of any sex-specific effects of partner novelty, which means there is no Coolidge effect in this species.

Biomphalaria glabrata is a major intermediate host for Schistosoma mansoni in the Americas and a vector of schistosomiasis.

In medical research, the most commonly used Biomphalaria glabrata snail stock (used for the maintenance of Schistosoma mansoni) is albino, i.e. it is without pigment. It is descended from a mutant albino stock which arose during research by Newton (1955).{{cite journal | last1 = Newton | first1 = W. L. | year = 1955 | title = The establishment of a strain of Australorbis glabratus which combines albinism and high susceptibility to infection with Schistosoma mansoni | journal = J. Parasitol. | volume = 41 | issue = 5| pages = 526–528 | doi=10.2307/3273814| pmid = 13264025 | jstor = 3273814 }} Not only did this albino variety prove to be highly susceptible to Schistosoma mansoni, but the lack of pigment allowed investigators using a dissecting microscope to view the development of the parasite within the snail. The black pigment normally found in snails that are taken from the field previously made this viewing too difficult.

There are both resistant and susceptible strains of B. glabrata. Li et al 2021 finds resistant snails to have innate immune receptors specifically to fight S. mansoni infection. These IIRs are expressed on particular immune cells.{{cite journal | last1=Buckley | first1=Katherine M. | last2=Yoder | first2=Jeffrey A. | title=The evolution of innate immune receptors: investigating the diversity, distribution, and phylogeny of immune recognition across eukaryotes | journal=Immunogenetics | publisher=Springer | date=2021-12-15 | volume=74 | issue=1 | pages=1–4 | issn=0093-7711 | doi=10.1007/s00251-021-01243-4|pmid=34910229| pmc=8671053 }} {{small|1=(KMB ORCID: [http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6585-8943 0000-0002-6585-8943])}}. {{small|1=(JAY ORCID: [http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6083-1311 0000-0002-6083-1311])}}.

Some other trematodes are also natural parasites of Biomphalaria glabrata:

• Ribeiroia marini{{cite journal | last1 = Basch | first1 = P. F. | last2 = Sturrock | first2 = R. F. | year = 1969 | title = Life History of Ribeiroia marini (Faust and Hoffman, 1934) comb. n. (Trematoda: Cathaemasiidae) | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 55 | issue = 6| pages = 1180–1184 | jstor=3277252 | doi=10.2307/3277252}}
• Candidatus Paenibacillus glabratella – this bacterial pathogen is causing white nodules and high mortalities of snails.{{cite journal | last1 = Duval | first1 = D. | last2 = Galinier | first2 = R. | last3 = Mouahid | first3 = G. | last4 = Toulza | first4 = E. | last5 = Allienne | first5 = J. F. | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = A Novel Bacterial Pathogen of Biomphalaria glabrata: A Potential Weapon for Schistosomiasis Control? | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 9 | issue = 2| page = e0003489 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003489 | pmid = 25719489 | pmc = 4342248 | doi-access = free }}

Experimental parasites include:

• Angiostrongylus vasorum – (experimental){{cite journal | last1 = Barçante | last2 = Barçante | first2 = T. A. | last3 = Dias | first3 = S. R. C. | last4 = Lima | first4 = W. D. S. | year = 2003 | title = Angiostrongylus vasorum (Baillet, 1866) Kamensky, 1905: emergence of third-stage larvae from infected Biomphalaria glabrata snails | journal = Parasitology Research | volume = 91 | issue = 6| pages = 471–475 | doi = 10.1007/s00436-003-1000-9 | pmid = 14557873 | s2cid = 22501974 }}
• Echinostoma caproni – (experimental){{cite journal | last1 = Schneck | first1 = J. L. | last2 = Fried | first2 = B. | year = 2004 | title = Effects of snail size on encystment of Echinostoma caproni in juvenile Biomphalaria glabrata (NMRI strain) and observations on the survival of infected snails | journal = Journal of Helminthology | volume = 78 | issue = 3| pages = 277–279 | doi = 10.1079/JOH2004235 | pmid = 15469634 }}
• Echinostoma paraensei – (experimental){{Cite journal

| last1 = Degaffé | first1 = G.

| last2 = Loker | first2 = E. S.

| doi = 10.1006/jipa.1997.4710

| title = Susceptibility of Biomphalaria glabratato Infection with Echinostoma paraensei: Correlation with the Effect of Parasite Secretory–Excretory Products on Host Hemocyte Spreading

| journal = Journal of Invertebrate Pathology

| volume = 71

| issue = 1

| pages = 64–72

| year = 1998

| pmid = 9446739

| bibcode = 1998JInvP..71...64D

}}.

• Echinostoma trivolvis – as second (experimental) intermediate host (referred as Echinostoma revolutum in Anderson & Fried (1987)).{{Cite journal

| last1 = Anderson | first1 = J. W.

| last2 = Fried | first2 = B.

| title = Experimental infection of Physa heterostropha, Helisoma trivolvis, and Biomphalaria glabrata (Gastropoda) with Echinostoma revolutum (Trematoda) Cercariae

| journal = The Journal of Parasitology

| volume = 73

| issue = 1

| pages = 49–54

| year = 1987

| pmid = 3572665

| doi=10.2307/3282342

| jstor = 3282342

}}.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Fried | first1 = B.

| last2 = Idris | first2 = N.

| last3 = Ohsawa | first3 = T.

| title = Experimental infection of juvenile Biomphalaria glabrata with cercariae of Echinostoma trivolvis

| journal = The Journal of Parasitology

| volume = 81

| issue = 2

| pages = 308–310

| year = 1995

| pmid = 7707214

| doi=10.2307/3283941

| jstor = 3283941

}}, [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3283941 JSTOR]

• Plagiorchis elegans can experimentally infect Biomphalaria glabrata and it can cause its parasitic castration, but the snail is incompatible for its full development.{{cite journal |last1=Zakikhani |first1=M. |last2=Smith |first2=J. M. |last3=Rau |first3=M. E. |title=Effects of Plagiorchis elegans (Digenea: Plagiorchiidae) Infection of Biomphalaria glabrata (Pulmonata: Planorbidae) on a Challenge Infection with Schistosoma mansoni (Digenea: Schistosomatidae) |journal=The Journal of Parasitology |date=2003 |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=70–75 |jstor=3286083 |doi=10.1645/0022-3395(2003)089[0070:EOPEDP]2.0.CO;2 |pmid=12659305 |s2cid=26097458 }}

Schistosoma mansoni can infect juveniles of Biomphalaria glabrata much more easily than it can adults. Schistosoma mansoni causes parasitic castration in infected snails.

Interactions between snails and schistosomes are complex and there exists an urgent need to elucidate pathways involved in snail-parasite relationships as well as to identify those factors involved in the intricate balance between the snail internal defence system and trematode infectivity mechanisms that determine the success or failure of an infection.

Molluscs appear to lack an adaptive immune system like that found in vertebrates and, instead, are considered to use various innate mechanisms involving cell-mediated and humoral reactions (non-cellular factors in plasma/serum or hemolymph) that interact to recognize and eliminate invading pathogens or parasites in incompatible or resistant snails. However, a diverse family of fibrinogen-related proteins (FREPs){{cite journal | last1=Hanington | first1=Patrick C. | last2=Zhang | first2=Si-Ming | title=The Primary Role of Fibrinogen-Related Proteins in Invertebrates Is Defense, Not Coagulation | journal=Journal of Innate Immunity | publisher=Karger | volume=3 | issue=1 | date=2010-11-09 | issn=1662-811X | pmid=21063081 | doi=10.1159/000321882 | pages=17–27| pmc=3031514 }} containing immunoglobulin-like domains has been discovered in Biomphalaria glabrata and may play a role in snail defence. Circulating haemocytes (macrophage-like defence cells) in the snail haemolymph are known to aggregate in response to trauma, phagocytose small particles (bacteria, and fungi) and encapsulate larger ones, such as parasites. Final killing is effected by hemocyte-mediated cytotoxicity mechanisms involving non-oxidative and oxidative pathways, including lysosomal enzymes and reactive oxygen/nitrogen intermediates. Certain alleles of cytosolic copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) have been associated with resistance also suggesting these processes are important in the snail internal defence system.

On the schistosome's part the Roger group (in Roger et al 2008 a & b) find that S. mansoni produces mucins. Immunoprecipitation reveals FREPs and mucins bound to each other. This suggests FREPs are detecting these mucins and recognition or failure to recognize helps to determine the course of the infection interaction.

The freshwater snail Marisa cornuarietis is a predator of Biomphalaria glabrata: it feeds on its eggs, juvenile and adult snails. It also acts as a competitor.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Kobayashi | first1 = H.

| title = An experimental study of epidermal keratin phosphorylation --epidermal keratin as a substrate protein of cAMP-dependent protein kinase

| journal = Hokkaido Igaku Zasshi

| volume = 61

| issue = 3

| pages = 453–462

| year = 1986

| pmid = 2427426

}}{{cite journal |pmc=2427426|year=1969|last1=Ruiz-Tibén|first1=E|title=Biological control of Biomphalaria glabrata by Marisa cornuarietis in irrigation ponds in Puerto Rico|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|volume=41|issue=2|pages=329–333|last2=Palmer|first2=J. R.|last3=Ferguson|first3=F|pmid=5308710}}

Melanoides tuberculata is considered to be a competitor of Biomphalaria glabrata, but all the intraspecific interactions are not fully understood yet.{{cite journal | last1 = Giovanelli | first1 = A. | last2 = Vieira | first2 = M. V. | last3 = da Silva | first3 = C. L. P. A. C. | year = 2005 | title = Interaction Between The Intermediate Host Of Schistosomiasis In Brazil, Biomphalaria Glabrata (Say, 1818) And A Possible Competitor, Melanoides Tuberculata (Müller, 1774) A Field Study | journal = Journal of Molluscan Studies | volume = 71 | issue = 1| pages = 7–13 | doi = 10.1093/mollus/eyi004 | doi-access = free }} Although in various countries there were contradictory results, and despite this situation being unpredictable and thus possible ecological damage might result, Melanoides tuberculata is nonetheless used in an attempt to control or reduce populations of Biomphalaria glabrata in Brazil, in the West Indies, and in Venezuela.

A single-celled symbiont Capsaspora owczarzaki was discovered in the haemolymph of Biomphalaria glabrata in 2002.{{citation | doi = 10.1016/S0020-7519(02)00066-8 | title = The symbiont Capsaspora owczarzaki, nov. Gen. Nov. Sp., isolated from three strains of the pulmonate snail Biomphalaria glabrata is related to members of the Mesomycetozoea | year = 2002 | author = Hertel L. A., Bayne C. J. & Loke E. S.| journal = International Journal for Parasitology | volume = 32 | pages = 1183–91 | pmid = 12117501 | issue = 9 }}

There is one known hybrid: Biomphalaria glabrata × Biomphalaria alexandrina, from Egypt.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Yousif | first1 = F.

| last2 = Ibrahim | first2 = A.

| last3 = Abdel Kader | first3 = A.

| last4 = El-Bardicy | first4 = S.

| title = Invasion of the Nile Valley in Egypt by a hybrid of Biomphalaria glabrata and Biomphalaria alexandrina, snail vectors of Schistosoma mansoni

| journal = Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology

| volume = 28

| issue = 2

| pages = 569–582

| year = 1998

| pmid = 9707685

}}

The absolute lethal concentration (LC₁₀₀) of glucose/mannose-binding lectins from plants Canavalia brasiliensis, Cratylia floribunda, Dioclea guianensis, Dioclea grandiflora and Dioclea virgata for adults of Biomphalaria glabrata is 50 μg mL⁻¹.{{cite journal | last1 = Santos | first1 = A. F. d. | last2 = Cavada | first2 = B. S. | last3 = Rocha | first3 = B. A. M. da | last4 = Nascimento | first4 = K. S. d. | last5 = Sant'Ana | first5 = A. E. G. | year = 2010 | title = Toxicity of some glucose/mannose-binding lectins to Biomphalaria glabrata and Artemia salina | journal = Bioresource Technology | volume = 101 | issue = 2| pages = 794–798 | doi = 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.07.062 | pmid = 19765980 | bibcode = 2010BiTec.101..794S }}

The latex of Euphorbia conspicua is toxic to adults of Biomphalaria glabrata.{{cite journal | last1 = Santos | first1 = A. F. d. | last2 = Azevedo | first2 = D. P. L. d. | last3 = Mata | first3 = R. d. C. d. S. | last4 = Mendonça | first4 = D. I. M. D. d. | last5 = Sant'Ana | first5 = A. E. G. | year = 2007 | title = The lethality of Euphorbia conspicua to adults of Biomphalaria glabrata, cercaria of Schistosoma mansoni and larvae of Artemia salina | journal = Bioresource Technology | volume = 98 | issue = 1| pages = 135–139 | doi = 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.11.020 | pmid = 16458000 | bibcode = 2007BiTec..98..135D }}

Four species of the genus Solanum from Brazil are toxic to Biomphalaria glabrata.{{cite journal | last1 = Silva | first1 = T. M. S. | last2 = Câmara | first2 = C. A. | last3 = Agra | first3 = M. d. F. | last4 = Carvalho | first4 = M. G. d. | last5 = Frana | first5 = M. T. | last6 = Brandoline | first6 = S. V. P. B. | last7 = Paschoal | first7 = L. d. S. | last8 = Braz-Filho | first8 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Molluscicidal activity of Solanum species of the Northeast of Brazil on Biomphalaria glabrata | journal = Fitoterapia | volume = 77 | issue = 6| pages = 449–452 | doi = 10.1016/j.fitote.2006.05.007 |pmid=16842935 }}

Some species of Annona are toxic to adults of Biomphalaria glabrata and to its eggs.{{cite journal | last1 = Santos | first1 = A. F. d. | last2 = Sant'Ana | first2 = A. E. G. | year = 2001 | title = Molluscicidal properties of some species of Annona | journal = Phytomedicine | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 115–120 | doi = 10.1078/0944-7113-00008 | pmid = 11315753 }}

This article incorporates public domain text from reference, CC-BY-2.5 text (but not under GFDL) from reference{{cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=Fred A. |last2=Liang |first2=Yung-san |last3=Raghavan |first3=Nithya |last4=Knight |first4=Matty |last5=Loukas |first5=Alex |title=The NIH-NIAID Schistosomiasis Resource Center |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |date=30 July 2008 |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=e267 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000267 |pmid=18665228 |pmc=2480520 |doi-access=free }} and CC-BY-2.0 text from references.{{cite journal |last1=Lockyer |first1=Anne E |last2=Spinks |first2=Jenny |last3=Kane |first3=Richard A |last4=Hoffmann |first4=Karl F |last5=Fitzpatrick |first5=Jennifer M |last6=Rollinson |first6=David |last7=Noble |first7=Leslie R |last8=Jones |first8=Catherine S |title=Biomphalaria glabrata transcriptome: cDNA microarray profiling identifies resistant- and susceptible-specific gene expression in haemocytes from snail strains exposed to Schistosoma mansoni |journal=BMC Genomics |date=2008 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=634 |doi=10.1186/1471-2164-9-634 |pmid=19114004 |pmc=2631019 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Häderer |first1=Ines K |last2=Werminghausen |first2=Johanna |last3=Michiels |first3=Nico K |last4=Timmermeyer |first4=Nadine |last5=Anthes |first5=Nils |title=No effect of mate novelty on sexual motivation in the freshwater snail Biomphalaria glabrata |journal=Frontiers in Zoology |date=2009 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=23 |doi=10.1186/1742-9994-6-23 |pmid=19818155 |pmc=2766376 |doi-access=free }}

{{Reflist}}

• Genetics as known up to 2006:
• {{cite journal |last1=Adema |first1=Coen M |last2=Luo |first2=Mei-Zhong |last3=Hanelt |first3=Ben |last4=Hertel |first4=Lynn A |last5=Marshall |first5=Jennifer J |last6=Zhang |first6=Si-Ming |last7=DeJong |first7=Randall J |last8=Kim |first8=Hye-Ran |last9=Kudrna |first9=David |last10=Wing |first10=Rod A |last11=Soderlund |first11=Cari |last12=Knight |first12=Matty |last13=Lewis |first13=Fred A |last14=Caldeira |first14=Roberta Lima |last15=Jannotti-Passos |first15=Liana K |last16=Carvalho |first16=Omar dos Santos |last17=Loker |first17=Eric S |title=A bacterial artificial chromosome library for Biomphalaria glabrata, intermediate snail host of Schistosoma mansoni |journal=Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz |date=October 2006 |volume=101 |issue=suppl 1 |pages=167–177 |doi=10.1590/s0074-02762006000900027 |pmid=17308766 |doi-access=free |hdl=1807/56944 |hdl-access=free }}
• Feeding behaviour:
• {{Cite journal

| last1 = Townsend | first1 = C. R.

| title = The food-finding orientation mechanism of Biomphalaria glabrata (Say)

| journal = Animal Behaviour

| volume = 21

| issue = 3

| pages = 544–548

| year = 1973

| pmid = 4748749

| doi=10.1016/s0003-3472(73)80014-4

}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Boissier |first1=Jérôme |last2=Rivera |first2=Ezequiel R. |last3=Moné |first3=Hélène |title=Altered Behavior of the Snail Biomphalaria glabrata as a Result of Infection with Schistosoma mansoni |journal=Journal of Parasitology |date=June 2003 |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=429–433 |doi=10.1645/0022-3395(2003)089[0429:ABOTSB]2.0.CO;2 |pmid=12880237 |s2cid=43703731 }}
• Egg-laying process:
• {{cite journal |last1=Boyle |first1=J. P. |last2=Yoshino |first2=T. P. |title=The Effect of Water Quality on Oviposition in Biomphalaria glabrata (Say, 1818)(planorbidae), and a Description of the Stages of the Egg-laying Process |journal=Journal of Molluscan Studies |date=1 February 2000 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=83–94 |doi=10.1093/mollus/66.1.83 |doi-access= }}
• Competition in laboratory:
• {{cite journal | last1 = Giovanelli | first1 = A. | last2 = Vieira | first2 = M. V. | last3 = da Silva | first3 = C. L. P. A. C. | year = 2002 | title = Interaction between the Intermediate Host of Schistosomiasis in Brazil Biomphalaria glabrata (Planorbidae) and a Possible Competitor Melanoides tuberculata (Thiaridae): I. Laboratory Experiments | url = http://www.biologia.ufrj.br/labs/labvert/Artigos/MemInstOCruz97%28363%29.pdf | journal = Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz | volume = 97 | issue = 3| pages = 363–369 | doi=10.1590/s0074-02762002000300016| pmid = 12048567 | doi-access = free }}
• Circulatory system:
• {{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Marco Antonio Vasconcelos |last2=Diniz |first2=José Antonio Picanço |title=Aspectos ultraestruturais de hemócitos de Biomphalaria glabrata Say (1818) (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) analisados sob microscopia eletrônica de transmissão |trans-title=Ultrastructural aspects of hemocytes from Biomphalaria glabrata Say (1818) (Gastropoda: Planorbidae) analysed with transmission electronic microscopy |language=Portuguese |journal=Acta Amazonica |date=September 2009 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=707–712 |doi=10.1590/S0044-59672009000300027 |doi-access=free }}
• Biochemistry:
• {{cite journal |last1=Marxen |first1=Julia C. |last2=Nimtz |first2=Manfred |last3=Becker |first3=Wilhelm |last4=Mann |first4=Karlheinz |title=The major soluble 19.6 kDa protein of the organic shell matrix of the freshwater snail Biomphalaria glabrata is an N-glycosylated dermatopontin |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Proteins and Proteomics |date=August 2003 |volume=1650 |issue=1–2 |pages=92–98 |doi=10.1016/S1570-9639(03)00203-6 |pmid=12922172 }}
• Interactions with Schistosome:
• {{cite journal | last1 = Moné | first1 = Y. | last2 = Gourbal | first2 = B. | last3 = Duval | first3 = D. | last4 = Du Pasquier | first4 = L. | last5 = Kieffer-Jaquinod | first5 = S. | display-authors = etal | year = 2010 | title = A Large Repertoire of Parasite Epitopes Matched by a Large Repertoire of Host Immune Receptors in an Invertebrate Host/Parasite Model | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 4 | issue = 9| page = e813 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000813 | pmid = 20838648 | pmc = 2935394 | doi-access = free }}
• Mineralogy:
• {{cite journal | last1 = Marxen | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Becker | first2 = W. | last3 = Finke | first3 = D. | last4 = Hasse | first4 = B. | last5 = Epple | first5 = M. J. | year = 2003 | title = Early mineralization in Biomphalaria glabrata: microscopic and structural results | journal = Journal of Molluscan Studies | volume = 69 | issue = 2| pages = 113–121 | doi=10.1093/mollus/69.2.113| doi-access = free }}
• {{Cite journal

| last1 = Prymak | first1 = O.

| last2 = Tiemann | first2 = H.

| last3 = Sötje | first3 = I.

| last4 = Marxen | first4 = J. C.

| last5 = Klocke | first5 = A.

| last6 = Kahl-Nieke | first6 = B. R.

| last7 = Beckmann | first7 = F.

| last8 = Donath | first8 = T.

| last9 = Epple | first9 = M.

| doi = 10.1007/s00775-005-0023-3

| title = Application of synchrotron-radiation-based computer microtomography (SRμCT) to selected biominerals: Embryonic snails, statoliths of medusae, and human teeth

| journal = Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry

| volume = 10

| issue = 6

| pages = 688–695

| year = 2005

| pmid = 16187072

| s2cid = 25109955

}}

• Phylogeography:
• {{Cite journal

| doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01977.x

| last1 = Dejong | first1 = R. J.

| last2 = Morgan | first2 = J. A.

| last3 = Wilson | first3 = W. D.

| last4 = Al-Jaser | first4 = M. H.

| last5 = Appleton | first5 = C. C.

| last6 = Coulibaly | first6 = G.

| last7 = d'Andrea | first7 = P. S.

| last8 = Doenhoff | first8 = M. J.

| last9 = Haas | first9 = W.

| last10 = Idris | first10 = M. A.

| last11 = Magalhães | first11 = L. A.

| last12 = Moné | first12 = H.

| last13 = Mouahid | first13 = G.

| last14 = Mubila | first14 = L.

| last15 = Pointier | first15 = J. P.

| last16 = Webster | first16 = J. P.

| last17 = Zanotti-Magalhães | first17 = E. M.

| last18 = Paraense | first18 = W. L.

| last19 = Mkoji | first19 = G. M.

| last20 = Loker | first20 = E. S.

| title = Phylogeography of Biomphalaria glabrata and B. Pfeifferi, important intermediate hosts of Schistosoma mansoni in the New and Old World tropics

| journal = Molecular Ecology

| volume = 12

| issue = 11

| pages = 3041–3056

| year = 2003

| pmid = 14629384

| bibcode = 2003MolEc..12.3041D | s2cid = 25911829 }}

• Toxicology:
• {{Cite journal | last1 = De s. Luna | first1 = J. | last2 = Dos Santos | first2 = A. F. | last3 = De Lima | first3 = M. R. F. | last4 = De Omena | first4 = M. C. | last5 = De Mendonça | first5 = F. A. C. | last6 = Bieber | first6 = L. W. | last7 = Sant'Ana | first7 = A. E. G. | doi = 10.1016/j.jep.2004.10.004 | title = A study of the larvicidal and molluscicidal activities of some medicinal plants from northeast Brazil | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 97 | issue = 2 | pages = 199–206 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15707752}}

{{Commons category|Biomphalaria glabrata}}

• [http://biology.unm.edu/biomphalaria-genome/index.html Biomphalaria glabrata Genome Initiative]
• [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/?term=txid6526%5BOrganism:noexp%5D Biomphalaria glabrata genome page at NCBI]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100604150552/http://biology.unm.edu/biology/esloker/pi/WhatIsBiomphalaria_glabrata.pdf What is Biomphalaria glabrata – UNM Biology Department Home Page]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1835536}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Biomphalaria Glabrata}}

Category:Biomphalaria

Category:Gastropods described in 1818