Christian views on lying

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Lying is strongly discouraged and forbidden by most interpretations of Christianity. Arguments for this are based on various biblical passages, especially "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour", one of the Ten Commandments. Christian theologians disagree as to the exact definition of "lie" and whether it is ever acceptable.

==Biblical passages==

One of the Ten Commandments is "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour"; for this reason, lying is generally considered as a sin in Christianity.{{sfn|Colish|2005|p=155}} The story of Naboth in 1 Kings 21 provides an example where false witness leads to an unjust outcome.{{sfn|Swezey|1980|p=406}} The exact

interpretation of the commandment is disputed:{{sfn|Swezey|1980|p=408}}{{sfn|du Preez|1998|p=202}} "Does the commandment pertain only to court or does it prohibit lying in general? Is it only a prohibition (not to lie in court, not ever to lie) or does it imply a positive injunction (truth-telling in court, truth-telling in general)? If positive, is one enjoined only to truth-telling or to veracity and honesty also?"{{sfn|Swezey|1980|p=408}} Other statements in the Bible express a negative view of lying, such as "You shall not steal, nor deal falsely, nor lie to one another" (Leviticus 19:11) and "Cursed is he who does the work of the Lord deceitfully" (Jeremiah 48:10).{{sfn|du Preez|1998|pp=197, 201}}

In the Hebrew Bible, those who practice lying and deceit are seemingly rewarded for their actions, posing problems for an exegesis that upholds a categorical prohibition.{{sfn|Blacketer|2008|p=267}} Examples include the Hebrew midwives who lie after Pharaoh commands them to kill all newborn boys (Exodus 1:17–21), and Rahab (Joshua 2:1–7; cf. Hebrews 11:31), an innkeeper who lies to soldiers while hiding spies in her inn. The midwives appear to be rewarded for their actions (God "dealt well with the midwives” and "gave them families"). James 2:25 appears to praise Rahab as an example of good works: "And in the same way was not also Rahab the prostitute justified by works when she received the messengers and sent them out by another way?"{{cite web |last1=Storms |first1=Sam |title=Perplexing Passages: Do Exodus 1 and Joshua 2 Permit Christians to Lie? |url=https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/perplexing-passages-do-exodus-1-and-joshua-2-permit-christians-to-lie/ |website=The Gospel Coalition |date=25 January 2018 |accessdate=16 August 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819084944/https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/perplexing-passages-do-exodus-1-and-joshua-2-permit-christians-to-lie/ |url-status=live }}{{sfn|du Preez|1998|pp=187–188}} In the Book of Judith, Judith deceives Holofernes in order to assassinate him.{{sfn|Colish|2005|pp=162–163}} Both Abraham and Isaac claimed that their wives were their sisters.{{sfn|Weiss|2017|p=1}}

Early Christian views

Among early Christian writers, there existed differing viewpoints regarding the ethics of deception and dishonesty in certain circumstances. Some argued that lying and dissimulation could be justified for reasons such as saving souls, convincing reluctant candidates to accept ordination, or demonstrating humility by refraining from boasting about one's virtues. Supporters of this position often referred to Paul's statement about becoming all things to all men in order to win them over as a basis for their arguments.{{Cite journal |last=Ramsey |first=Boniface |date=1985 |title=Two Traditions on Lying and Deception in the Ancient Church |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/16/article/638178 |journal=The Thomist: A Speculative Quarterly Review |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=504–533 |doi=10.1353/tho.1985.0001 |s2cid=171489661 |issn=2473-3725}}{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: 1 Corinthians 9:20-23 - New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%209%3A20-23&version=NIV |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}}{{sfn|Colish|2005}}

Patristic views

Augustine devoted much attention to lying, which he contended was always wrong. He discussed the topic in four works (De magistro, De doctrina christiana, De trinitate, and Enchiridion) and wrote two treatises, De mendacio and Contra mendacium, specifically on the subject of lies.{{sfn|Colish|2005|p=155}} According to Augustine, only four types of falsehood were not lies, because there was no desire to deceive: explanation of someone else's viewpoint, repetition of memorized words, a slip of the tongue, or misspeaking.{{sfn|Colish|2005|p=156}} Augustine distinguished different situations of lying by blameworthiness, but argued that every lie was a sin.{{sfn|Colish|2005|p=157}} The consensus among scholars is that Augustine did not accept any lies as necessary or justified, even to save an innocent life.{{sfn|Puffer|2016|p=685}}

However, there was an equally strong patristic tradition that defended lying for a worthwhile cause and considered it necessary or even righteous in some cases. Exponents of this view include Pseudo-Maximus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Hilary of Poitiers, John Cassian, John Chrysostom, Dorotheus of Gaza, Palladius of Antioch, John Climacus, and Paulinus of Nola.{{sfn|Colish|2005|p=162}} This second patristic tradition was summarized by Ambrose of Milan, whose argument, based on scripture, held that Judith's action was meritorious because "she undertook for religion, not love... she served religion... and the fatherland".{{sfn|Colish|2005|p=155}}

Later views

Notable Christian theologians who argued that lying was never permissible for Christians include Thomas Aquinas and John Calvin.{{sfn|Tollefsen|2014|p=ix}} Both Augustine and Aquinas held that it was always possible to take a correct and blameless action in any circumstance. Some Waldensians weren't strongly opposed to lying if necessary for survival.{{cite book | last=Smelyansky | first=E. | title=Heresy and Citizenship: Persecution of Heresy in Late Medieval German Cities | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Studies in Medieval History and Culture | year=2020 | isbn=978-1-000-19311-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEX1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 | access-date=2023-05-10 | page=51}} Defenders of lying in some cases, such as Cassian and H. Tristram Engelhardt, tended to hold the opposite view: that sometimes true moral dilemmas arise.{{sfn|Tollefsen|2014|p=61}}

Martin Luther argued that it is permissible to go as far as swearing an Oath in a lie in his commentary on Matthew.{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 5:33-37 - New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%205%3A33-37&version=NIV |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}} where taking an oath of any sort, even if followed through is deemed impermissible, possibly using Paul's oath (1 Cor. 9:20), or unhonored oaths from the Crusades for his reasoning.{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: 1 Corinthians 9:20-23 - New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%209%3A20-23&version=NIV |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}}

{{Blockquote

| text =So that some have stretched their conscience so tightly, that one doubts whether one ought to take a solemn oath not to avenge himself when he is set free from prison, or whether we are by an oath to make peace and a treaty with the Turks... As, if it should come to pass, that we would make a treaty and concord with our enemies or the Turks.

| author =Martin Luther

| title =Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount

| source ={{Cite web |title=MARTIN LUTHER - COMMENTARY ON THE SERMON ON THE MOUNT. |url=https://godrules.net/library/luther/37luther1.htm |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=godrules.net}}

}}

In the twentieth century, Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Reinhold Niebuhr also took a non-absolutist position.{{sfn|Tollefsen|2014|p=ix}} In Ethics, Bonhoeffer discusses Kantian ethics and contests the Kantian view of lying, because "Treating truthfulness as a principle leads Kant to the grotesque conclusion that if asked by a murderer whether my friend, whom he was pursuing, had sought refuge in my house, I would have to answer honestly in the affirmative."{{sfn|Puffer|2019|loc=Lying and Guilt Actively Embraced in "History and Good"}} Although he maintained that one should lie to save his friend in that situation, Bonhoeffer argued that either option incurred guilt.{{sfn|Puffer|2019|loc=Lying and Guilt Actively Embraced in "History and Good"}} In a later essay, “What Does It Mean to Tell the Truth?”, Bonhoeffer argued that "Lying … is and ought to be understood as something plainly condemnable" and that it did not always incur guilt.{{sfn|Puffer|2019|loc=Lying and Guilt Actively Embraced in "History and Good"}}

Professor Allen Verhey argued that lying is not always wrong, because "We live the truth not for its own sake, but for God's sake and for the neighbor's sake."{{cite news |last1=Verhey |first1=Allen |title=Is Lying Always Wrong? |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1999/may24/9t6068.html |accessdate=16 August 2020 |work=Christianity Today |date=1999 |language=en |archive-date=17 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217065947/http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1999/may24/9t6068.html |url-status=live }} The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that lying is always wrong.{{sfn|Skalko|2016|p=1045}} Different definitions of lying exist, such that Christians do not agree that all deception counts as "lying".

Catholic writer and new natural law philosopher Christopher Tollefsen has also argued that lying is never permissible for Christians.{{sfn|Tollefsen|2014|p=ix}}{{sfn|Spoerl|2015|p=1}} In a review of Tollefsen's book, John Skalko stated that this is an unpopular and widely criticized view.{{sfn|Skalko|2016|p=1045}}

Public opinion

According to a 2016 Pew Research Center survey, 67% of Christians in the United States, including 81% of those who defined themselves as "highly religious", agreed that "Being honest at all times" was "essential" to their Christian identity.{{cite web |title=Essentials of Christian identity vary by level of religiosity |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2016/04/12/essentials-of-christian-identity-vary-by-level-of-religiosity-many-nones-say-honesty-vital-to-being-a-moral-person/ |website=Religion & Public Life Project |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=16 August 2020 |date=12 April 2016 |archive-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515030732/https://www.pewforum.org/2016/04/12/essentials-of-christian-identity-vary-by-level-of-religiosity-many-nones-say-honesty-vital-to-being-a-moral-person/ |url-status=live }} According to the 2014 Pew Religious Landscape study in the US, the Christian group that had the highest rate of telling white lies were Black Protestants.{{cite web |title=More than four-in-ten say they told white lie, lost temper in past week |url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/04/PF_2016.04.12_everydayreligion-01-07.png |website=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116144619/https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/04/PF_2016.04.12_everydayreligion-01-07.png |archive-date=2022-01-16 |url-status=live}}

References

Sources

{{cite journal |last1=Blacketer |first1=Raymond |s2cid=159926220 |title=No Escape by Deception: Calvin's Exegesis of Lies and Liars in the Old Testament |journal=Reformation & Renaissance Review |date=2008 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=267–289 |doi=10.1558/rrr.v10i3.267}}
{{cite book |last1=Colish |first1=Marcia L. |author-link=Marcia Colish |chapter=Rethinking Lying in the Twelfth Century |title=Virtue and Ethics in the Twelfth Century |date=2005 |pages=155–173 |doi=10.1163/9789047407270_010|isbn=9789047407270|editor1-last=Bejczy|editor1-first= István|editor2-last=Newhauser|editor2-first=Richard|publisher=Brill }}
{{cite journal |last1=Decosimo |first1=David |title=Just Lies: Finding Augustine's Ethics of Public Lying in His Treatments of Lying and Killing |journal=The Journal of Religious Ethics |date=2010 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=661–697 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9795.2010.00458.x |jstor=40925929 |issn=0384-9694}}
{{cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=Paul J. |title=Lying: An Augustinian Theology of Duplicity |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-60899-491-5 |language=en|date=2004}}
{{cite book |last1=Mathewes |first1=Charles |title=Understanding Religious Ethics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|chapter=Lying — Christianity|pages=126–130 |isbn=978-1-4051-3351-7 |language=en|date=2010}}
{{cite journal |last1=du Preez |first1=Ron |title=A Holocaust of Deception: Lying to Save Life and Biblical Morality |journal=Journal of the Adventist Theological Society |date=1998 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=187–220 |url=https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jats/vol9/iss1/19/ |access-date=2020-08-17 |archive-date=2017-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822071902/http://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jats/vol9/iss1/19/ |url-status=live }}
{{cite journal |last1=Puffer |first1=Matthew |title=Retracing Augustine's Ethics: Lying, Necessity, and the Image of God |journal=Journal of Religious Ethics |date=2016 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=685–720 |doi=10.1111/jore.12159 |url=https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=cc_fac_pub |access-date=2020-08-17 |archive-date=2020-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318233925/https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=cc_fac_pub |url-status=live }}
{{cite journal |last1=Puffer |first1=Matthew |title=Three Rival Versions of Moral Reasoning: Interpreting Bonhoeffer's Ethics of Lying, Guilt, and Responsibility |journal=Harvard Theological Review |date=2019 |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=160–183 |doi=10.1017/S001781601900004X|s2cid=166767444 }}
{{cite journal |last1=Ramsey |first1=Boniface |s2cid=171489661 |title=Two Traditions on Lying and Deception in the Ancient Church |journal=The Thomist: A Speculative Quarterly Review |date=1985 |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=504–533 |doi=10.1353/tho.1985.0001}}
{{cite journal |last1=Skalko |first1=John |s2cid=171800944 |title=Lying and Christian Ethics by Christopher O. Tollefsen |journal=Nova et Vetera |date=2016 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=1045–1048 |doi=10.1353/nov.2016.0066|department=Review}}
{{cite book |last1=Skalko |first1=John |title=Disordered Actions: A Moral Analysis of Lying and Homosexual Activity |publisher=Editiones Scholasticae |isbn=978-3-86838-218-1 |language=en|date=2019}}
{{cite journal |last1=Spoerl |first1=Joseph S. |title=Lying and Christian Ethics. By Christopher O. Tollefsen |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |date=2015 |pages=900–902|volume=66|issue=2 |doi=10.1093/jts/flv111 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281539508 |access-date=2020-08-16 |archive-date=2020-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917013302/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281539508_Lying_and_Christian_Ethics_By_Christopher_O_Tollefsen |url-status=live|department=Review }}
{{cite journal |last1=Swezey |first1=Charles M. |s2cid=159952953 |title=Exodus 20:16 — 'Thou Shalt Not Bear False Witness Against Thy Neighbor.' |journal=Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology |date=1980 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=405–410 |doi=10.1177/002096438003400408}}
{{cite book |last1=Tollefsen |first1=Christopher O. |title=Lying and Christian Ethics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-86829-7 |language=en|date=2014}}
{{cite journal |last1=Torrance |first1=I. R. |title=Confidentiality and its limits: some contributions from Christianity |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |date=2003 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=8–9 |doi=10.1136/jme.29.1.8|pmid=12569186 |pmc=1733672 }}
{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Shira |title=The Ethics of Deception in Biblical Narrative |journal=Journal of Jewish Ethics |date=2017 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.5325/jjewiethi.3.1.0001}}
{{cite book |last1=Zagorin |first1=Perez|authorlink=Perez Zagorin|date=1990 |title=Ways of Lying: Dissimulation, Persecution and Conformity in Early Modern Europe |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-86636-2 |language=en}}
{{cite journal |last1=Zagorin |first1=Perez |title=The Historical Significance of Lying and Dissimulation |journal=Social Research |date=1996 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=863–912 |jstor=40972318 |issn=0037-783X}}