Counter-Guerrilla#Ziverbey villa

{{See also|Turkish Straits crisis|Truman Doctrine}}

Anatolia's geostrategic value has long attracted players of the New Great Game. After the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences in 1945, Joseph Stalin sent naval ships and troops to the region with his sights set on the Dardanelles. In 1946, the Soviet Union sent two diplomatic notes concerning the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits, arguing that its terms were unfavorable to the Soviets. Ankara dismissed the notes, and the US also expressed its dissatisfaction with Soviet demands, stating that "Should the Straits become the object of attack or threat of attack by an aggressor, the resulting situation would constitute a threat to international security and would clearly be a matter for action on the party of the Security Council of the United Nations."{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4rRntGclrIC&pg=PA34|access-date=2008-12-23|title=From Encroachment to Involvement: A Documentary Study of Soviet Policy in the Middle East, 1945-1973|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1974|isbn=978-0-470-73150-5|pages=34–37|author=Ro'i, Yaacov}}

{{see also|Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey}}

After the British government declared on 21 February 1947 its inability to provide financial aid (though she would establish the Central Treaty Organization a decade later), Turkey turned towards the United States, who drew up the Truman Doctrine, pledging to "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures".{{Cite journal | last = Merrill | first = Dennis | year = 2006 | title = The Truman Doctrine: Containing Communism and Modernity | journal = Presidential Studies Quarterly | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–37 | doi = 10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00284.x}} $100 million was appropriated two months after the US Congress ratified the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947. This figure was raised to $233 million by 1950, after Turkey contributed a brigade of about 5000 men to the United Nations forces in the Korean War.{{Cite book|publisher=Brill|title=Studies on Turkish Politics and Society|url=https://archive.org/details/studiesonturkish00karp|url-access=limited|location=Netherlands|first=Kemal H|last=Karpat|page=[https://archive.org/details/studiesonturkish00karp/page/n48 39]|isbn=978-90-04-13322-8|year=2004}} In August 1947, the Joint American Military Mission for Aid to Turkey (JAMMAT) was established in Ankara under the authority of the US ambassador.

On 5 October 1947, a delegation of senior Turkish military officials traveled to the United States to establish the military framework of the co-operation agreement.{{Cite news|url=http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/index.php/cat/9/col/90/art/7425/PageName/Magazin |access-date=2008-12-22 |title=Özel Harp Dairesi |department=Magazin |work=Kıbrıs Gazetesi |language=tr |first=Aysu |last=Basri |date=2008-02-16 |quote=5 Ekim 1947'de Genel Kurmay Başkanı Orgeneral Salih Omurtak başkanlığındaki heyet de Amerika'ya gitti. Bu bir ilkti.
Bu ziyaretten sonra çok önemli bir uygulama başladı; Türk subaylarının Amerika'ya gönderilip, komünistlere karşı gerilla eğitimi alması... |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810233237/http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/index.php/cat/9/col/90/art/7425/PageName/Magazin |archive-date=August 10, 2009}}{{cite web|url=http://www.byegm.gov.tr/YAYINLARIMIZ/ayintarihi/1947/ekim1947.htm |access-date=2008-12-22 |title=Ekim 1947 |work=Ayın Tarihi |date=1947-10-05 |author=Directorate General of Press and Information |publisher=Office of the Prime Minister |quote=Genel Kurmay Başkanı Orgeneral Salih Omurtak'm Başkanlığında Korgeneral Zekî Doğan, Tuğgeneral Saim Önban, Tümgeneral Fevzi Uçaner, Tümamiral Necati Özdeniz. Tuğgeneral Rüştü Erdel-zin, Albay Hüseyin Ataman. Albay Tevfik Samurkaş, Albay Seyfi Turagay, Yarbay Seyfi Kurtbek, Binbaşı Tacettin Berin, Binbaşı Emin Dırvana. Binbaşı Cahit Tokgöz'den müteşekkil olan Türk Genel Kurmay Heyeti bugün saat 9.50 de özel bir uçakla Amerika'ya hareket etmiştir. |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205160837/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/YAYINLARIMIZ/AyinTarihi/1947/ekim1947.htm |archive-date=December 5, 2008}}

In December 1947, United States National Security Council (NSC) Directive 4-A "secretly authorised the CIA to conduct these officially non-existent programs and to administer them" in such a way that "removed the U.S. Congress and public from any debate over whether to undertake psychological warfare abroad". A few months later, the NSC replaced directive 4-A with directive 10/2, creating the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC, initially euphemistically called the "Office for Special Projects"), the covert action arm of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The OPC's charter unambiguously called for "propaganda, economic warfare; preventative direct action, including sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition and evacuation measures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance movements, guerrillas and refugee liberations {{sic}} groups, and support of indigenous anti-communist elements in threatened countries of the free world." In the words of career intelligence officer William Corson, "no holds were barred... all the guys on the top had said to put on the brass knuckles and go to work."{{Cite book

| last = Simpson | first = Christopher | year = 1994 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-A9zzGXlJBgC&q=science+of+coercion&pg=PP1

| pages = 39–45 | title = Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-19-510292-5}}

After joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on February 18, 1952,{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/multi/photos/1952/m520218a.htm|access-date=2008-10-17|title=Greece and Turkey accede to NATO - 18 February 1952|work=NATO Media Library|date=2007-09-22}} Turkey signed a Military Facilities Agreement on 23 June 1954, paving the way for a large scale US military presence. With a staff of 1200 by 1959,{{cite web|url=http://www.merhabaturkey.com/general/history.htm|title=HQ TUSLOG, a brief history|first=Gary|last=Leiser|orig-year=January 1986|date=November 1987|publisher=Office of History, TUSLOG HQ, USAFE}}{{Cite journal|title=United States and NATO Inspired 'Psychological Warfare Operations' Against The 'Kurdish Communist Threat' in Turkey|journal=Variant|volume=12|date=Spring 2001|author=Fernandes, Desmond|author2=Ozden, Iskender|url=http://www.variant.org.uk/pdfs/issue12/Fernandes.pdf|access-date=2015-06-10|archive-date=2023-01-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117113818/http://www.variant.org.uk/pdfs/issue12/Fernandes.pdf|url-status=dead}} JAMMAT was the largest of the United States European Commands (USEUCOM), and also the world's largest military assistance and advisory group by 1951.{{Cite journal|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0IAJ/is_2_26/ai_n6110207/pg_3|access-date=2008-09-20|title=Security assistance mission in the Republic of Turkey|journal=Defense Institute of Security Assistance Management Journal|author=Robey, Richard|author2=Vordermark, Jeffrey|date=Winter 2003–2004|volume=26|issue=2}} ([http://www.disam.dsca.mil/pubs/Archives/Journal26-2.pdf original PDF] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222021415/http://www.disam.dsca.mil/pubs/Archives/Journal26-2.pdf |date=December 22, 2016}}. 3.1MB) JAMMAT was renamed to Joint United States Military Mission for Aid to Turkey (JUSMMAT) in 1958, and the Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey (ODC-T) ({{langx|tr|ABD Savunma İşbirliği Ofisi}}) on 1 May 1994.{{Cite news|url=http://www.medyatava.com/tavahaber.asp?id=8857|title=Türkiye'de gizli bir Amerikan karargahı: ODC|last=Esendemir|first=Kutlu|date=2003-07-18|work=Yeni Harman|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714065525/http://www.medyatava.com/tavahaber.asp?id=8857|archive-date=July 14, 2011|url-status=dead|language=tr}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20020118073722/http://www.odc-t.ankara.af.mil/ Defunct ODC Turkey Web site] (2002)

{{see also|Tactical Mobilization Group}}

File:FM 31-15 figure 3.png

With the consent of the National Defense Supreme Council ({{langx|tr|Milli Savunma Yüksek Kurulu}}), brigadier general Daniş Karabelen founded the Tactical Mobilization Group ({{langx|tr|Seferberlik Taktik Kurulu}}, or STK) on 27 September 1952.{{Cite news|url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/Default.aspx?aType=HaberDetay&ArticleID=893176&Date=12.08.2008&CategoryID=98|access-date=2008-09-22|title='Gladyo'dan Ergenekon'a yolculuk|department=Politika|work=Radikal|date=2008-08-12|language=tr}} Karabelen was one of sixteen soldiers (including Turgut Sunalp, Ahmet Yıldız, Alparslan Türkeş, Suphi Karaman, and Fikret Ateşdağlı) who had been sent to the United States in 1948 for training in special warfare. These people were to form the core of the Special Warfare Department ({{langx|tr|Özel Harp Dairesi}}, or ÖHD). It has been said that the training also entailed an element of CIA recruitment.{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980214105822/http://www.ozgurluk.org/contrind/brochu/part1.html|archive-date=1998-02-14|title=The name of the war against the people: the contra-guerrilla|date=1997-02-11|work=Ozgur Politika|url=http://www.ozgurluk.org/contrind/brochu/part1.html|quote=They are trained by the USA, but not because the USA wants to be of help. In the training camps and schools, the CIA contacts them and tries to enlist them as CIA agents.}}

Some full generals that later ran the department were Adnan Doğu, Aydın İlter, Sabri Yirmibeşoğlu, İbrahim Türkgenci, Doğan Bayazıt, and Fevzi Türkeri.{{Cite journal|url=http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=23162|access-date=2008-10-15|title=İlk Özel Harpçi Orgeneral|date=2006-01-09|volume=579|first=Faruk|last=Mercan|language=tr|journal=Aksiyon|publisher=Feza Gazetecilik A.Ş.| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070608014728/http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=23162| archive-date = June 8, 2007}} Karabelen picked Ismail Tansu as his right-hand man, and they expanded the STK in a cellular fashion. They filled the ranks, mostly with reserve officers, inducted them with an oath, and educated them before allowing them to return to civilian life. The officers were given no weapons, funding, or immediate task. The recruitment was more concentrated in the east, where an invasion was most likely to occur.{{Cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/3736369.asp|access-date=2008-11-10

|title=Özel Harpçi Kürt Laz, Çerkez vardı|work=Hürriyet|date=2008-11-10|first=Turan|last=Yilmaz|language=tr|quote=Türkiye açısından işgale en açık bölgeler Doğu ve Güneydoğu olduğu için en çok da oralardan insanlar var.}}

Books used to educate the officers included:

• David Galula's famous Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice. Translated in Turkish as Ayaklanmaları Bastırma Harekâtı: Teori ve Pratik per orders from then chief of the ÖHD, major general M. Cihat Akyol.{{Cite journal|url=http://kurtulusyolu.org/gazete/tam_goster.php?fid=273 |access-date=2008-11-04 |title=Susurluk'ta bütün yollar, devlete uğrayarak CIA'ya çıkar |journal=Kurtuluş Yolu |date=2008-09-19 |language=tr |volume=4 |issue=39 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519200925/http://kurtulusyolu.org/gazete/tam_goster.php?fid=273 |archive-date=May 19, 2009}}
• U.S. Army Field Manual [http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA310713&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf 31-15: Operations Against Irregular Forces] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721114836/http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA310713&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf |date=2009-07-21}}. Translated into Turkish as Sahra Talimnamesi 31-15: Gayri Nizami Kuvvetlere Karşı Harekat, and put into practice on 25 May 1964 per orders from general Ali Keskiner.{{Cite news|url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/Default.aspx?aType=Detay&ArticleID=893195&Date=13.08.2008&CategoryID=77|access-date=2008-10-15|title=Gladyo-Ergenekon yol kardeşliği|department=Türkiye

|work=Radikal|date=2008-08-13|language=tr}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.talatturhan.com/gazete-17.htm|access-date=2008-11-04|title=12 Mart Hukuku'nun Ardındaki ABD mi?|first=Talat|last=Turhan|work=Politika Gazetesi|language=tr|date=1976-10-11|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211113458/http://www.talatturhan.com/gazete-17.htm|archive-date=February 11, 2012}}

• Senior infantry colonel Cahit Vural's Gerillaya Giriş (1972).

Later, the generals formed the Turkish Resistance Organization to counter the Greek Cypriot EOKA.{{Cite journal|url=http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=30244|access-date=2008-09-22|title=Türkeş TMT'yi benden öğrendi, boynuma sarıldı

|first=İbrahim|last=Doğan|volume=701|journal=Aksiyon|date=2008-05-12|language=tr| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080616065502/http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=30244| archive-date = June 16, 2008}} Operating under the authority of the Chief of the General Staff, the STK was quartered in the JUSMMAT ({{langx|tr|Amerikan Askerî Yardım Heyeti}}) building in Bahçelievler, Ankara.{{Cite journal|url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/017.html|access-date=2008-09-20|title=Turkey's Killing Machine: The Contra-Guerrilla Force|first=Serdar|last=Çelik|volume=17|journal=Kurdistan Report|date=February–March 1994}} [http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/tutanak_b_sd.birlesim_baslangic_yazici?P4=398&P5=B&page1=13&page2=13 quoting] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512064535/http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/tutanak_b_sd.birlesim_baslangic_yazici?P4=398&P5=B&page1=13&page2=13 |date=2011-05-12}} Bülent Ecevit from {{Cite news|work=Milliyet|date=1990-11-28|title=a newspaper interview|language=tr|quote= Özel Harp Dairesinin nerede bulunduğunu sordum 'Amerikan Askerî Yardım Heyetiyle aynı binada' yanıtını aldım.}} Ismail Tansu says that the American headquarters were facing the old Gülhane building, and that the STK's headquarters were in a villa near Kolej, Kızılay.Picture of the JUSMMAT building, some newspaper headlines, and other information: {{YouTube|rbT_egFOXU8|Fethullahçı Gladyo}} {{in lang|tr}} He also said that he used to meet soldiers from the J3 Operations Directorate a few times a week, alternating between their bases. Some of his associates were colonel Latent, captain Berger, and major Hill.

In the 1960s, Türkeş established the "civilian" Associations for Struggling with Communism ({{langx|tr|Komünizm ile Mücadele Dernekleri}})İnsel, Ahmet. "Rutininde İç Düşman Olan Devlet," Birikim, March 2000, Vol. 131, cited in pp.56-58 of the Human Rights Foundation of Turkey's [http://www.tihv.org.tr/EN/data/Yayinlar/Human_Rights_Reports/Ra1998HumanRigthsReport.pdf 1998 Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003030413/http://www.tihv.org.tr/EN/data/Yayinlar/Human_Rights_Reports/Ra1998HumanRigthsReport.pdf |date=October 3, 2008}} and funded the far-right National Movement Party ({{langx|tr|Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi}}, MHP). These formed the core of future ultra-nationalist militants, used by the Counter-Guerrilla in destabilizing events.

The CIA employed people from the far right, such as Pan-Turkist SS-member Ruzi Nazar (father of Sylvia Nasar), to train the Grey Wolves ({{langx|tr|Ülkücüler}}),{{Cite news|work=Bugün |url=http://www.bugun.com.tr/bugunhaber/default.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060417104914/http://www.bugun.com.tr/bugunhaber/default.asp |title=Oral Çelik: 'Ülkücüleri Naziler eğitti' |archive-date=April 17, 2006 |date=2006-04-17 |first=Şenol |last=Gezer |url-status=unfit}} the youth wing of the MHP. Nazar was an Uzbek born near Tashkent who had deserted the Red Army to join the Nazis during World War II in order to fight on the Eastern Front for the creation of a Turkistan.{{Cite book|url=http://www.xs4all.nl/~afa/alert/2_7/henze.html|author-link=Edward S. Herman|author=Herman, Edward|author2=Brodhead, Frank|title=The Rise and Fall of the Bulgarian Connection|publisher=Sheridan Square|location=New York|date=May 1986|isbn=978-0-940380-06-6|page=63}} After Germany lost the war, some of its spies found haven in the U.S. intelligence community. Nazar was such a person, and he became the CIA's station chief to Turkey.{{Cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2008/01/15/haber,5C0384AD6A634B71AD334F27EB8DE728.html |access-date=2008-12-29 |title=Türkeş'i CIA kurtardı |date=2008-01-15 |work=Sabah |first=Tutkun |last=Akbas |language=tr |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522134801/http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2008/01/15/haber%2C5C0384AD6A634B71AD334F27EB8DE728.html |archive-date=May 22, 2011}}) See also {{YouTube|p_kB0c2W3qQ}}

The STK became the Special Warfare Department ({{langx|tr|Özel Harp Dairesi}}, ÖHD) in 1967.{{cite web|url=http://www.kontrgerilla.com/mansetgoster.asp?haber_no=58

|access-date=2012-12-07|title=Kontrgerilla, Ergenekon mu?|work=Kontrgerilla.com|first=Abdullah|last=Harun|date=2008-07-27|language=tr

|quote=Kontrgerilla, Ergenekon mu? Ya da, Ergenekon davasında kontrgerilla mı yargılanıyor?}}{{cite web|url=http://www.kontrgerilla.com/mansetara_act.asp?aranacak=(%F6hd)|access-date=2012-12-07|title=Özel Harp Dairesi (ÖHD) ile ilgili haberler|work=Kontrgerilla.com|first=Abdullah|last=Harun|date=2001-08-13|language=tr|quote=Özel Harp Dairesi (ÖHD) ve Türkiye'deki terörle bağlantısına dair haberler}}

{{see also|Special Warfare Department}}

During the 1970s, the Special Warfare Department ({{langx|tr|Özel Harp Dairesi}}) was run by General Kemal Yamak. In his memoirs he stated that the United States had set aside around $1m worth of support; part munitions, part money. This arrangement continued until 1973-4, when Yamak decided the munitions did not meet the department's needs. The Americans allegedly retorted that they were footing the bill, and had right of decision. Yamak left the meeting and expressed his concerns to the Chief of General Staff, Semih Sancar, and the agreement was subsequently annulled.{{Cite news|url=http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/haber.aspx?id=3731742&tarih=2006-01-03|access-date=2008-08-15|title=NATO Gladio istedi reddettik|work=Hürriyet|date=2006-01-03|first=Necdet|last=Acan}}

It was only when Yamak asked prime minister Bülent Ecevit for an alternative means of funding did Ecevit became aware of the operation's existence; the other members of the cabinet remained in the dark. Ecevit suggested that the organization seek support from Europe. Yamak contacted generals from the United Kingdom, followed by France. The commander of the Turkish army at the time, General Semih Sancar, informed him the U.S. had financed the unit as well as the National Intelligence Organization since the immediate post-war years.

{{see also|Special Forces (Turkish Armed Forces)}}

In the early 1990s, Turkey and United States were at loggerheads over the Kurdish issue. In order to reduce U.S. influence over the Turkish military,{{Cite news|url=http://www.radyovakit.com/haber_detay.php?haber_id=4274 |access-date=2008-10-13 |title=Washington'dan Ankara'ya yol gider! |date=2008-10-13 |work=Vakit |first=Abrurrahman |last=Dilipak |language=tr |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810101925/http://www.radyovakit.com/haber_detay.php?haber_id=4274 |archive-date=August 10, 2009}} chief of staff Doğan Güreş{{Cite news|url=http://www.yenisafak.com.tr/arsiv/2001/NISAN/08/g4.html |access-date=2008-10-13 |title=Bitlis'in ölümü kaza |department=Gündem |date=2001-04-08 |author=Ender Okusluk |author2=Kursad Ciftci |language=tr |work=Yeni Şafak |quote=Özel Kuvvet Komutanlığı'nı görevlendirdim. Birliğin daha önce Özel Harp olan ismini değiştirdim. |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810202644/http://www.yenisafak.com.tr/arsiv/2001/NISAN/08/g4.html |archive-date=August 10, 2009}} restructured the ÖHD and renamed it to the Special Forces Command ({{langx|tr|Özel Kuvvetler Komutanlığı}}, or ÖKK) in 1992.{{Cite news|url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=195190|access-date=2008-09-22|title=Terörle mücadeleye özel kuvvet|work=Radikal|date=2006-08-08|language=tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827063008/http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=195190|archive-date=2006-08-27|url-status=dead}} For a quote in English see {{Cite journal|title=Tackling the PKK: New Directions for Turkey's Special Forces|first=Emrullah|last=Uslu|volume=VI|issue=14|date=July 10, 2008|journal=Terrorism Monitor|publisher=Jamestown Foundation|pages=9–11|url=http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=5045}} The ÖKK, whose 7000+ recruits are nicknamed the "Maroon Berets" ({{langx|tr|Bordo Bereliler}}), combats terrorism and protects the chiefs of staff and the president on trips abroad. Similarly, civilian counter-guerrillas are collectively named the White Forces ({{langx|tr|Beyaz Kuvvetler}}).{{Cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2007/10/11/haber,4BBFB2E1996A4D8DBD1229A63ABD0E73.html|access-date=2008-11-12|title=Özel Harp'teki siviller: Beyaz Kuvvetler|date=2007-10-11|work=Sabah|quote=Özel Harp Dairesi askerlerinin Bordo Bereliler olarak anılmasından hareketle onlar da Beyaz Kuvvetler diye anıldılar.|language=tr}}

In 1993, the parliament formed a commission ({{langx|tr|Faili Meçhul Cinayetleri Araştırma Komisyonu}}) to investigate the numerous unsolved murders believed to be perpetrated by the Counter-Guerrilla. Their report enumerated 1797 such deaths; 316 in 1992 and 314 in 1993 alone. General Güreş contacted the Speaker of Parliament, Hüsamettin Cindoruk, to stop the investigation in order to prevent the outing of his men.{{Cite news|url=http://www.evrensel.net/02/03/20/dosya.html |access-date=2009-01-02 |title=Maşalar kötü de paşalar temiz mi? -2 |department=Dosya |first=Serpil |last=Kurtay |date=2002-03-20 |work=Evrensel |language=tr |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090811010729/http://www.evrensel.net/02/03/20/dosya.html |archive-date=August 11, 2009}} Meanwhile, State Security Court prosecutor Nusret Demiral ordered the police force not to co-operate with the parliamentary commission in solving the crimes.{{Cite news|url=http://www.evrensel.net/99/11/08/politika.html#1 |access-date=2009-01-02 |title=Kontrgerilla soruşturmasını Doğan Güreş engelledi |work=Evrensel |department=Politika |date=1997-11-08 |language=tr |first=Barış |last=Erbektaş |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040928133104/http://www.evrensel.net/99/11/08/politika.html |archive-date=September 28, 2004}}{{Cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2007/10/11/haber,15CBB46FF0E34FAFB3E3D4452F14FFF2.html|access-date=2008-11-16|title=Çatlı ve Ağca Özel Harp Dairesi'ne bağlı çalıştı|date=2007-10-11|work=Sabah|first=Ecevit|last=Kilic|language=tr|quote=Özel Harp Dairesi'nin 1994'te isim değiştirip Özel Kuvvetler Komutanlığı adını aldığını belirten Metin Kaplan, bu dönemde kurum içinde milli bilincin güçlendiğini söylüyor. Kaplan, 'Bu değişimle birlikte Amerika ve CIA ile bağlar iyice zayıfladı, belki de koptu' diyor.}}

Turkey maintains strong military ties with the U.S., through the Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey (ODC-T), whose leader is "the single point of contact with the Turkish General Staff regarding all United States military organizations and activities in Turkey".{{Cite journal|url=http://turkey.usembassy.gov/uploads/images/7EQY4QQJViERxw-mM2gRrw/32t3323.pdf|author=Ambassador James W. Spain|publisher=U.S. Embassy, Turkey|location=Ankara|title=32 U.S.T. 3323; 1980 U.S.T. LEXIS 39, U.S. Treaties on LEXIS (TURKEY: Cooperation on Defense and Economy)|date=1980-03-29|edition=Implementing Agreement on United States Organizations and Activities Outside the Installations, Annex Number 5 to Supplementary Agreement Number 3 on Installations|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217055738/http://turkey.usembassy.gov/uploads/images/7EQY4QQJViERxw-mM2gRrw/32t3323.pdf|archive-date=2008-12-17}} {{As of|2008}}, this position is held by major general Eric J. Rosborg.{{cite web|url=http://www.af.mil/bios/bio.asp?bioID=7706|access-date=2008-10-13|title=Major General Eric J. Rosborg|work=Biographies|publisher=USAF| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080709221535/http://www.af.mil/bios/bio.asp?bioID=7706| archive-date = July 9, 2008}} Since 1993, the chiefs of the ODC-T have been U.S. Air Force generals.{{cite web|url=http://www.merhabaturkey.com/1BARTLEYMindex.html|access-date=2008-10-15|title=7 Years on Turkish Soil: between 1978 and 1997|first=Michael|last=Bartley|date=2007-07-23|work=merhabaturkey.com|quote=Since the beginning of the military mission in the late 1940s, every Chief, JUSMMAT had been a US Army Major General. The reason…in the Turkish Armed Forces, the Turkish Army was by far the most senior and most populated service. Also, the Chief of the Turkish General Staff was always a Turkish Army 4-star general. It was thus felt that the US needed a US Army general officer to liaise with the Chief, TGS. Nonetheless, in 1993, the US Army decided not to nominate an Army general as Chief, ODC-T, and the Air Force eagerly picked up the billet.
For many years, senior Air Force leaders resented the fact that a US Army General was always Chief, despite the fact that almost all US military personnel in Turkey were US Air Force, and almost all the installations were US Air Force as well.}} The offices of the ODC-T are located at Kirazlıdere Mevkii, İsmet İnönü Bulvarı No. 94, Balgat, 06100 Ankara.

{{Main|Istanbul Pogrom}}

In 1955, members of the ÖHD participated in planning the Istanbul Pogrom, which promoted both the state's secret policy of Turkification, and the subversion of Communism.{{Cite news|url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=163398|language=tr|first=Ismet|last=Berkan|work=Radikal|date=2005-09-06|title=6-7 Eylül'ün anlamı|quote=Hem azınlık dükkânlarını yağmalatırlar hem de 'Bu işi komünistler yaptı' diyerek bir taşla iki kuş vurmaya kalkışırlar.|access-date=2008-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130044346/http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=163398|archive-date=2009-01-30|url-status=dead}}

{{Main|1971 Turkish coup d'état|1980 Turkish coup d'état}}

After the military coup in 1960, yet another plot was found by National Intelligence Organization (MİT) agent Mahir Kaynak, who in early 1971 informed both Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Memduh Tağmaç and also the fiercely anti-communist Commander of the First Army based in Istanbul, General Faik Türün, who was a veteran of Korean War and was decorated personally by General Douglas MacArthur there. The information conveyed to them was that a number of high-ranking Turkish officers, including the Army Chief of Staff and the Air Force Chief of Staff were planning to execute a military coup on 9 March 1971 with the media support of pro-Soviet leftist intellectuals in a number of Turkish newspapers.

On 10 March 1971, the CIA sent the State and Defense departments a cable stating that the Turkish high command had convened that day resolving to carry out a counter-coup.{{Cite news|url=http://www.aksam.com.tr/haber.asp?a=109083,11&tarih=26.02.2008 |access-date=2008-12-28 |title=Amerikan gizli belgelerindeki muhtıra-1 |work=Akşam |language=tr |date=2008-02-18 |first=Sedat |last=Sertoğlu |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216201612/http://www.aksam.com.tr/haber.asp?a=109083%2C11&tarih=26.02.2008 |archive-date=February 16, 2016}}{{Cite journal|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/documents/organization/97932.pdf |id=TDCS 314/02595–71 |date=1970-03-10 |title=441. Intelligence Information Cable (Meeting of Command Council of the Armed Forces) |page=1083 |journal=Foreign Relations, 1969-1976 |volume=XXIX |publisher=U.S. Department of State}} (originally from the National Archives, Nixon Presidential Materials, NSC Files, Box 632, Country Files—Middle East, Turkey, Vol. II, 1 Jan 1970-31 Dec 1971.)

The 1971 coup on 12 March was executed to forestall a Soviet supported left-wing coup originally planned to take place on 9 March 1971.

Immediately after the coup, Soviet leaning intellectuals, civilian and non-ranking participants in the 9 March plot were interrogated in a building allegedly belonging to the MİT (see the next section). One 9 March plotter, colonel Talat Turhan, was interrogated by the chief of the MİT, Eyüp Ozalkus. Turhan expended much effort on exposing the Counter-Guerrilla after his release.{{Cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/1997/03/09/f14.html|access-date=2008-12-28|title=Sakalı yoktu dinletemedi|date=1997-03-09|first=Nebil|last=Özgentürk|author-link=Nebil Özgentürk|work=Sabah|language=tr}}

It has been alleged that the groups of plotters were in fact two facets of the same organization.{{Cite news|url=http://yenisafak.com.tr/yazarlar/?t=27.07.2008&y=TamerKorkmaz|access-date=2008-12-28|title=Kim, kimin nesi oluyor?|first=Tamer|last=Korkmaz|work=Yeni Şafak|date=2008-07-27|quote=İlhan Selçuk'un içinde yer aldığı 9 Mart Cuntası ile 12 Mart darbesini yapanların 'Gizli İktidar'ın sol ve sağ eli olduklarını...|language=tr}}

The counter-guerrilla engaged in sporadic acts of domestic terror throughout the 1970s {{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}, serving as a pretext {{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} for yet another coup in 1980. By the time it took place, this third military coup in the short history of Turkish democracy (1950–1980) was seen as necessary by the unwitting public to restoring peace. It was also encouraged by members of Parliament, many of whom had joined the Counter-Guerrilla in their youth.{{Cite news|url=http://yenisafak.com.tr/Yazarlar/?t=22.02.2008&y=TamerKorkmaz|access-date=2008-12-28|title=CIA, nasıl oluyor da bu kadar detaylı biliyordu?|first=Tamer|last=Korkmaz|work=Yeni Şafak|date=2008-02-22}}

With this coup firm steps were taken to bring the country under the military's heel. A stifling constitution was drafted, a Supreme Education Council was established to bring intellectuals into line, and the National Security Council was beefed up to do the same for politicians.{{Cite news|url=http://www.taraf.com.tr/haber.asp?id=18179 |access-date=2009-01-01 |title=12 Eylül: Yakın tarihin en ağır yıkımı|date=2008-10-01|work=Taraf|first=Halil|last=Berktay|author-link=Haili Berktay|language=tr|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008010928/http://www.taraf.com.tr/haber.asp?id=18179|archive-date=October 8, 2008}}

After having served his role in instigating the 1980 coup, Alparslan Türkeş was jailed by the high command. In fact, General Madanoğlu intended to execute him by a firing squad, but his friend Ruzi Nazar (of the CIA) intervened.{{Cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2008/01/15/haber,5C0384AD6A634B71AD334F27EB8DE728.html|access-date=2008-12-29|title=Türkeş'i CIA kurtardı|date=2008-01-15|work=Sabah|first=Tutkun|last=Akbas|language=tr|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522134801/http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2008/01/15/haber%2C5C0384AD6A634B71AD334F27EB8DE728.html|archive-date=2011-05-22}}

{{Main|Ziverbey Villa}}

After the 1971 coup d'état, the Ziverbey villa in Erenköy, Istanbul was used to interrogate Turkish communists. The mastermind behind Ziverbey interrogations was brigadier general Memduh Ünlütürk, working under Lieutenant General Turgut Sunalp, who was reporting to the Commander of the First Army, General Faik Türün. The latter two generals were Korean War veterans who had served in the Operations Department ({{langx|tr|Harekât Dairesi}}). The interrogation techniques they used in Ziverbey were inspired by what they had seen done to Korean and Chinese POWs during the Korean War.{{Cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2008/09/21/haber,2E59F6FC45334505AB7FAB23CA4B01E1.html|access-date=2008-12-25|title=Kore kahramanları Ziverbey işkencelerinde|date=2008-09-21|language=tr|first=Ecevit|last=Kilic|work=Sabah}} Prisoners were bound and blindfolded.

Intellectuals such as İlhan Selçuk (one of the 9 March conspirators) and Uğur Mumcu were tortured there. Several Ziverbey victims confirmed that the interrogators introduced themselves as "Counter-Guerrillas" and claimed to be above the law and entitled to kill.Lucy Komisar, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080922230047/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1295/is_n4_v61/ai_19254727 Turkey's terrorists: a CIA legacy lives on], The Progressive, April 1997.{{Cite news|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=133013|access-date=2008-10-22|title=Gladio, Turkish Counter-Guerrilla and Ergenekon, a devilish trio|work=Today's Zaman|date=2008-02-01|first=Kristina|last=Kamp|quote=They blindfolded me and bound my arms and feet. Then they told me that I was 'in the hands of the Counter-Guerrilla unit operating under the high command of the army outside the Constitution and the law.' They told me that they 'considered me their prisoner of war' and that I was 'sentenced to death'|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810181038/http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=133013|archive-date=August 10, 2009}}{{Cite journal|url=http://www.php.isn.ethz.ch/news/mediadesk/documents/Terrorism_Western_Europe_001.pdf|page=74|first=Daniele|last=Ganser|title=Terrorism in Western Europe: An Approach to NATO's Secret Stay-Behind Armies|date=Winter–Spring 2005|journal=Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations|volume=VI|issue=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217055738/http://www.php.isn.ethz.ch/news/mediadesk/documents/Terrorism_Western_Europe_001.pdf|archive-date=2008-12-17}}İlhan Selçuk, Ziverbey Köşkü (quoted in Mercan, 2006). His interrogators reputedly said: "İlhan Selçuk, Genelkurmay Başkanlığına bağlı kontrgerilla örgütünün karşısında bulunuyorsun. Sen bizim tutsağımızsın. Burada anayasa babayasa yoktur. Örgüt seni ölüme mahkum etmiştir. Sana istediğimizi yapmaya yetkiliyiz. Buraya getirilmen örgüt kararıyladır. Seni Marksist, Leninist, Komünist biliyoruz. Eğer konuşur ve böyle olduğunu itiraf edersen hakkında hayırlı olur." Under duress to write an apologetic statement, Selçuk famously revealed his plight using a modified acrostic which decrypted to "I am under torture". The key letter was the first of the penultimate word of each sentence in his statement.

Another prisoner, outspoken liberal Murat Belge, says that he was tortured there by Veli Küçük, who later founded JITEM and Hezbollah (Turkey) to counter the Kurdistan Workers' Party.{{Cite news|url=http://www.gazeteport.com.tr/GUNCEL/NEWS/GP_280409|access-date=2008-12-05 |title=Veli Küçük bana işkence yaptı|department=Güncel|work=Gazeteport|date=2008-09-08|language=tr|first=Safile|last=Usul|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231043421/http://www.gazeteport.com.tr/GUNCEL/NEWS/GP_280409|archive-date=2008-12-31}} Küçük says he could not be responsible since he was stationed in Şırnak and has been charged with colluding with another Ziverbey victim, İlhan Selçuk (see Ergenekon).{{Cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/10572648.asp|access-date=2008-12-15|title=Veli Küçük: Benim bölgemde faili meçhul olmaz|work=Hürriyet|language=tr|agency=Anadolu Agency|date=2008-12-15|quote=Sene 1972. Ben Şırnak Jandarma Komutanı'yım. O zaman Şırnak'ta yol yok, elektrik yok, su yok, radyo dahi yok ve ben Ziverbey'e gelip sorguya katılıyorum. Yazar İlhan Selçuk benim suç ortağım. O da oradaydı. Onu da mı ben sorguladım?}}

The activist film director Yılmaz Güney was also present. A friend of his in the MİT had tried to prevent him from being captured by telling his superiors that Güney was also a spy, but the ruse failed. A MİT officer who was present, Mehmet Eymür, said Güney was treated well in return for his co-operation.{{Cite news|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/2007/07/20/haber,8E591F2ADFFF4E5A91D63733F4FAA5A3.html |access-date=2008-12-18 |title=Necati, Yılmaz Güney'in MİT'teki köstebeğiydi |date=2007-07-20 |work=Sabah |language=tr |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810042423/http://www.sabah.com.tr/2007/07/20/haber%2C8E591F2ADFFF4E5A91D63733F4FAA5A3.html |archive-date=August 10, 2009}}

General Yamak denied that the ÖHD was involved, and dismissed any notion of a "counter-guerrilla".{{Cite journal|url=http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=23162|access-date=2008-09-21|title=İlk Özel Harpçi Orgeneral|first=Faruk|last=Mercan|journal=Aksiyon|volume=579|date=2006-01-09|language=tr|quote=Ziverbey Köşkü, Özel Harp Dairesi'nin yeri değildi ve sorgucular daire mensubu değildi. Biz Kontrgerillayız demeleri, kendilerine bir maske olarak kullandıkları bilinçsiz ifadeler.| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070608014728/http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=23162| archive-date = June 8, 2007}}

Ziverbey is notable for:

• being the first time the term "Counter-Guerrilla" was mentioned to anyone who was not already a member.
• revealing the fact that the counter-guerrilla co-operated with the MİT.

{{main|Kızıldere Incident}}

On 30 March 1972 special forces raided Kızıldere village in Niksar district, Tokat province and killed the 10 young men who had kidnapped three foreign hostages and kept them in Kızıldere. The victims included Mahir Çayan (THKP-C), Hüdai Arıkan (Dev-Genç), Cihan Alptekin (THKO), taxi driver Nihat Yılmaz, teacher Ertan Saruhan, farmer Ahmet Atasoy, Sinan Kazım Özüdoğru (Dev-Genç), student Sabahattin Kurt, Ömer Ayna (THKO) and lieutenant Saffet Alp. The three hostages (two British and one Canadian citizen) where part of GCHQ and were held in an attempt to prevent the execution of three student leaders (Deniz Gezmiş, Hüseyin İnan and Yusuf Aslan) were also killed.{{Cite news

|url=http://www.bianet.org/bianet/kategori/bianet/76861/kizildere-katliami-dosyasini-acin|archive-url=https://archive.today/20090810045152/http://www.bianet.org/bianet/kategori/bianet/76861/kizildere-katliami-dosyasini-acin|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-08-10|title=Kızıldere Katliamı Dosyasını Açın|first=Emine|last=Özcan|work=Bianet|language=tr|access-date=2008-07-07|date=2006-03-30}}

Although General Yamak denied it,{{Cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/3727650.asp|title=CHP'li Özel Harpçiler|work=Hürriyet|date=2006-01-02|access-date=2008-08-15|language=tr|first=Necdet|last=Acan}} an active participant, hitman Metin Kaplan said that the ÖHD was responsible. He mentioned talking to general Memduh Ünlütürk (himself a Counter-Guerrilla, and infamous participant of the Ziverbey villa incident) about what to do with the Communist inmates of Maltepe prison, who were planning to escape. On the advice of two U.S. generals, they let the prisoners escape, and then take hostage three NATO officers at Ünye. This created the pretext for their assassination.{{Cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2007/10/11/haber,15CBB46FF0E34FAFB3E3D4452F14FFF2.html|access-date=2008-11-16|title=Çatlı ve Ağca Özel Harp Dairesi'ne bağlı çalıştı

|date=2007-10-11|work=Sabah|first=Ecevit|last=Kılıç|language=tr}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2000/05/23/t/haber/hab13.html|access-date=2008-12-12|title=Eymur'un acik adresi elcilikte|author=Atar, Ersan|author2=Sik, Barsin|work=Milliyet|language=tr|date=2000-05-23}}

{{Main|Taksim Square massacre}}

On 1 May 1977 the trade union confederation DİSK held a rally on Taksim Square, Istanbul with half a million participants. Unidentified people shot at the crowd and killed 36 people. The perpetrators were never caught.{{Cite news|url=http://www.sundayszaman.com/sunday/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=163143|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810073651/http://www.sundayszaman.com/sunday/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=163143|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-08-10|access-date=2009-01-03|title=A beginner's guide to Ergenekon, trial of the century|date=2009-01-04|first=E Baris|last=Altintas|work=Today's Zaman}} Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit, and member of the social democratic Republican People's Party, declared to then President Fahri Korutürk that he suspected the Counter-Guerrilla's involvement in the massacre.Ganser, Daniele. NATO's Secret Armies. Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe, Franck Cass, London, 2005, p.237

According to Ecevit, the shooting lasted for twenty minutes, yet several thousand policemen on the scene did not intervene. This mode of operation recalls the June 20, 1973 Ezeiza massacre in Buenos Aires, when the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (a.k.a. "Triple A"), founded by José López Rega (a P2 member), opened fire on the left-wing Peronists.

Moreover, Ecevit himself barely survived an assassination attempt twenty days after he publicly mentioned the possibility of a secret organization being behind the massacre.

Ankara's Deputy State Attorney Doğan Öz then investigated on relationship between Alparslan Türkeş's Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) the Special Warfare Department and violent incidents of the 1970s. Doğan Öz's report stated that "Military and civilian security forces are behind all this work." It also stated that the National Intelligence Organization was complicit, and that "all these activities [were] guided by MHP members and cadres." The attorney Doğan Öz was assassinated on March 24, 1978. İbrahim Çiftçi, a member of the Grey Wolves, confessed to the crime, but his conviction was overturned by the military judicial system.

{{main|Beyazıt Massacre}}

Seven students (Hatice Özen, Cemil Sönmez, Baki Ekiz, Turan Ören, Abdullah Şimşek, Hamit Akıl and Murat Kurt) were killed and 41 were injured at Istanbul University's Faculty of Pharmacy on 16 March 1978. The assailants were members of the Grey Wolves. The lawsuit was canceled in 2008 due to the statute of limitation.{{Cite news|url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/Radikal.aspx?aType=RadikalHaberDetay&ArticleID=904309|access-date=2008-12-15|title=16 Mart katliamı davası düştü|department=Türkiye|work=Radikal|date=2008-12-15|agency=Anadolu Agency}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.aksam.com.tr/haber.asp?a=134337%2C12 |access-date=2008-12-15 |title=Asıl gladio 16 Mart'ta Ergenekon'da değil |work=Akşam |language=tr |date=2008-12-15 |first=Nagehan |last=Alci |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202092711/http://www.aksam.com.tr/haber.asp?a=134337%2C12 |archive-date=December 2, 2008}}

{{Main|Bahçelievler massacre}}

A group of nationalists under the leadership of Abdullah Çatlı killed seven leftist students on 9 October 1978. Çatlı was convicted in absentia.{{Cite news|url=http://www.monitor.net/monitor/9703b/turkeycia.html|access-date=2008-12-22|title=The Last Cold Warriors|date=1997-04-06|work=Albion Monitor|first=Lucy|last=Komisar|author-link=Lucy Komisar|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051111025018/http://www.monitor.net/monitor/9703b/turkeycia.html|archive-date=2005-11-11}}

{{Main|Kahramanmaraş massacre}}

On 23–24 December 1978, many Alevi people were targeted and killed in a neighbourhood. Martial law was declared afterwards, and the 1980 coup followed.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}

{{Main|Musa Anter}}

Musa Anter He was a Kurdish nationalist and writer of Kurdish origin and claimed to have taken some actions against Turkey. Being a member of Revolutionary Cultural Eastern Hearths and Kurdish Institute of Istanbul Musa Anter, who received a total of 11.5 years in prison, was assassinated in 1992.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

• CIA activities in Turkey
• Deep state
• Grey Wolves (organization)
• Turkey–United States relations
• Propaganda Due

{{Reflist|2}}

• {{Cite book|last=Yamak|first=Kemal|author-link=Kemal Yamak|title=Gölgede Kalan İzler ve Gölgeleşen Bizler|publisher=Dogan Kitap|date=January 2006|language=tr|isbn=978-975-293-415-3}}
• {{Cite book|first=Talat|last=Turhan|title=Özel Savaş Terör ve Kontrgerilla|publisher=Tümzamanlar|isbn=978-975-7350-21-7|year=1992|language=tr}}
• {{Cite book|first=Ecevit|last=Kılıç|author-link=Ecevit Kılıç|title=Özel Harp Dairesi|series=Türkiye'nin Gizli Tarihi|volume=1|isbn=978-605-4069-01-9|publisher=Merkez Kitapçılık ve Yayıncılık|year=2008|language=tr}}
• {{Cite book|last=Yamak|first=Kemal|author-link=Kemal Yamak|title=Ülkücü Komanda Kampları|publisher=Kaynak Yayınları|language=tr}}

• Doğan Öz, Counter-Guerrilla report: [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223062123/http://www.birgun.net/writer_2005_index.php?category_code=1186744205&news_code=1133401020&year=2005&month=12&day=01 I], [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223062223/http://www.birgun.net/writer_2005_index.php?category_code=1186744205&news_code=1133571502&year=2005&month=12&day=03 II] (State prosecutor Öz was assassinated on 24 March 1978)

{{Kurdish–Turkish conflict}}

{{Turkey–United States relations}}

Category:Operation Gladio

Category:Turkish military scandals

Category:Stay-behind organizations

Category:History of the Republic of Turkey

Category:Turkey–United States military relations

Category:CIA activities in Turkey

Category:Anti-communism in Turkey

Category:Istanbul pogrom

Category:Political violence in Turkey (1976–1980)

Category:Anti-Kurdish sentiment

Category:Racism in Turkey

:fr:Stay-behind#En Turquie

Category:Turkish nationalist organizations

Category:Persecution of Kurds in Turkey