Deep Blue (chess computer)

{{Infobox custom computer

| image = File:Deep Blue.jpg

| caption = A computer similar to Deep Blue at the Computer History Museum

| Dates = 1995 (prototype)
1996 (release)
1997 (upgrade)

| operators =

| sponsors =

| Architecture = {{plain list|

1995: IBM RS/6000 with 14 custom VLSI first-generation "chess chips"{{cite web |title=Deep Thought (Chess) |url=https://www.game-ai-forum.org/icga-tournaments/program.php?id=349 |website=ICGA Tournaments |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106232811/http://www.game-ai-forum.org/icga-tournaments/program.php?id=349 |url-status=live }}
1996: IBM RS/6000 SP with 30 PowerPC 604 "High 1" 120 MHz CPUs and 480 custom VLSI second-generation "chess chips"
1997: IBM RS/6000 SP with 30 PowerPC 604e "High 2" 200 MHz CPUs and 480 custom VLSI second-generation "chess chips"

}}

| Memory =

| Storage =

| Speed = 11.38 GFLOPS (1997)

| Power =

| OS = IBM AIX

| Space = 2 cabinets

| Cost =

| ChartName =

| ChartPosition =

| ChartDate =

| Purpose = playing chess

| Legacy =

| Website =

}}

Deep Blue was{{efn|Parts of the computer were split up to museums}} a supercomputer for chess-playing based on a customized IBM RS/6000 SP. It was the first computer to win a game, and the first to win a match, against a reigning world champion under regular time controls. Development began in 1985 at Carnegie Mellon University under the name ChipTest. It then moved to IBM, where it was first renamed Deep Thought, then again in 1989 to Deep Blue. It first played world champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match in 1996, where it won one, drew two, and lost three games. It was upgraded in 1997, and in a six-game re-match it defeated Kasparov by winning two games and drawing three. Deep Blue's victory is considered a milestone in the history of artificial intelligence and has been the subject of several books and films.

History

While a doctoral student at Carnegie Mellon University, Feng-hsiung Hsu began development of a chess-playing supercomputer under the name ChipTest. The machine won the North American Computer Chess Championship in 1987 and Hsu and his team followed up with a successor, Deep Thought, in 1988.{{Harvnb|Newborn|2002|pages=11–20}} After receiving his doctorate in 1989, Hsu and Murray Campbell joined IBM Research to continue their project to build a machine that could defeat a world chess champion.{{Harvnb|Hsu|2002|pages=92–95}} Their colleague Thomas Anantharaman briefly joined them at IBM before leaving for the finance industry and being replaced by programmer Arthur Joseph Hoane.{{Harvnb|Hsu|2002|page=107}}{{Harvnb|Hsu|2002|page=132}} Jerry Brody, a long-time employee of IBM Research, subsequently joined the team in 1990.{{Cite web |last=IBM |title=Deep Blue – Overview |url=http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/meet/html/d.4.2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212221319/http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/meet/html/d.4.2.html |archive-date=12 December 2008 |access-date=19 August 2008 |publisher=IBM Research}}

After Deep Thought's two-game 1989 loss to Kasparov, IBM held a contest to rename the chess machine: the winning name was "Deep Blue", submitted by Peter Fitzhugh Brown,{{Harvnb|Hsu|2002|pages=126–127}} was a play on IBM's nickname, "Big Blue".{{efn|IBM renamed "Deep Thought" because the name resembled the title of the hit pornographic film Deep Throat.{{Harvnb|Zuckerman|2019|page=178}}}} After a scaled-down version of Deep Blue played Grandmaster Joel Benjamin,{{Cite web |title=Joel Benjamin playing a practice game with Deep Blue |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/stl-431614f67f976/ |access-date=17 February 2020 |publisher=Computer History Museum |archive-date=17 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217172921/https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/stl-431614f67f976/ |url-status=live }} Hsu and Campbell decided that Benjamin was the expert they were looking for to help develop Deep Blue's opening book, so hired him to assist with the preparations for Deep Blue's matches against Garry Kasparov.{{Harvnb|Hsu|2002|pages=160–161, 174, 177, 193}} In 1995, a Deep Blue prototype played in the eighth World Computer Chess Championship, playing Wchess to a draw before ultimately losing to Fritz in round five, despite playing as White.{{Cite web |title=8th World Computer Chess Championship |url=http://www.grappa.univ-lille3.fr/icga/tournament.php?id=29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007035001/http://www.grappa.univ-lille3.fr/icga/tournament.php?id=29 |archive-date=7 October 2008 |access-date=4 June 2020 |website=ICGA Tournaments}}

Today, one of the two racks that made up Deep Blue is held by the National Museum of American History, having previously been displayed in an exhibit about the Information Age,{{Cite web |title=Deep Blue Supercomputer Tower |url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1005331 |access-date=1 February 2019 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202044640/http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1005331 |url-status=live }} while the other rack was acquired by the Computer History Museum in 1997, and is displayed in the Revolution exhibit's "Artificial Intelligence and Robotics" gallery.{{Cite web |last= |title=Deep Blue II |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/art-43305f13ef377/ |access-date=8 June 2020 |website=Computer History Museum |archive-date=4 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004174218/https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/art-43305f13ef377/ |url-status=live }} Several books were written about Deep Blue, among them Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion by Deep Blue developer Feng-hsiung Hsu.{{Harv|Hsu|2004}}

Deep Blue versus Kasparov

File:Kasparov Magath 1985 Hamburg-2.png playing a simultaneous exhibition in 1985]]

Subsequent to its predecessor Deep Thought's 1989 loss to Garry Kasparov, Deep Blue played Kasparov twice more. In the first game of the first match, which took place from 10 to 17 February 1996, Deep Blue became the first machine to win a chess game against a reigning world champion under regular time controls. However, Kasparov won three and drew two of the following five games, beating Deep Blue by 4–2 at the close of the match.{{cite book |last1=Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig |first1=Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig |title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |date=2020 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=9780134610993 |page=3 |edition=4th}}{{Harvnb| Newborn|1997|page=287}}

Deep Blue's hardware was subsequently upgraded,{{Cite news |last1=McPhee |first1=Michele |last2=Baker |first2=K.C. |last3=Siemaszko |first3=Corky |date=10 May 2015 |title=IBM's Deep Blue beats chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997 |language=en |work=Daily News |location=New York |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/kasparov-deep-blues-losingchess-champ-rooke-article-1.762264 |access-date=3 August 2017 |archive-date=3 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803171244/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/kasparov-deep-blues-losingchess-champ-rooke-article-1.762264 |url-status=live }}{{efn|Unofficially nicknamed "Deeper Blue".[http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/games/game2/html/c.2.shtml IBM Research Game 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019031508/http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/games/game2/html/c.2.shtml |date=19 October 2007 }}, Deep Blue IBM}} doubling its speed before it faced Kasparov again in May 1997, when it won the six-game rematch 3½–2½. Deep Blue won the deciding game after Kasparov failed to secure his position in the opening, thereby becoming the first computer system to defeat a reigning world champion in a match under standard chess tournament time controls.{{Cite magazine |last=Saletan |first=William |author-link=William Saletan |date=11 May 2007 |title=Chess Bump: The triumphant teamwork of humans and computers |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2166000/ |url-status=live |magazine=Slate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513035007/http://www.slate.com/id/2166000/ |archive-date=13 May 2007}} The version of Deep Blue that defeated Kasparov in 1997 typically searched to a depth of six to eight moves, and twenty or more moves in some situations.{{Harvnb|Campbell|1998|page=88}} David Levy and Monty Newborn estimate that each additional ply (half-move) of forward insight increases the playing strength between 50 and 70 Elo points.{{Harvnb|Levy|Newborn|1991|page=192}}

In the 44th move of the first game of their second match, unknown to Kasparov, a bug in Deep Blue's code led it to enter an unintentional loop, which it exited by taking a randomly selected valid move. Kasparov did not take this possibility into account, and misattributed the seemingly pointless move to "superior intelligence".{{Cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Jacob |year=2016 |title=Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence |url-status=dead |journal=Distillations |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=14–23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819152455/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence |archive-date=19 August 2018 |access-date=22 March 2018}} Subsequently, Kasparov experienced a decline in performance in the following game,{{Cite web |last=Plumer |first=Brad |date=26 September 2012 |title=Nate Silver's 'The Signal and the Noise' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2012/09/26/nate-silvers-the-signal-and-the-noise/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109100324/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/wp/2012/09/26/nate-silvers-the-signal-and-the-noise/ |archive-date=9 November 2012 |access-date=18 August 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post}} though he denies this was due to anxiety in the wake of Deep Blue's inscrutable move.{{Cite book |title=LC Catalog – Item Information (Full Record) |lccn=2017304768}}

After his loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw unusual creativity in the machine's moves, suggesting that during the second game, human chess players had intervened on behalf of the machine. IBM denied this, saying the only human intervention occurred between games.{{Cite web |last=Silver |first=Albert |date=19 February 2015 |title=Deep Blue's cheating move |url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/deep-blue-s-cheating-move |access-date=3 June 2020 |website=Chess Base |publisher=Chess News |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729034238/https://en.chessbase.com/post/deep-blue-s-cheating-move |url-status=live }}{{Harvnb|Hsu|2004|page=x}} Kasparov demanded a rematch, but IBM had dismantled Deep Blue after its victory and refused the rematch.{{Harvnb|Warwick|2004|page=95}} The rules allowed the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they said they used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play that were revealed during the course of the match. Kasparov requested printouts of the machine's log files, but IBM refused, although the company later published the logs on the Internet.{{Cite web |title=Deep Blue – Replay the Games |url=http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080701232743/http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml |archive-date=1 July 2008 |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=IBM Research}}

The 1997 tournament awarded a $700,000 first prize to the Deep Blue team and a $400,000 second prize to Kasparov. Carnegie Mellon University awarded an additional $100,000 to the Deep Blue team, a prize created by computer science professor Edward Fredkin in 1980 for the first computer program to beat a reigning world chess champion.{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna5191763 |title=How prizes pushed progress |first=Alan |last=Boyle |work=NBC News |date=16 June 2004 |access-date=23 January 2024}}

Aftermath

=Chess=

Kasparov initially called Deep Blue an "alien opponent", but later belittled it, stating that it was "as intelligent as your alarm clock".{{Cite news |date=11 April 2020 |title=On this day: Born April 13, 1963; Russian chess champion Garry Kasparov |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sport-anniversary-kasparov/on-this-day-born-april-13-1963-russian-chess-champion-garry-kasparov-idUSKCN21U060 |access-date=18 August 2021 |last=Baldwin |first=Alan |archive-date=2 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102103220/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sport-anniversary-kasparov/on-this-day-born-april-13-1963-russian-chess-champion-garry-kasparov-idUSKCN21U060 |url-status=live }} According to Martin Amis, two grandmasters who played Deep Blue agreed that it was "like a wall coming at you".{{Harvnb|Amis|2011|page=vii}}{{Harvnb|Barrat|2013|page=13}} Hsu had the rights to use the Deep Blue design independently of IBM, but also independently declined Kasparov's rematch offer.{{Cite journal |date=13 January 2000 |title=Owen Williams replies to Feng-hsiung Hsu |url=http://www.chess.co.uk/twic/owenfeng.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729131411/http://www.chess.co.uk/twic/owenfeng.html |archive-date=29 July 2012 |access-date=11 May 2012 |journal=The Week in Chess}} In 2003, the documentary film Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine investigated Kasparov's claims that IBM had cheated. In the film, some interviewees describe IBM's investment in Deep Blue as an effort to boost its stock value.{{Cite web |title='Game Over' : Did IBM Cheat Kasparov? |url=http://chess.about.com/library/weekly/aa05f04.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012234501/http://chess.about.com/library/weekly/aa05f04.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007 |access-date=4 June 2020 |website=About.com: Chess |date=June 2005}}

=Other games=

Following Deep Blue's victory, AI specialist Omar Syed designed a new game, Arimaa, which was intended to be very simple for humans but very difficult for computers to master;{{Harvnb|Syed|Syed|2003|page=138}}{{cite web |title=Deep Blue: Cultural Impacts |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/deepblue/impacts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330200410/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/deepblue/impacts/ |archive-date=30 March 2014 |access-date=5 June 2020 |work=IBM100 |publisher=IBM}} however, in 2015, computers proved capable of defeating strong Arimaa players.{{Harvnb|Wu|2015|page=19}} Since Deep Blue's victory, computer scientists have developed software for other complex board games with competitive communities. The AlphaGo series (AlphaGo, AlphaGo Zero, AlphaZero) defeated top Go players in 2016–2017.{{cite journal|last1=Silver|first1=David|last2=Hubert|first2=Thomas|last3=Schrittwieser|first3=Julian|last4=Antonoglou|first4=Ioannis|last5=Lai|first5=Matthew|last6=Guez|first6=Arthur|last7=Lanctot|first7=Marc|last8=Sifre|first8=Laurent|last9=Kumaran|first9=Dharshan|last10=Graepel|first10=Thore|last11=Lillicrap|first11=Timothy|display-authors=3|date=6 December 2018|title=A general reinforcement learning algorithm that masters chess, shogi, and Go through self-play|url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10069050/1/alphazero_preprint.pdf|journal=Science|volume=362|issue=6419|pages=1140–1144|doi=10.1126/science.aar6404|pmid=30523106|bibcode=2018Sci...362.1140S|s2cid=54457125|access-date=4 January 2022|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901220135/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10069050/1/alphazero_preprint.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite web|date=27 May 2017|title=Google's AlphaGo retires on top after humbling world No. 1|url=https://phys.org/news/2017-05-google-alphago-humbling-world.html|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2022|website=phys.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528000109/https://phys.org/news/2017-05-google-alphago-humbling-world.html |archive-date=28 May 2017}}

=Computer science=

Computer scientists such as Deep Blue developer Campbell believed that playing chess was a good measurement for the effectiveness of artificial intelligence, and by beating a world champion chess player, IBM showed that they had made significant progress.{{Cite news |last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |title=20 Years after Deep Blue: How AI Has Advanced Since Conquering Chess |language=en |work=Scientific American |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/ |access-date=29 June 2018 |date=2 June 2017 |archive-date=30 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630025017/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/ |url-status=live }} Deep Blue is also responsible for the popularity of using games as a display medium for artificial intelligence, as in the cases of IBM Watson or AlphaGo.{{cite journal | doi=10.3390/ai3020021 | doi-access=free | title=Shifting Perspectives on AI Evaluation: The Increasing Role of Ethics in Cooperation | year=2022 | last1=Barbierato | first1=Enrico | last2=Zamponi | first2=Maria Enrica | journal=AI | volume=3 | issue=2 | pages=331–352 | hdl=10807/259716 | hdl-access=free }}

While Deep Blue, with its capability of evaluating 200 million positions per second,{{cite news|last=Strogatz|first=Steven|date=26 December 2018|title=One Giant Step for a Chess-Playing Machine|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/science/chess-artificial-intelligence.html|access-date=4 January 2022|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104004951/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/science/chess-artificial-intelligence.html|url-status=live}} was the first computer to face a world chess champion in a formal match, it was a then-state-of-the-art expert system, relying upon rules and variables defined and fine-tuned by chess masters and computer scientists. In contrast, current chess engines such as Leela Chess Zero typically use reinforcement machine learning systems that train a neural network to play, developing its own internal logic rather than relying upon rules defined by human experts.

In a November 2006 match between Deep Fritz and world chess champion Vladimir Kramnik, the program ran on a computer system containing a dual-core Intel Xeon 5160 CPU, capable of evaluating only 8 million positions per second, but searching to an average depth of 17 to 18 plies (half-moves) in the middlegame thanks to heuristics; it won 4–2.{{cite news |last=Schulz |first=André |title=Das letzte Match Mensch gegen Maschine? |trans-title=The last man vs machine match? |url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/the-last-man-vs-machine-match- |language=de |newspaper=Der Spiegel |translator-last=ChessBase Chess News |date=23 November 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016172318/http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3504 |archive-date=16 October 2012 |access-date=18 August 2021}}{{Cite news |date=5 December 2006 |title=Chess champion loses to computer |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6212076.stm |url-status=live |access-date=4 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231112514/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6212076.stm |archive-date=31 December 2007}}

Design

File:One of Deep Blue's processors (2586060990).jpg

= Software =

Deep Blue ran under the AIX operating system, and its chess playing program was written in C.

Its evaluation function was initially written in a generalized form, with many to-be-determined parameters (e.g., how important is a safe king position compared to a space advantage in the center, etc.). Values for these parameters were determined by analyzing thousands of master games. The evaluation function was then split into 8,000 parts, many of them designed for special positions. The opening book encapsulated more than 4,000 positions and 700,000 grandmaster games, while the endgame database contained many six-piece endgames and all five and fewer piece endgames. An additional database named the "extended book" summarizes entire games played by Grandmasters. The system combines its searching ability of 200 million chess positions per second with summary information in the extended book to select opening moves.{{Harvnb|Campbell|1999|page=66}}

Before the second match, the program's rules were fine-tuned by grandmaster Joel Benjamin. The opening library was provided by grandmasters Miguel Illescas, John Fedorowicz, and Nick de Firmian.{{Cite news |last=Weber |first=Bruce |date=18 May 1997 |title=What Deep Blue Learned in Chess School |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/18/nyregion/what-deep-blue-learned-in-chess-school.html |access-date=4 July 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517052341/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/18/nyregion/what-deep-blue-learned-in-chess-school.html |url-status=live }} When Kasparov requested that he be allowed to study other games that Deep Blue had played so as to better understand his opponent, IBM refused, leading Kasparov to study many popular PC chess games to familiarize himself with computer gameplay.{{Cite web |last=Weber |first=Bruce |date=5 May 1997 |title=Computer Defeats Kasparov, Stunning the Chess Experts |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/05/nyregion/computer-defeats-kasparov-stunning-the-chess-experts.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=18 May 2020 |archive-date=24 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424155122/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/05/nyregion/computer-defeats-kasparov-stunning-the-chess-experts.html |url-status=live }}

= Hardware =

Deep Blue used custom VLSI chips to parallelize the alpha–beta search algorithm,{{Harvnb|Hsu|Campbell|Hoane|1995}} p. 240 an example of symbolic AI.{{Cite web |last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |title=20 Years after Deep Blue: How AI Has Advanced Since Conquering Chess |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/ |access-date=3 January 2022 |website=Scientific American |language=en |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220224453/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/ |url-status=live }} The system derived its playing strength mainly from brute force computing power. It was an IBM RS/6000 SP, a supercomputer with a massively parallel architecture based on 30 PowerPC 604e processors and 480 custom 600 nm CMOS VLSI "chess chips" designed to execute the chess-playing expert system, as well as FPGAs intended to allow patching of the VLSIs (which ultimately went unused) all housed in two cabinets. The chess chip has four parts: the move generator, the smart-move stack, the evaluation function, and the search control. The move generator is a 8x8 combinational logic circuit, a chess board in miniature.{{cite journal |last1=Hsu |first1=Feng-hsiung |title=IBM's Deep Blue Chess Grandmaster Chips |journal=IEEE Micro |date=March–April 1999 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=70–81 |doi=10.1109/40.755469 |url=http://www.csis.pace.edu/~ctappert/dps/pdf/ai-chess-deep.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041228122752/http://www.csis.pace.edu/~ctappert/dps/pdf/ai-chess-deep.pdf |access-date=11 January 2022|archive-date=28 December 2004 }}{{cite news |last1=Festa |first1=Paul |title=IBM upgrades Deep Blue |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/ibm-upgrades-deep-blue/ |access-date=11 January 2022 |publisher=Clnet |date=2 September 1997 |archive-date=3 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103234251/https://www.cnet.com/news/ibm-upgrades-deep-blue/ |url-status=live }}{{Harvnb|Gonsalves|2017|page=234}}{{Cite book |last=Hsu |first=Feng-hsiung |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aBMEAAAQBAJ |title=Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer That Defeated the World Chess Champion |date=2022-05-03 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-23514-1 |language=en}}

In 1997, Deep Blue was upgraded again to become the 259th most powerful supercomputer according to the TOP500 list, achieving 11.38 GFLOPS on the parallel high performance LINPACK benchmark. Deeper Blue was capable of evaluating 200 million positions per second, twice as many as the 1996 version.{{Cite web |date=13 February 2009 |title=TOP500 List – June 1997 (201–300) |url=http://www.top500.org/list/1997/06/300 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213103245/http://www.top500.org/list/1997/06/300 |archive-date=13 February 2009 |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=Top 500}}

References

=Notes=

=Citations=

=Bibliography=

{{Cite book |last=Amis |first=Martin |chapter=Foreword |title=The Quotable Hitchens: From Alcohol to Zionism |date=2011 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-306-81983-4 |editor-last=Mann |editor-first=Windsor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BG6Rc80E8toC |access-date=18 August 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329192008/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Quotable_Hitchens/BG6Rc80E8toC |url-status=live }}
{{Cite book |last=Barrat |first=James |title=Our Final Invention |date=2013 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |edition=Kindle |isbn=978-0-312-62237-4}}
{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Murray |title=HAL's Legacy: 2001's Computer as Dream and Reality |publisher=MIT Press |year=1998 |editor-last=Stork |editor-first=D. G. |location=Cambridge, Mass |chapter=An Enjoyable Game |isbn=978-0-262-19378-8}}
{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Murray |title=Knowledge discovery in deep blue |journal=Communications of the ACM |doi=10.1145/319382.319396 |year=1999 |volume=42 |issue=11 |pages=65–67 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |s2cid=176390|doi-access=free }}
{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Murray |last2=Hoane | first2=A. Joseph Jr. |last3=Hsu |first3=Feng-hsiung |year=2002 |title=Deep Blue |journal=Artificial Intelligence |volume=134 |issue=1–2 |pages=57–83 |doi=10.1016/S0004-3702(01)00129-1 |doi-access=free |issn=0004-3702 |publisher=Elsevier}}
{{Cite book |last=Gonsalves |first=Tad |editor-last=Khosrow-Pour |editor-first=Mehdi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kvIoDwAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology |date=2017 |chapter=The Summers and Winters of Artificial Intelligence |pages=229–238 |volume=1 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-2256-0 |access-date=19 June 2020 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329192009/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Information_Science_and/kvIoDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}
{{Cite conference |last1=Hsu |first1=Feng-hsiung |last2=Campbell |first2=Murray |last3=Hoane | first3=A. Joseph Jr. |year=1995 |chapter=Deep Blue System Overview |chapter-url=http://www.top-5000.nl/ps/Deep%20blue%20system%20overview.pdf |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |pages=240–244 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017043132/http://www.top-5000.nl/ps/Deep%20blue%20system%20overview.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2018 |url-status=usurped |title=Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Supercomputing |doi=10.1145/224538.224567 |via=top-5000.nl |conference=1995 International Conference on Supercomputing |isbn=978-0-89791-728-5 }}
{{Cite book |last=Hsu |first=Feng-hsiung |title=Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-691-09065-8 |edition=1st}}
{{Cite book |last=Hsu |first=Feng-hsiung |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOk9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR10 |title=Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion |year=2004 |orig-year=2002 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11818-5 |edition=revised |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322035626/https://books.google.com/books?id=WOk9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR10 |url-status=live }}
{{Cite book |last=King |first=Daniel |title=Kasparov v. Deeper Blue: The Ultimate Man v. Machine Challenge |publisher=Batsford |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7134-8322-2 |author-link=Daniel King (chess player)}}
{{Cite book |last1=Levy |first1=David |title=How Computers Play Chess |last2=Newborn |first2=Monty |publisher=Computer Science Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7167-8121-9}}
{{Cite book |last=Newborn |first=Monty |title=Kasparov versus Deep Blue: Computer Chess Comes of Age |publisher=Springer |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-387-94820-1 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXjBwAAQBAJ |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818060021/https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXjBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
{{Cite book |last=Newborn |first=Monty |url=https://archive.org/details/springer_10.1007-978-0-387-21790-1 |title=Deep Blue: An Artificial Intelligence Milestone |publisher=Springer |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-387-95461-5 }}
{{Cite journal |last1=Syed |first1=Omar |last2=Syed |first2=Aamir |year=2003 |title=Arimaa – a New Game Designed to be Difficult for Computers |journal=International Computer Games Association Journal |volume=26 |number=2 |pages=138–139 |url=http://arimaa.com/arimaa/papers/030801ICGA/ |via=arimaa.com |access-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106232533/http://arimaa.com/arimaa/papers/030801ICGA/ |archive-date=6 November 2020 |url-status=live |publisher=Leiden University |doi=10.3233/ICG-2003-26213 |url-access=subscription }}
{{Cite book |last=Warwick |first=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ya1yGJOapMC |title=I, Cyborg |date=2004 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-07215-4 |access-date=17 May 2020 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818060020/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ya1yGJOapMC |url-status=live }}
{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=David J. |title=Designing a Winning Arimaa Program |pages=19–40 |volume=38 |number=1 |year=2015 |journal=International Computer Games Association Journal |url=http://arimaa.com/arimaa/papers/150301ICGA/ICGA38-1.pdf |publisher=Leiden University |doi=10.3233/ICG-2015-38104 |via=arimaa.com |access-date=18 August 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113224554/http://arimaa.com/arimaa/papers/150301ICGA/ICGA38-1.pdf |url-status=live }}
{{Cite book |last=Zuckerman |first=Gregory |title=The Man Who Solved the Market: How Jim Simons Launched the Quant Revolution |publisher=Penguin/Portfolio |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-7352-1798-0 |edition=1st (hbk) |author-link=Gregory Zuckerman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2vm0DwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 August 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818173210/https://books.google.com/books?id=2vm0DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}

External links

{{Chessgames player|id=29912|name=Deep Blue}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20070407074301/http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/ IBM.com], IBM Research pages on Deep Blue
[https://web.archive.org/web/20080701232743/http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml IBM.com], IBM page with the computer logs from the games
[https://web.archive.org/web/20040406094751/http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/feng.html Chesscenter.com], Open letter from Feng-hsiung Hsu on the aborted rematch with Kasparov, The Week in Chess Magazine, issue 270, 10 January 2000
[https://web.archive.org/web/20090531080948/http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/owenfeng.html Chesscenter.com], Open Letter from Owen Williams (Garry Kasparov's manager), responding to Feng-hsiung Hsu, 13 January 2000
[https://web.archive.org/web/20050520043104/http://sjeng.org:80/ftp/deepblue.pdf Sjeng.org], Deep Blue system described by Feng-hsiung Hsu, Murray Campbell and A. Joseph Hoane Jr. (PDF)
[https://web.archive.org/web/20070701141111/http://www.chessclub.com/resources/articles/interview_crazybird1.html Chessclub.com], ICC Interview with Feng-Hsiung Hsu, an online interview with Hsu in 2002 (annotated)