Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples#Defining genocide

{{Genocide of Indigenous peoples}}

File:Massacre_at_Skull_Hole,_Mistake_Creek,_Australia.png.|222x222px]]

In 1948, the Genocide Convention defined genocide as any of five "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group". These five acts include killing members of the group, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, imposing living conditions intended to destroy the group, preventing births, and forcibly transferring children out of the group.{{Cite web |title=Genocide Background |url=https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/genocide.shtml |access-date= |website=United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417034403/https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/genocide.shtml |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=White |first=Richard |date=17 August 2016 |title=Naming America's Own Genocide |language=en-US |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/naming-americas-own-genocide/ |url-status=live |access-date=2023-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115235807/https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/naming-americas-own-genocide/ |archive-date=15 January 2023 |quote=In defining genocide, Madley relies on the criteria of the United Nations Genocide Convention, which has served as the basis for the genocide trials of defendants from Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia and has been employed at the International Criminal Court in The Hague.}} Additional scholarly definitions have been used to examine the diverse history of genocide,{{Cite book |last=Charny |first=Israel W. |title=Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions |date=February 1997 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-1616-5 |editor-last=Andreopoulos |editor-first=George J. |pages=74–76 |language=en |chapter=Toward a Generic Definition of Genocide |quote=Charny offeres a definition of colonial genocide: "Genocide that is undertaken or even allowed in the course of or incidental to the purposes of achieving a goal of colonization or development of a territory belonging to an indigenous people, or any other consolidation of political or economic power through mass killing of those perceived to be standing in the way." |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5I34DePIxYC&pg=PA64}} including those that include cultural and ethnic genocide as per Raphael Lemkin.{{cite journal|access-date=2023-09-26|date=2019-06-17|doi=10.18601/16578651.n25.03|issn=2346-2159|language=es|number=25|pages=29–54|periodical=Opera|title=Pueblos indígenas como víctimas de los genocidios pasados y actuales|s2cid=197689643|url=https://revistas.uexternado.edu.co/index.php/opera/article/view/6016|doi-access=free|archive-date=26 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926082645/https://revistas.uexternado.edu.co/index.php/opera/article/view/6016|url-status=live}}

Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky have argued that definitions of key terms, as well as the attention a society provides to a specific issue, such as genocide, is the product of mass media, as they mention in Manufacturing Consent: "A propaganda system will consistently portray people abused in enemy states as worthy victims, whereas those treated with equal or greater severity by its own government or clients will be unworthy".{{Cite book |last1=Herman |first1=Edward S. |title=Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media |last2=Chomsky |first2=Noam |date=1988 |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=978-0-394-54926-2 |page=37 }} Thus, Chomsky views the term genocide as one that is used by those in positions of political power and media prominence against their rivals, but people in positions of power will avoid using the term to describe their own actions, past and present.{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Adam |date=7 May 2020 |title=Chomsky and Genocide |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention|volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=76–104 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1738 |s2cid=218959996 |doi-access=free }}

Bradley Campbell has proposed a theory of genocide as a function of minority status, social segregation, low population size, and lack of visibility. Further factors include marginalization, the lack of political representation, and lower economic or social status.{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Bradley |date=June 2009 |title=Genocide as Social Control |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Theory |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=150–172 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x |issn=0735-2751 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212122947/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x |archive-date=12 December 2022 |access-date=24 December 2023 |quote=[G]enocide varies directly with immobility, cultural distance, relational distance, functional independence, and inequality; and it is greater in a downward direction than in an upward or lateral direction. This theory of genocide can be applied to numerous genocides throughout history, and it is capable of ordering much of the known variation in genocide - such as when and where it occurs, how severe it is, and who participates.}}

In the latter part of the 20th century, the genocide of Indigenous peoples attracted more attention from the international community, including scholars and human rights organizations.{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Adam |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-93797-2 |page=224}}

American academic and activist Gregory Stanton has described ten stages of genocide, in which the ninth stage is extermination and the tenth is denial. During this final stage, Stanton argues that individuals and government may "deny that these crimes meet the definition of genocide", "question whether intent to destroy a group can be proven", and "often blame what happened on the victims".{{cite web |last1=Stanton |first1=Gregory |year=2020 |title=The Ten Stages of Genocide |url=http://genocidewatch.net/genocide-2/8-stages-of-genocide/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200514224350/https://www.genocidewatch.com/ten-stages-of-genocide |archive-date=14 May 2020 |website=Genocide Watch }} The concept of denial as the final stage of genocide has been discussed in more detail in the 2021 textbook Denial: The Final Stage of Genocide?{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003010708/denial-final-stage-genocide-john-cox-amal-khoury-sarah-minslow |title=Denial: The Final Stage of Genocide? |date=2021-09-22 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-01070-8 |editor=John Cox |editor2=Amal Khoury |editor3=Sarah Minslow |location=London |doi=10.4324/9781003010708 |s2cid=238785913 |access-date=22 December 2023 |archive-date=22 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222192416/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003010708/denial-final-stage-genocide-john-cox-amal-khoury-sarah-minslow |url-status=live }} Stanton also indicates that stages often co-occur; the first eight stages include classification, symbolization, discrimination, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, and persecution. Early denial of genocide often occurred through these stages. For instance, American historian David Stannard explained that European colonizers "purposefully and systematically dehumaniz[ed] the people they were exterminating".{{Cite book |last=Stannard |first=David E. |url=http://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan |title=American Holocaust: the conquest of the New World |date=1993 |publisher=New York: Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-508557-0 |pages=218 |quote=If the assertions of Ortiz and others regarding the habits of the Indians were fabrications, they were not fabrications without design. From the Spaniards' enumerations of what they claimed were the disgusting food customs of the Indians (including cannibalism, but also the consumption of insects and other items regarded as unfit for human diets) to the Indians' supposed nakedness and absence of agriculture, their sexual deviance and licentiousness, their brutish ignorance, their lack of advanced weaponry and iron, and their irremediable idolatry, the conquering Europeans were purposefully and systematically dehumanizing the people they were exterminating.}}

Further, South African sociologist Leo Kuper has described denial as a routine defense, referring to it as a consequence of the Genocide Convention. He argues that denial has become more prevalent because genocide is considered "an international crime with potentially significant sanctions by way of punishment, claims for reparation, and restitution of territorial rights".{{cite journal |last1=Kuper |first1=Leo |date=1991 |title=When Denial Becomes Routine |journal=Social Education |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=121–23 |oclc=425009321 |id={{ERIC|EJ427728}} {{ProQuest|210628314}}}}

According to Robert K. Hitchcock, editor of Modern Genocide, "the destruction of Indigenous peoples and their cultures has been a policy of many of the world's governments, although most government spokespersons argue that the disappearance or disruption of Indigenous societies was not purposeful but rather occurred inadvertently."{{Cite book |last=Hitchcock |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ |title=Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-61069-364-6 |editor-last=Bartrop |editor-first=Paul R. |pages=4239–4246 |language=en |chapter=Indigenous Populations |editor-last2=Jacobs |editor-first2=Steven Leonard |access-date=19 April 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173755/https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} Despite this, in 2013, Colin Leach et al. found that perpetrator groups denied their group's responsibility, showed low levels of collective guilt, and had low support for reparation policies.{{Cite journal |last1=Leach |first1=Colin Wayne |last2=Zeineddine |first2=Fouad Bou |last3=Čehajić - Clancy |first3=Sabina |date=March 2013 |title=Moral Immemorial: The Rarity of Self-Criticism for Previous Generations' Genocide or Mass Violence |journal=Journal of Social Issues |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=34–53 |doi=10.1111/josi.12002 |quote=|doi-access=free }}

According to a survey conducted between 2016 and 2018, "36% of Americans almost certainly believe that the United States is guilty of committing genocide against Native Americans."{{Citation |last=Stanley |first=Michelle A. |title=Denial: The Final Stage of Genocide? |date=2021 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003010708-8/beyond-erasure-indigenous-genocide-denial-settler-colonialism-michelle-stanley |work= |pages=131, 135 |editor-last=Cox |editor-first=John |access-date=2023-12-25 |chapter=Beyond erasure: Indigenous genocide denial and settler colonialism |place=London |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781003010708-8 |isbn=978-1-003-01070-8|s2cid=238796035 |url-access=subscription }} Indigenous author Michelle A. Stanley writes that "Indigenous genocide is largely denied, erased, relegated to the distant past, or presented as inevitable". She writes that Indigenous genocide is depicted broadly, without touching on the pattern of a series of separate genocides against multiple distinct tribal nations. Seneca scholar Melissa Michal Slocum said that Native American genocide has been denied by the United States.{{Cite journal |last=Slocum |first=Melissa Michal |date=2018-12-30 |title=INTRODUCTION: There Is No Question of American Indian Genocide |url=https://journals.kent.ac.uk/index.php/transmotion/article/view/651 |journal=Transmotion |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.22024/UniKent/03/tm.651 |issn=2059-0911}} File:Battle of Washita - Sand Creek Massacre by Frederic Remington.png, 1864]]According to North American Genocides, edited by Clarke et al., many American scholars deny Indigenous genocide in the Americas, despite agreement from international scholars that it occurred.{{Citation |title=North American Genocide Denial |date=2019 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/north-american-genocides/north-american-genocide-denial/BEC6839FC79900DF200BD6667170A2B1 |work=North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law |pages=8–25 |editor-last=Clarke |editor-first=Alan W. |access-date=2023-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910011524/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/north-american-genocides/north-american-genocide-denial/BEC6839FC79900DF200BD6667170A2B1 |url-status=live |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108348461.002 |isbn=978-1-108-42550-6 |s2cid=242597726 |archive-date=10 September 2021 |editor2-last=Whitt |editor2-first=Laurelyn|url-access=subscription }} American historian Ned Blackhawk said that nationalist historiographies have been forms of denial that erase the history of destruction of European colonial expansion. Blackhawk said that near consensus has emerged that genocide against some Indigenous peoples took place in North America following colonization.Blackhawk, Ned; Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe, eds. (2023). Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Pp 38,44. The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

Some historians do not consider that genocide of Indigenous peoples took place in North America, including James Axtell, Robert Utley, William Rubinstein, Guenter Lewy and Gary Anderson, although some call the atrocities another name such as ethnic cleansing.{{Cite book |last=Hitchcock |first=Robert K. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1374189062 |title=Denial of genocides in the twenty-first century |date=2023 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-1-4962-3554-1 |editor-last=Der Matossian |editor-first=Bedross |location=[Lincoln] |pages=33, 35, 36, 43, 44, 46, 47 |chapter=Denial of Genocide of Indigenous People in the United States |oclc=1374189062 |quote=Genocide scholars Susan Chavez Cameron and Loan T. Phan see American Indians as having gone through the ten stages of genocide identified by Stanton. Failure to acknowledge genocide has harmful social and psychological impacts on the victims of genocide, and it leaves the perpetrators in positions of power vis-a-vis others in their societies. As Agnieszka Bienczyk-Missala points out, denial or negation relating to mass crimes consists of denying scientifically proven historical facts by deliberately concealing them and spreading false and misleading information. She goes on to say that the consequences of negationism are of ethical, legal, social, and political character.}} Other scholars, including Elazar Barkan and Walter L. Hixson agree with the sentiment that those in the Americas deny the genocide of the regions' Indigenous populations.{{Cite book |last=Barkan |first=Elazar |url=http://archive.org/details/specterofgenocid00robe |title=The specter of genocide : mass murder in historical perspective |date=2003 |publisher=New York : Cambridge University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-521-82063-9 |editor-last=Gellately |editor-first=Robert |pages=131, 138–139 |chapter=Chapter 6. Genocides of Indigenous Peoples |quote=The United States had its own long-standing boarding schools for Native American children with a similar extent of abuse. However, the term Education for Extinction is yet to capture public attention as a human rights issue. The American indigenous dilemma is far less central to U.S. mainstream politics than in any of the other ex-British colonies. The notion of genocide, while warranted as much or more than in those other countries, is still confined to radical writers. It is intriguing, indeed, that no mainstream American historians have written about the fate of the Native Americans as genocide. (p131) Thus, the European guilt was at least a collective myopia, a deep failure to acknowledge the equality of indigenous people and the vast number and varied array of atrocities and genocides inflicted upon them. More likely this has been a willful denial of responsibility and guilt, hiding behind the structural explanation of biological agents. It is time to reverse course and acknowledge the responsibility and extent of the destruction purposefully inflicted by colonialism, although not upon all indigenous peoples, and not in similar fashion. (p138-139) |editor-last2=Kiernan |editor-first2=Ben}}{{Cite book |last=Hixson |first=Walter L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tiKuAgAAQBAJ |title=American Settler Colonialism: A History |date=2013-12-05 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-37426-4 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=8, 11, 12, 62 |language=en |quote=Historical distortion and denial are endemic to settler colonies. In order for the settler colony to establish a collective usable past, legitimating stories must be created and persistently affirmed as a means of naturalizing a new historical narrative. A national mythology displaces the indigenous past...Becoming the indigene required not only cleansing of the land, either through killing or removing, but sanitizing the historical record as well. |access-date=2 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222192410/https://books.google.com/books?id=tiKuAgAAQBAJ |archive-date=22 December 2023 |url-status=live}}

On the Columbus Quincentenary, American historian David Stannard highlighted the numerous celebrations and festivities surrounding Columbus alongside "American and European denials of culpability for the most thoroughgoing genocide in the history of the world have assumed a new guise."{{Cite magazine |last=Stannard |first=David E. |date=1992 |title=Genocide in the Americas |magazine=The Nation |volume=255 |issue=12 |pages=430–434}} A similar issue arose when Lynne Cheney, then chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities, rejected a television project celebrating the anniversary, highlighted the proposal's use of the word "genocide". Cheney stated, "We might be interested in funding a film that debated that issue, but we are not about to fund a film that asserts it. Columbus was guilty of many sins, but he was not Hitler."{{cite news |last1=Gamarekian |first1=Barbara |date=10 April 1991 |title=Grants Rejected; Scholars Grumble |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/10/news/grants-rejected-scholars-grumble.html |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330072652/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/10/news/grants-rejected-scholars-grumble.html |archive-date=30 March 2023}}

This particular issue, the comparison to The Holocaust, has been raised by others, as well, with American historian David Stannard pointing to The Holocaust's prominent position in the public eye compared to the global ignorance of atrocities in the Americas.{{cite book |last=Stannard |first=David |title=Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-8133-3686-2 |editor-last1=Rosenbaum |editor-first1=Alan S |location=Abingdon, England |pages=330–331 |doi=10.4324/9780429495137 |quote=The willful maintenance of public ignorance regarding the genocidal and racist horrors against indigenous peoples that have been and are being perpetrated by many nations of the Western Hemisphere, including the United States—which contributes to the construction of a museum to commemorate genocide only if the killing occurred half a world away—is consciously aided and abetted and legitimized by the actions of the Jewish uniqueness advocates we have been discussing....and so all people of conscience must be on guard against Holocaust deniers who, in many cases, would like nothing better than to see mass violence against Jews start again. By that same token, however, as we consider the terrible history and the ongoing campaigns of genocide against the indigenous inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere... |editor-last2=Charny |editor-first2=Israel W}} File:Native_American_prisoners_at_the_old_Fort_St._Augustine_Florida_1875.jpg, 1875.]]Howard Zinn,{{Cite book |last=Zinn |first=Howard |url=http://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof00zinn_0 |title=A People's History of the United States |date=2005 |publisher=HarperPerennial Modern Classics |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-06-083865-2 |quote=From first grade to graduate school, I was given no inkling that the landing of Christopher Columbus in the New World initiated a genocide, in which the indigenous population of Hispaniola was annihilated. Or that this was just the first stage of what was presented as a benign expansion of the new nation (Louisiana "Purchase," Florida "Purchase," Mexican "Cession"), but which involved the violent expulsion of Indians, accompanied by unspeakable atrocities, from every square mile of the continent, until there was nothing to do with them but herd them into reservations. (Afterword)}} Susan Cameron,{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Susan Chavez |last2=Phan |first2=Loan T. |date=2018 |title=Ten stages of American Indian genocide |url=https://journal.sipsych.org/index.php/IJP/article/view/876 |url-status=live |journal=Revista Interamericana de Psicología |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=28 |doi=10.30849/rip/ijp.v52i1.876 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129074504/https://journal.sipsych.org/index.php/IJP/article/view/876 |archive-date=29 November 2022 |access-date=28 March 2023}} and Kirsten DyckDyck, Kirsten. (2016) Confronting genocide denial in US history textbooks. In [https://books.google.com/books/about/History_Can_Bite.html?id=JfxSDQAAQBAJ History Can Bite : History Education in Divided and Postwar Societies]. Denise Bentrovato / Karina V. Korostelina / Martina Schulze (eds.) pp 201. V&R unipres. "Minimizing the violence of the European conquest, as some of these textbook authors do, is simply genocide denial." have claimed that in American history textbooks, America's history of abuse against Indigenous peoples is mostly ignored or presented from the state's point of view.

In The Other Slavery, American historian Andrés Reséndez compares the thousands of books written about the slavery of Africans to the couple dozen books about Indigenous slavery and argues that the latter has "almost completely erased from our historical memory". He argues that African slavery is more widely accepted because it was legalized and therefore recorded, whereas Indigenous slavery was largely illegal; further, because African slaves needed to be transported, settlers kept record of ship manifests.{{Cite book |last=Reséndez |first=Andrés |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-544-60267-0 |pages=12, 16, 262 |language=en |access-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222192410/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ |archive-date=22 December 2023 |url-status=live}}

Canadian political scientist Adam Jones has said that the historical revisionism has been so thorough that in some cases, the Americas have been depicted as unpopulated before European colonization.{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |title=Crimes Against Humanity: a Beginner's Guide |publisher=Oneworld |year=2008 |isbn=9781851686018 |location=Oxford |pages=33 |language=EN |quote=Through a devastating combination of genocidal massacre, disease, malnutrition, and slave labor, perhaps ninety-five percent of the indigenous population of the Americas was wiped out following the arrival of Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, Danish, Dutch, and Russian forces. In some places, such as Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), the obliteration of the native population – partly purposive, partly unexpected via infectious disease – was nearly total. The killing was rationalized by myths of civilizational superiority and the inevitability of indigenous peoples' disappearance. Sometimes the historical revisionism was so radical as to depict colonized territories as virgin lands, effectively free of indigenous populations at the time of Western 'discovery'.}}

Other claims against the genocide of Indigenous people of the Americas deal with the natural superiority of the European colonizers. For instance, Stannard has argued that British journalist Christopher Hitchens's 1992 essay, "Minority Report", supported social Darwinism.{{cite book |last=Stannard |first=David |title=Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-8133-3686-2 |editor-last1=Rosenbaum |editor-first1=Alan S |location=Abingdon, England |page=298 |doi=10.4324/9780429495137 |quote=To Hitchens, anyone who refused to join him in celebrating with "great vim and gusto" the annihilation of the native peoples of the Americas was (in his words) self-hating, ridiculous, ignorant, and sinister. People who regard critically the genocide that was carried out in America's past, Hitchens continued, are simply reactionary since such grossly inhuman atrocities "happen to be the way history is made". And thus "to complain about them is as empty as complaint about climatic, geological or tectonic shift". Moreover, he added, such violence is worth glorifying since it more often than not has been for the long-term betterment of humankind, as in the United States today, where the extermination of the Native Americans has brought about "a nearly boundless epoch of opportunity and innovation". |editor-last2=Charny |editor-first2=Israel W}}

File:"Protecting_The_Settlers"_Illustration_by_JR_Browne_for_his_work_"The_Indians_Of_California"_1864.jpg at Round Valley, California.]]

Robert K. Hitchcock says that during the California genocide, "California state legislators, administrators, Indian agents, and townspeople denied that a genocide was happening."

Continuing into the 21st century, Benjamin Madley has stated that the California genocide has "too often concealed, denied, or suppressed".{{Cite journal |last=Madley |first=Benjamin |date=2015 |title=Reexamining the American Genocide Debate: Meaning, Historiography, and New Methods |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=120 |issue=1 |page=106,107,110,111,120,132,133,134 |doi=10.1093/ahr/120.1.98 |jstor=43696337 |quote=The study of massacres defined here as predominantly one-sided intentional killings of five or more noncombatants or relatively poorly armed or disarmed combatants, often by surprise and with little or no quarter. |doi-access=free}} This can be evidenced via social science and history textbooks approved by the California Department of Education that ignore the history of this genocide.{{Cite journal |last1=Fenelon |first1=James V. |last2=Trafzer |first2=Clifford E. |date=4 December 2013 |title=From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=3–29 |doi=10.1177/0002764213495045 |s2cid=145377834}}{{Cite journal |last1=Trafzer |first1=Clifford E. |last2=Lorimer |first2=Michelle |date=January 2014 |title=Silencing California Indian Genocide in Social Studies Texts |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764213495032 |url-status=live |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=64–82 |doi=10.1177/0002764213495032 |issn=0002-7642 |s2cid=144356070 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510100005/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764213495032 |archive-date=10 May 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |last=Schilling |first=Vincent |date=2015-09-12 |title=Native Student and Family Disappointed After Meeting With University President Re Native Genocide |url=https://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/09/12/native-student-and-family-disappointed-after-meeting-university-president-re-native |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205093854/https://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/09/12/native-student-and-family-disappointed-after-meeting-university-president-re-native |archive-date=5 December 2023 |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Indian Country Today Media Network.com}}

In 2015, English writer and political activist George Monbiot argued that when the Catholic Church canonized 18th-century Christian missionary Junípero Serra, who "founded the system of labour camps that expedited California's cultural genocide", they were, in effect, denying the genocide.{{Cite web |date=2013-11-18 |title=Double Erasure |url=https://www.monbiot.com/2013/11/18/double-erasure/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205122432/https://www.monbiot.com/2013/11/18/double-erasure/ |archive-date=5 December 2023 |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=George Monbiot |language=en-GB}}{{Cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Tai S |last2=Kelton |first2=Paul |date=2020 |title=Germs, Genocides, and America's Indigenous Peoples |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=144383328&site=eds-live&scope=site |url-status=live |journal=Journal of American History |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=52–76 |doi=10.1093/jahist/jaaa008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220103335/https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=144383328&site=eds-live&scope=site |archive-date=20 December 2023 |access-date=5 December 2023 |doi-access=free|url-access=subscription }}

Jeffrey Ostler points out that Indigenous genocide has been denied in California, but Ostler places the process seen during the California gold rush as a genocide given its structural nature.{{Cite journal |last=Ostler |first=Jeffrey |date=2021-06-01 |title=Denial of Genocide in the California Gold Rush Era: The Case of Gary Clayton Anderson |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/33p0786x |journal=American Indian Culture and Research Journal |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=81–102 |doi=10.17953/aicrj.45.2.ostler |issn=0161-6463 |via="Even under a conservative definition limited to “extermination,” genocide applies to the experience of many of California’s Indigenous peoples.”}}

{{further|Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples}}

Despite decades of recognition and acknowledgments denialism claims is a factor within Canadian society.{{cite web | title=Truth before reconciliation: 8 ways to identify and confront Residential School denialism | website=Beyond | date=2021-08-16 | url=https://beyond.ubc.ca/8-ways-to-confront-residential-school-denialism/#:~:text=Murray%20Sinclair%2C%20the%20TRC's%20chair,is%20not%20applicable%20to%20Canada. | access-date=2024-12-12}}{{cite web | title=Residential-school denialism doesn't stand up to reality | website=NCTR - National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation | date=2023-05-08 | url=https://nctr.ca/residential-school-denialism-doesnt-stand-up-to-reality/ | access-date=2024-12-12}}

A minority of Canada scholars disagree with use of the term genocide for Canada because of legal challenges associated with proving genocidal intent,{{cite web | title=Canada's treatment of Indigenous peoples fits the definition of genocide|author1=Sean Carleton |author2=Andrew Woolford | website=TVO Today | url=https://www.tvo.org/article/canadas-treatment-of-indigenous-peoples-fits-the-definition-of-genocide | access-date=Dec 3, 2024}}{{cite web | title=Ignore debaters and denialists, Canada's treatment of Indigenous Peoples fits the definition of genocide | website=UM Today | date=2021-10-26 | url=https://news.umanitoba.ca/ignore-debaters-and-denialists-canadas-treatment-of-indigenous-peoples-fits-the-definition-of-genocide/ | access-date=2024-11-14}}{{cite web | last=Noël | first=Caroline | title=No Genocide | website=Literary Review of Canada | date=2019-09-11 | url=https://reviewcanada.ca/magazine/2019/10/no-genocide/ | access-date=2024-11-14}} while most believe using the term genocide is essential to recognize the seriousness of the ethnocide suffered, and avoiding it is a form genocide denialism.{{cite web | title=Cultural Genocide: Legal Label or Mourning Metaphor? | website=McGill Law Journal | date=2016-09-01 | url=https://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/article/cultural-genocide-legal-label-or-mourning-metaphor/ | access-date=2024-11-14}}{{cite web | last=Akhavan | first=Payam | title=Cultural genocide: When we debate words, we delay healing | website=The Globe and Mail | date=2016-02-10 | url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/cultural-genocide-when-we-debate-words-we-delay-healing/article28681535/ | access-date=2024-11-14}}{{cite web | last=Platt | first=Brian | title='The g-word': Why it matters whether we call Canada's actions toward Indigenous people a genocide | website=National Post | date=2019-06-04 | url=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/the-g-word-why-it-matters-whether-we-call-canadas-actions-toward-indigenous-people-a-genocide | access-date=2024-11-14}}

The Canadian Museum for Human Rights (CMHR) received criticism upon its opening in 2014 because it did not use the term genocide to describe the history of colonialism in Canada.{{Cite news |last=Hobson |first=Brittany |date=Jun 6, 2019 |title=National museum changes stance on genocide, sides with inquiry findings |work=APTN News |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/national-museum-changes-stance-on-genocide-sides-with-inquiry-findings/ |url-status=live |access-date=December 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704221956/https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/national-museum-changes-stance-on-genocide-sides-with-inquiry-findings/ |archive-date=Jul 4, 2020}} Two years after its opening, Rita K. Dhamoon critiqued the museum's focus on the Holocaust, frame of residential schools as assimilationist and not genocidal, and denial of the genocidal nature of settler colonialism.{{cite journal |last1=Kaur Dhamoon |first1=Rita |date=March 2016 |title=Re-presenting Genocide: The Canadian Museum of Human Rights and Settler Colonial Power |journal=Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=5–30 |doi=10.1017/rep.2015.4 |quote=I contend that the curatorial decision of the CMHR to not use the label of genocide in the title of the core gallery on Indigenous perspectives was specifically a form of interpretive denial.}} In 2019, the museum reversed its policy and officially recognizes genocide of Indigenous peoples in Canada in its content.{{Cite web |last=Monkman |first=Lenard |date=May 17, 2019 |title=Genocide against Indigenous Peoples recognized by Canadian Museum for Human Rights |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/cmhr-colonialism-genocide-indigenous-peoples-1.5141078 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428175704/https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/cmhr-colonialism-genocide-indigenous-peoples-1.5141078 |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=28 April 2023 |website=Cbc.ca}}

In 2021, Senator Lynn Beyak generated controversy and was accused of genocide denial in the Canadian Indian residential school system after she voiced disapproval of the final Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada report, saying that it had omitted the positives of the schools.{{Cite journal |last=Carleton |first=Sean |date=2021-10-02 |title='I don't need any more education': Senator Lynn Beyak, residential school denialism, and attacks on truth and reconciliation in Canada |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2021.1935574 |journal=Settler Colonial Studies |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=466–486 |doi=10.1080/2201473X.2021.1935574 |s2cid=236273703 |issn=2201-473X |access-date=2 May 2023 |archive-date=22 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222192412/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2201473X.2021.1935574 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}{{cite news |last1=Ballingall |first1=Alex |date=April 6, 2017 |title=Lynn Beyak calls removal from Senate committee 'a threat to freedom of speech' |work=Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2017/04/06/lynn-beyak-calls-removal-from-senate-committee-a-threat-to-freedom-of-speech.html |access-date=May 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407102404/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2017/04/06/lynn-beyak-calls-removal-from-senate-committee-a-threat-to-freedom-of-speech.html |archive-date=April 7, 2017}}{{cite news |last1=Galloway |first1=Gloria |date=March 9, 2017 |title=Conservatives disavow Tory senator's positive views of residential schools |language=en-ca |work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/conservatives-disavow-tory-senators-positive-views-of-residential-schools/article34248144/ |access-date=May 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511115119/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/conservatives-disavow-tory-senators-positive-views-of-residential-schools/article34248144/ |archive-date=May 11, 2017}} Similarly, former Conservative Party leader Erin O'Toole said that the residential school system educated Indigenous children,{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Mitchell |date=2020-12-15 |title=Erin O'Toole Claimed Residential School Architects Only Meant to 'Provide Education' to Indigenous Children |url=https://pressprogress.ca/erin-otoole-claimed-residential-school-architects-only-meant-to-provide-education-to-indigenous-children/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505112156/https://pressprogress.ca/erin-otoole-claimed-residential-school-architects-only-meant-to-provide-education-to-indigenous-children/ |archive-date=5 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=PressProgress |language=en}} but then changed his view: "The system was intended to remove children from the influence of their homes, families, traditions, and cultures". Former newspaper publisher Conrad Black and others have also been accused of denial.{{refn|{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Mitchell |date=2020-12-15 |title=Erin O'Toole Claimed Residential School Architects Only Meant to 'Provide Education' to Indigenous Children |url=https://pressprogress.ca/erin-otoole-claimed-residential-school-architects-only-meant-to-provide-education-to-indigenous-children/ |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=PressProgress |language=en |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505112156/https://pressprogress.ca/erin-otoole-claimed-residential-school-architects-only-meant-to-provide-education-to-indigenous-children/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Conrad Black: The truth about truth and reconciliation |url=https://nationalpost.com/opinion/conrad-black-7 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=nationalpost |language=en-CA |archive-date=22 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222192412/https://nationalpost.com/opinion/conrad-black-7 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Palmater |first=Pamela |date=2021-07-16 |title=Manitoba Conservatives Crash and Burn with Residential School Denialism ⋆ The Breach |url=https://breachmedia.ca/manitoba-conservatives-crash-and-burn-with-residential-school-denialism/ |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=The Breach |language=en-CA |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505110705/https://breachmedia.ca/manitoba-conservatives-crash-and-burn-with-residential-school-denialism/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Turnbull |first=Ryan |title=When 'good intentions' don't matter: The Indian Residential School system |url=http://theconversation.com/when-good-intentions-dont-matter-the-indian-residential-school-system-165045 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=The Conversation |date=2 August 2021 |language=en |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505112934/http://theconversation.com/when-good-intentions-dont-matter-the-indian-residential-school-system-165045 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last1=Justice |first1=Daniel Heath |last2=Carleton |first2=Sean |date=August 25, 2021 |title=Truth before reconciliation: 8 ways to identify and confront Residential School denialism |url=https://rsc-src.ca/en/voices/truth-before-reconciliation-8-ways-to-identify-and-confront-residential-school%C2%A0denialism |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=The Royal Society of Canada |language=en |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505112944/https://rsc-src.ca/en/voices/truth-before-reconciliation-8-ways-to-identify-and-confront-residential-school%C2%A0denialism |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2023-05-04 |title=The Dangerous Allure of Residential School Denialism {{!}} The Walrus |url=https://thewalrus.ca/residential-school-denialism/ |access-date=2023-05-05 |language=en-US |archive-date=5 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505111019/https://thewalrus.ca/residential-school-denialism/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Conrad Black: The truth about truth and reconciliation |url=https://nationalpost.com/opinion/conrad-black-7 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222192412/https://nationalpost.com/opinion/conrad-black-7 |archive-date=22 December 2023 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=nationalpost |language=en-CA}}{{Cite web |last=Palmater |first=Pamela |date=2021-07-16 |title=Manitoba Conservatives Crash and Burn with Residential School Denialism ⋆ The Breach |url=https://breachmedia.ca/manitoba-conservatives-crash-and-burn-with-residential-school-denialism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505110705/https://breachmedia.ca/manitoba-conservatives-crash-and-burn-with-residential-school-denialism/ |archive-date=5 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=The Breach |language=en-CA}}{{Cite web |last=Turnbull |first=Ryan |date=2 August 2021 |title=When 'good intentions' don't matter: The Indian Residential School system |url=http://theconversation.com/when-good-intentions-dont-matter-the-indian-residential-school-system-165045 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505112934/http://theconversation.com/when-good-intentions-dont-matter-the-indian-residential-school-system-165045 |archive-date=5 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}{{Cite web |last1=Justice |first1=Daniel Heath |last2=Carleton |first2=Sean |date=August 25, 2021 |title=Truth before reconciliation: 8 ways to identify and confront Residential School denialism |url=https://rsc-src.ca/en/voices/truth-before-reconciliation-8-ways-to-identify-and-confront-residential-school%C2%A0denialism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505112944/https://rsc-src.ca/en/voices/truth-before-reconciliation-8-ways-to-identify-and-confront-residential-school%C2%A0denialism |archive-date=5 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=The Royal Society of Canada |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2023-05-04 |title=The Dangerous Allure of Residential School Denialism {{!}} The Walrus |url=https://thewalrus.ca/residential-school-denialism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505111019/https://thewalrus.ca/residential-school-denialism/ |archive-date=5 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-05 |language=en-US}}}}

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| video1 =[https://globalnews.ca/video/10840737/push-to-criminalize-residential-school-denialism-in-canada-difference-between-free-speech-and-inciting-hate "Push to criminalize residential school denialism in Canada: ‘Difference between free speech and inciting hate’"] (2024) – Global News (5:35 min)

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In 2022, Gregory Stanton, former president of the International Association of Genocide Scholars, issued a report stating Canada is in the "denial stage" of the ten stages of genocide.{{Cite web |last=Stanton |first=Gregory |date=2023-12-06 |title=Canada |url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/country-pages/canada |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705130005/https://www.genocidewatch.com/_files/ugd/1585f1_6b86a1ecf0924980bbbb4b272c5ebd83.pdf |archive-date=Jul 5, 2022 |access-date=2023-12-25 |website=Genocide Watch}} This position was reiterated on National Truth and Reconciliation Day in 2023, with prime minister Justin Trudeau stating that denialism was on the rise after disputes regarding the conclusiveness of the evidence of Indian residential schools gravesite discoveries.{{Cite news |date=2023-10-01 |title=Trudeau says 'denialism' rising as nation marks holiday for indigenous reconciliation |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/trudeau-says-denialism-rising-nation-marks-holiday-indigenous-reconcilation-2023-09-30/ |url-status=live |access-date=2023-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001162549/https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/trudeau-says-denialism-rising-nation-marks-holiday-indigenous-reconcilation-2023-09-30/ |archive-date=1 October 2023}}{{cite news |first=Moira |last=Wyton |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/denialists-tried-to-access-unmarked-gravesite-tkemlups-report-1.6879980 |title=Residential school denialists tried to dig up suspected unmarked graves in Kamloops, B.C., report finds. |work=CBC News |date=June 16, 2023 |access-date=May 30, 2024}}{{cite web |first1=Kisha |last1=Supernant |first2=Sean |last2=Carleton |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/opinion/opinion-residential-schools-unmarked-graves-denialism-1.6474429 |title=Fighting 'denialists' for the truth about unmarked graves and residential schooling: Opinion |website=CBC News |date=June 3, 2022 |access-date=May 30, 2024}} Federal Justice Minister David Lametti said in 2023 that he was open to outlawing residential school denialism. His successor, Arif Virani, has not taken a position on the issue.{{cite news |first=Stephanie |last=Taylor |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/politics/special-interlocutor-waiting-for-mp-bill-criminalizing-residential-school-denialism-1.6661615 |title=Special interlocutor 'waiting' for MP bill criminalizing residential school denialism |work=CTV News |date=November 26, 2023 |access-date=June 5, 2024}}

Kimberly Murray, from the Office of the Independent Special Interlocutor, released a report in 2023 stating: “a core group of Canadians continue to defend the Indian Residential Schools System … some still deny that children suffered physical, sexual, psychological, cultural, and spiritual abuses, despite the TRC’s indisputable evidence to the contrary. Others try to deny and minimize the destructive impacts of the Indian Residential Schools. They believe Canada’s historical myth that the nation has treated Indigenous Peoples with benevolence and generosity is true.”{{cite web | last=Depner | first=Wolf | title=Growing residential school denial 'the last step in genocide': report | website=The Golden Star | date=Jun 20, 2023 | url=https://thegoldenstar.net/news/growing-residential-school-denial-the-last-step-in-genocide-report/ | access-date=Dec 12, 2024}} The report prompted Leah Gazan, an NDP Member of Parliament, to introduce Bill C-413 in 2024 that would ban residential school denialism.{{cite web | title=NDP's Gazan urges Liberals to adopt her bill to ban residential school denialism « Canada's NDP | website=Canada's NDP | date=Oct 31, 2024 | url=https://www.ndp.ca/news/ndps-gazan-urges-liberals-adopt-her-bill-ban-residential-school-denialism | access-date=Dec 12, 2024}}{{cite web | title=An Act to amend the Criminal Code (promotion of hatred against Indigenous peoples) | website=Parliament of Canada | date=Sep 26, 2024 | url=https://www.parl.ca/documentviewer/en/44-1/bill/C-413/first-reading | access-date=Dec 12, 2024}}

In 2022, the Canadian government announced that it would pay C$31.5 billion to reform the foster care system and compensate Indigenous families for its deficiencies.{{Cite news |last1=Porter |first1=Catherine |last2=Isai |first2=Vjosa |date=2022-01-04 |title=Canada Pledges $31.5 Billion to Settle Fight Over Indigenous Child Welfare System |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/04/world/canada/canada-indigenous-children-settlement.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001201610/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/04/world/canada/canada-indigenous-children-settlement.html |archive-date=1 October 2023 |access-date=2023-10-01 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}} The government has acknowledged the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the foster care system.{{Cite news |last=Wright |first=Teresa |date=June 4, 2021 |title=Foster care is modern-day residential school system: Inuk MP Mumilaaq Qaqqaq |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/foster-care-is-modern-day-residential-school-1.6054223 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001205538/https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/foster-care-is-modern-day-residential-school-1.6054223 |archive-date=1 October 2023 |access-date=1 October 2023 |work=CBC News}} In 2024, Canada's Indigenous leaders rejected the government's proposal.{{Cite web |date=2024-10-18 |title=Canada's Indigeous chiefs reject $47.8B child welfare reform deal |url=https://www.vicnews.com/national-news/canadas-indigeous-chiefs-reject-478b-child-welfare-reform-deal-7594988 |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=Victoria News |language=en}}{{Cite news |date=2024-10-17 |title=AFN votes to reject $47.8-billion child welfare reform deal with Ottawa |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-afn-votes-to-reject-child-welfare-deal/ |access-date=2024-12-15 |work=The Globe and Mail |language=en-CA}}

File:Figueiredo report, commissioned by Brazil’s Minister of the Interior in 1967.jpg tribe in Brazil were exposed in the Figueiredo report of 1967. After shooting the head off her baby, the killers cut the mother in half. [https://www.survivalinternational.org/news/9191 Survival] ]]

According to Nadia Rubaii, the mass atrocities in Latin America have been less visible internationally for three reasons:Rubaii, N.M., Lippez-De Castro, S. y Appe, S. 2019. [https://revistas.uexternado.edu.co/index.php/opera/article/view/6016/7745 Pueblos indígenas como víctimas de los genocidios pasados y actuales: un tema esencial para el currículo de administración pública en América Latina]. Opera. 25 (jun. 2019), 29–54. {{doi|10.18601/16578651.n25.03}}.

1. Victim groups have frequently been attacked for their ideological or political differences, leading the international community to consider such atrocities as domestic political issues.
2. Perpetrators who damage ecosystems and means of subsistence argue that they are seeking economic development for common benefit and deny the intention to inflict any harm.
3. If there is academic attention to the topic, it is documented in Spanish not in English.

File:Popper_en_caceria.jpg targeting Indigenous peoples. 1886. See Selk'nam Genocide. ]]

In Argentina, the Conquest of the Desert had been interpreted in war terms, silencing the fact of Indigenous genocide.{{Cite journal |last=Pérez |first=Pilar |date=2019 |title=La Conquista del desierto y los estudios sobre genocidio |url=http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1851-37512019000200034&lng=es&nrm=iso |url-status=live |journal=Recorridos, Preguntas y Debates |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=34–51 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204223451/http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1851-37512019000200034&lng=es&nrm=iso |archive-date=4 February 2023 |access-date=26 September 2023}}{{Cite journal |last=Nagy |first=Mariano |date=2019 |title=Genocidio: derrotero e historia de un concepto y sus discusiones |url=https://www.redalyc.org/journal/3799/379972679002/html/ |url-status=live |journal=Memoria Americana |language=es |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=10–33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926073124/https://www.redalyc.org/journal/3799/379972679002/html/ |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date=26 September 2023}} In the case of the Napalmi massacre, a judge concluded that the massacre took place in a context of genocide.{{cite web |date=2022-07-19 |title=La Masacre de Napa'alpí, un crimen de lesa humanidad |url=https://www.argentina.gob.ar/noticias/la-masacre-de-napaalpi-un-crimen-de-lesa-humanidad |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926071742/https://www.argentina.gob.ar/noticias/la-masacre-de-napaalpi-un-crimen-de-lesa-humanidad |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Argentina.gob.ar |language=es}}{{cite news |author=Veronica Smink |title=Qué fue la Masacre de Napalpí y por qué la justicia argentina realiza un juicio tras casi 100 años |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-61170155 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926071755/https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-61170155 |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date=2023-09-26 |periodical=BBC News Mundo |language=es}} According to Walter Delrio et al. in 2010, "The state still denies the existence of genocide and the existence of crimes against humanity with respect to Indigenous peoples."{{Cite journal |last1=Delrio |first1=Walter |last2=Lenton |first2=Diana |last3=Musante |first3=Marcelo |last4=Nagy |first4=Marino |date=2010-08-01 |title=Discussing Indigenous Genocide in Argentina: Past, Present, and Consequences of Argentinean State Policies toward Native Peoples |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol5/iss2/3 |url-status=live |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=138–159 |doi=10.3138/gsp.5.2.138 |issn=1911-0359 |s2cid=145474271 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608094536/https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol5/iss2/3/ |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=1 December 2023 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11336/58381}}

{{See also|Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay}}South African sociologist and genocide scholar Leo Kuper says that genocide has been denied in Paraguay and Brazil on the basis of alleged lack of intent to destroy.{{Cite book |last=Kuper |first=Leo |url=http://archive.org/details/genocideitspolit00kupe |title=Genocide: its political use in the twentieth century |date=1982 |publisher=New Haven: Yale University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-300-02795-2 |pages=33–34 |quote=In contemporary extra-judicial discussions of allegations of genocide, the question of intent has become a controversial issue, providing a ready basis for denial of guilt.}} For instance, the case of the Ache in Paraguay has been legally determined to be a case of political persecution.{{Cite web |date=October 30, 2008 |title=Video: American Holocaust: The Destruction of America's Native Peoples |url=https://news.vanderbilt.edu/2008/10/30/video-american-holocaust-the-destruction-of-americas-native-peoples-66858/ |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=Vanderbilt University |language=en-US |archive-date=26 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426160425/https://news.vanderbilt.edu/2008/10/30/video-american-holocaust-the-destruction-of-americas-native-peoples-66858/ |url-status=live }}

In Guatemala, debate has occurred over accusations of genocide. The Guatemalan Truth Commission has reported genocide during the 35 year civil war,{{Cite journal |last=Tomuschat |first=Christian |date=2001 |title=Clarification Commission in Guatemala |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4489334 |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=233–258 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2001.0025 |jstor=4489334 |s2cid=143885550 |issn=0275-0392 |quote=The coordinator of the Guatemalan Commission for Historical (also the author of this article) held the responsibility of presenting the main findings of the report to the public. For the first time in the history of the country, an official body stated that, according to its judgment, genocide had been perpetrated at certain times in certain places during the civil war.|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |title=BBC News {{!}} Americas {{!}} Guatemala 'genocide' probe blames state |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/286402.stm |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=BBC News}} but some Guatemalan politicians have referred to the conflict as a civil war.{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sonia |date=May 15, 2014 |title=Guatemala's congress votes to deny genocide |url=https://apnews.com/article/31f38834742f45c9ac08df3f78727a59 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426160424/https://apnews.com/article/31f38834742f45c9ac08df3f78727a59 |archive-date=26 April 2023 |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}{{cite web |author=Alex F. Rojas |date=2014-05-14 |title=Genocidio es negado por legisladores |url=https://www.prensalibre.com/guatemala/politica/genocidio-negado-legisladores_0_1138086211-html/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926064536/https://www.prensalibre.com/guatemala/politica/genocidio-negado-legisladores_0_1138086211-html/ |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date=2023-09-26 |language=es-GT |periodical=Prensa Libre}}{{cite web |author=Sonia Pérez D. |date=2014-05-14 |title=Guatemala: Víctimas critican negación de genocidio |url=http://es-us.noticias.yahoo.com/guatemala-v-ctimas-critican-negaci-n-genocidio-173817768.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926065042/https://es-us.noticias.yahoo.com/guatemala-v-ctimas-critican-negaci-n-genocidio-173817768.html |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Yahoo News |language=es-US}}

The Herero genocide is described as the first genocide of the 20th century.{{Cite journal |last=Dedering |first=Tilman |date=1993 |title=The German-Herero War of 1904: Revisionism of Genocide or Imaginary Historiography? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2636958 |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=80–88 |doi=10.1080/03057079308708348 |issn=0305-7070 |jstor=2636958 |access-date=25 November 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125155714/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2636958 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}Melber, H. (2017). Uncovering the 20th century's first genocide. New African, 570, 27–30. In 2012, German politician Uwe Kekeritz said Germany needed to move away from "a culture of denial".{{Cite journal |last=Müller |first=Lars |date=2013 |title="We Need to Get Away from a Culture of Denial"? The German-Herero War in Politics and Textbooks |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43049654 |journal=Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=50–71 |doi=10.3167/jemms.2013.050104 |jstor=43049654 |issn=2041-6938 |access-date=25 November 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125155714/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43049654 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}File:Herero and Nama prisoners.jpg, 1904-1907]]

{{See also|Genocide of indigenous peoples in Australia|Australian history wars}}

Australia has a long history of Indigenous genocide denialism, with the country's treatment of its Indigenous populations being one of the most notorious examples.{{cite web | author=Havemann, Paul | title="Denial, Modernity and Exclusion: Indigenous Placelessness in Australia" [2005] MqLawJl 4; (2005) 5 Maquarie Law Journal 57 | website=Australasian Legal Information Institute (AustLII) | date=2003-08-08 | url=http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MqLawJl/2005/4.html | access-date=2024-12-09}} This denialism has manifested in various ways, from downplaying the severity of the violence to shifting blame onto the victims themselves.{{cite journal | last=Kiernan | first=Ben | title=Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines | journal=Critical Asian Studies | volume=34 | issue=2 | date=2002 | issn=1467-2715 | doi=10.1080/14672710220146197 | pages=163–192}}{{cite web | last=Newey | first=Allison | title=Country Report: Australia | website=genocidewatch | date=2022-10-02 | url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/country-report-australia | access-date=2024-12-09}} Debates regarding genocide in Australia have primarily concentrated on historical frontier killings and the removal of children.{{cite journal | last=Short | first=Damien | title=Australia: a continuing genocide? | journal=Journal of Genocide Research | volume=12 | issue=1–2 | date=2010 | issn=1462-3528 | doi=10.1080/14623528.2010.508647 | pages=45–68| pmid=20941881 }} Since the 1830s, British colonists in Australia have tried to justify the disappearance of indigenous peoples by blaming disease and displacement. Although the term 'genocide' was not used in the 19th century, many colonists called for the extermination of Aborigines who resisted settlement. Awareness of genocide issues was hidden until the 1960s when historians began to explore frontier violence, gaining official support in the 1990s. However, cultural barriers, like 'Holocaust consciousness,' hinder broader acknowledgment of these events, impacting the political understanding of Australia's history.{{cite journal | last=Dirk Moses | first=A. |author-link=A. Dirk Moses| title=Genocide and Holocaust Consciousness in Australia | journal=History Compass | volume=1 | issue=1 | date=2003 | issn=1478-0542 | doi=10.1111/1478-0542.028 }} There are still numerous Australian historians who uphold the view that massacres and removal of Indigenous children was neither genocidal nor racist, but instead an action of state intervention.{{cite journal | title=View of Beyond Genocide: a comparative analysis of the elimination of Australia's Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander people | website=UTS ePRESS | date=2018-02-06 | doi=10.5130/nesais.v2i1.1470 | url=https://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/student-journals/index.php/NESAIS/article/view/1470/1583 | access-date=2024-12-13| doi-access=free }}

The Indigenous Australian population experienced the frontier wars, in which there was conflict over territory. Massacres and mass poisonings and the Stolen Generations that saw the displacement of Indigenous children.{{cite web |date=5 July 2017 |title=Mapping the massacres of Australia's colonial frontier |url=https://www.newcastle.edu.au/newsroom/featured-news/mapping-the-massacres-of-australias-colonial-frontier |access-date=13 September 2017 |website=www.newcastle.edu.au |publisher=University of Newcastle |language=en |archive-date=13 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913135016/https://www.newcastle.edu.au/newsroom/featured-news/mapping-the-massacres-of-australias-colonial-frontier |url-status=live }}{{cite web | last=Davidson | first=Helen | title=John Howard: there was no genocide against Indigenous Australians | website=the Guardian | date=2014-09-22 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/22/john-howard-there-was-no-genocide-against-indigenous-australians | access-date=2024-12-09}}

According to Hannah Baldry, "The Australian Government appears to have long suffered a form of 'denialism' that has consistently deprived the country's Aboriginal population of acknowledgment of the crimes perpetrated against their ancestors."{{Cite journal |last1=Baldry |first1=Hannah |last2=McKeon |first2=Ailsa |last3=McDougall |first3=Scott |date=2 November 2015 |title=Queensland's Frontier Killing Times – Facing Up To Genocide |journal=QUT Law Review |volume=15 |issue=1 |doi=10.5204/qutlr.v15i1.583 |doi-access=free}} This includes ongoing debates about the interpretation of history, including calling Australia's national myth as an invasion or settlement.{{refn|{{Cite web |last=Ried |first=James |date=30 March 2016 |title='Invaded' not settled: UNSW rewrites history |url=https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/state/nsw/2016/03/30/invaded-settled-unsw-rewrite-australian-history/ |access-date=2023-03-30 |website=The New Daily |language=en-US |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330095450/https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/state/nsw/2016/03/30/invaded-settled-unsw-rewrite-australian-history/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Graham |first=Chris |date=30 March 2016 |title=Australian university accused of 'rewriting history' over British invasion language |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/03/30/australian-university-accused-of-rewriting-history-over-british/ |access-date=2023-03-30 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330095851/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/03/30/australian-university-accused-of-rewriting-history-over-british/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |last=Lemarchand |first=Rene |title=Forgotten Genocides: Oblivion, Denial, and Memory |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-2263-0 |pages=12, 88 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt3fhnm9 |jstor=j.ctt3fhnm9 |s2cid=266296715 |quote=The colonial genocide perpetrated against Aborigines produced within the colonial society a deep and enduring ambiguity about the fate of the original Aborigines and the role of colonists in generating that fate. This ambiguity consisted of a deep-seated moral unease about what had occurred and a culture of denial that was expressed in numerous ways, but most obviously in the myth of inevitable extinction.}}{{Cite news |last1=Allam |first1=Lorena |last2=Evershed |first2=Nick |date=2019-03-03 |title=The killing times: the massacres of Aboriginal people Australia must confront |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/mar/04/the-killing-times-the-massacres-of-aboriginal-people-australia-must-confront |access-date=2023-04-21 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421151857/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/mar/04/the-killing-times-the-massacres-of-aboriginal-people-australia-must-confront |url-status=live }} }}

Former Prime Minister John Howard refused to apologize in the Motion of Reconciliation, claiming that the program had no genocidal intent.{{refn|{{cite web |last=Brennan |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Brennan (priest) |date=21 February 2008 |title=The history of apologies down under |url=https://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/20080221_1.htm |access-date=10 October 2021 |website=Thinking Faith |archive-date=10 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010073655/https://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/20080221_1.htm |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Manne |first=Robert |date=18 November 2014 |title=In Denial, The stolen generations and the Right |url=https://www.quarterlyessay.com.au/essay/2001/04/in-denial/extract |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=Quarterly Essay |language=en-gb |quote=...the Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, seized his opportunity. He told a commercial radio audience in Melbourne that the revelation that Lowitja O'Donoghue was not stolen was a "highly significant" fact, one, he implied, which vindicated his government's famous denial of the existence of the stolen generations and his even more famous refusal to apologize... It was the magazine Quadrant, however, under the editorship of Padraic McGuinness, that marshalled the troops and galvanised the disparate voices of opposition to Bringing them home into what amounted to a serious and effective political campaign. |archive-date=1 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401160457/https://www.quarterlyessay.com.au/essay/2001/04/in-denial/extract |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Frost |first=Natasha |date=2023-07-26 |title=Colonization Was the 'Luckiest Thing' to Happen to Australia, Ex-Leader Says |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/26/world/australia/colonization-australia-britain.html |access-date=2023-07-30 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730234404/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/26/world/australia/colonization-australia-britain.html |url-status=live }} Former Labour Minister Gary Jones also portrayed colonialism as a gift to Indigenous nations. Australian Aboriginal senator, Jana Stewart, called such views a denial of First Nations' historical experiences.{{Cite web |last=Torre |first=Giovanni |date=July 19, 2023 |title=Anti-Voice campaigner describes colonialism as a "gift" to Aboriginal people |url=https://nit.com.au/19-07-2023/6874/anti-voice-campaigner-describes-colonialism-as-a-gift-to-aboriginal-people |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730233158/https://nit.com.au/19-07-2023/6874/anti-voice-campaigner-describes-colonialism-as-a-gift-to-aboriginal-people |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=30 July 2023 |website=National Indigenous Times}}}} Former Tasmanian Premier Ray Groom said that "there had been no killing in the island state".File:Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png, Australia were held in deplorable conditions and subjected to cruel and inhumane treatment. ]]The Australian literary and cultural journal Quadrant has been considered "a key locus of genocide denial". They included common arguments regarding the definitional status of genocide, including the idea "that 'half castes' could not claim Aboriginal status since they were half-European" and that Indigenous people were to blame for their fate due to "their own backwardness"; other articles argued that "frontier massacres were based on misinterpreted statistics and falsehoods".{{Cite journal |last=MacDonald |first=David B. |date=2015-10-02 |title=Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |language=en |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=411–431 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583 |s2cid=74512843 |issn=1462-3528 |access-date=24 December 2023 |archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331173623/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}

A number of states have chosen to take a firm stance against the denial of genocide by enacting laws to criminalize it. The extent of legal coverage varies from one state to another.{{Cite journal |last=Pruitt |first=William R. |date=2017-10-22 |title=Understanding Genocide Denial Legislation: A Comparative Analysis |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1034674 |journal=International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=270–284 |doi=10.5281/ZENODO.1034674 |access-date=24 December 2023 |archive-date=3 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803202807/https://zenodo.org/record/1034674 |url-status=live }}

• Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization
• Apologies to Indigenous peoples
• Colonialism and genocide
• Genocide recognition politics
• Genocides in history
• Genocide studies
• Historiography of Indigenous genocide
• Holocaust denial
• Indigenous response to colonialism
• List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
• List of genocides
• Outline of genocide studies
• Truth commission

{{reflist}}

• IWGIA – International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. [https://Iwgia.org iwgia.org.]
• [https://www.icc-cpi.int/ International Criminal Court (ICC)]
• [https://www.survivalinternational.org/ Survival International]
• [https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/ United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect]
• Yale University, Colonial Genocides Project, Case Studies, [https://gsp.yale.edu/case-studies/colonial-genocides-project Genocide Studies Program]

• {{Cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Eugene Newton |title=Complying with Genocide: the wolf you feed |last2=Anderson |first2=Barbara A. |date=2020 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-7936-3460-3 |location=Lanham |page=12}}
• {{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Gary Clayton |title=The conquest of Texas: ethnic cleansing in the promised land, 1820–1875 |date=2005 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-3698-1 |location=Norman}}
• {{cite book |doi=10.1093/0199240906.001.0001 |title=The Politics of Memory and Democratization |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924090-6 |editor-last1=Brito |editor-last2=Gonzalez Enriquez |editor-last3=Aguilar |editor-first1=Alexandra Barahona De |editor-first2=Carmen |editor-first3=Paloma}}
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• {{Cite book |last=Hitchcock |first=Robert K. |title=Denial of genocides in the twenty-first century |date=2023 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-1-4962-2510-8 |editor-last=Der Matossian |editor-first=Bedross |location=Lincoln |chapter=Denial of Genocide of Indigenous People in the United States}}
• {{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/9444 |title=Genocide Denials and the Law |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-989519-9 |editor-last=Hennebel |editor-first=Ludovic |language=en |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738922.001.0001 |editor-last2=Hochmann |editor-first2=Thomas}}
• {{Cite book |title=Hidden genocides: power, knowledge, memory |date=2014 |publisher=Rutgers Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-8135-6162-2 |editor-last=Hinton |editor-first=Alexander Laban |series=Genocide, political violence, human rights series |location=New Brunswick, NJ |editor-last2=LaPointe |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-last3=Irvin-Erickson |editor-first3=Douglas}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K. |title=Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts |last2=Twedt |first2=Tara M. |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-94429-8 |editor-last=Totten |editor-first=Samuel |edition=2nd |location=New York |chapter=Physical and Cultural Genocide of Indigenous Peoples |editor-last2=Parsons |editor-first2=William S. |editor-last3=Charny |editor-first3=Israel W.}}
• {{Cite book |last=Hochschild |first=Adam |title=King Leopold's ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa |date=2002 |publisher=Pan Books |isbn=978-0-330-49233-1 |location=London |author-link=Adam Hochschild}}
• {{Cite book |last=Kiernan |first=Ben |title=Blood and soil: a world history of genocide and extermination from Sparta to Darfur |title-link=Blood and Soil (book) |date=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-14425-3 |location=New Haven, Conn. London}}
• {{Cite book |last=Lemarchand |first=Rene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CEPu00Z-i8C&q=%C2%A0ISBN%C2%A0978-0-8122-2263-0 |title=Forgotten Genocides: Oblivion, Denial, and Memory |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0438-4 |language=en}}
• {{cite book |last1=Mamdani |first1=Mahmood |title=Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism |date=1996 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02793-7 }}
• {{Cite book |last=Moses |first=A. Dirk |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N-VoQ8M-_KcC&dq=Whitewash:+On+Keith+Windshuttle's+Fabrication+of+Aboriginal+History&pg=PP9 |title=Whitewash: On Keith Windschuttle's Fabrication of Aboriginal History |date=2003 |publisher=Black Inc. |isbn=978-1-921825-53-8 |editor-last=Manne |editor-first=Robert |pages=337–370 |language=en |chapter=Revisionism and Denial}}
• {{Cite book |last=Short |first=Damien |title=Redefining genocide: settler colonialism, social death and ecocide |date=2016 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1-84813-546-8 |location=London}}
• {{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203790830 |title=Genocide of Indigenous Peoples |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-203-79083-0 |s2cid=152960532 |editor-last1=Totten |editor-last2=Hitchcock |editor-first1=Samuel |editor-first2=Robert K. }}
• {{Cite book |last=Trouillot |first=Michel-Rolph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNkBDlueIxUC&q=Silencing+the+past:+power+and+the+production+of+history |title=Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History |date=1995 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0-8070-4311-0 |language=en |author-link=Michel-Rolph Trouillot}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Whitt |first1=Laurelyn |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781108348461/type/book |title=North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law |last2=Clarke |first2=Alan W. |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-34846-1 |edition=1 |doi=10.1017/9781108348461.002|s2cid=242597726 }}

{{Falsification of history}}

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Category:Historical negationism

Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples

Category:History of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Category:Historiography of the United States

Category:Historiography of the British Empire

Category:Historiography of Australia

Category:Historiography of Canada