Draft:Royal manufactories in France

{{See also|Industrial Revolution|Scientific Revolution|Copernican Revolution}}

File:Printing_towns_incunabula.svg press in Europe from 1452 to 1500.]]

From the 15th century onward, the Renaissance spread across Europe, marked by groundbreaking technological advancements, mainly the printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1450s. This innovation was a major step toward mechanization and the widespread dissemination of written knowledge.{{Cite news |title=L'avant et l'après Gutenberg : la révolution par l'imprimerie |trans-title=Before and after Gutenberg: revolution through printing |url=https://www.sudouest.fr/2018/01/30/l-avant-et-l-apres-gutenberg-la-revolution-par-l-imprimerie-4157076-10275.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207002207/https://www.sudouest.fr/2018/01/30/l-avant-et-l-apres-gutenberg-la-revolution-par-l-imprimerie-4157076-10275.php |archive-date=February 7, 2021 |access-date=December 31, 2020 |work=SudOuest.fr |language=fr}}

Other fields also experienced significant technical progress, including navigation, clockmaking, mining, and banking methods.{{Cite book |last=Attali |first=Jacques |title=Une brève histoire de l'avenir |date=2006 |publisher=Fayard |pages=81–95 |language=fr |trans-title=A Brief History of the Future}}

While the modern concept of a factory did not yet exist, certain forms of production based on home subcontracting began to emerge. For instance, in the watchmaking industry, a system known as établissage relied on decentralized production. Additionally, early examples of {{Interlanguage link|Scientific organization of work|lt=scientific work organization|fr|Organisation scientifique du travail}} could be seen in the Venetian Arsenal, which specialized in the mass production of warships and galleys.

By the late 16th century, the rise of {{Interlanguage link|History of cotton prints in Europe|lt=cotton calicoes|fr|Histoire des indiennes de coton en Europe}}—which required sophisticated manufacturing processes—led to the development of a proto-industrial economy in Europe, particularly in small rural workshops.{{Cite journal |last=Mendels |first=Franklin |date=1984 |title=Des industries rurales à la protoindustrialisation : historique d'un changement de perspective |trans-title=From rural industries to proto-industrialization: the story of a change in perspective |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1984_num_39_5_283112 |journal=Annales |language=fr |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=977–1008 |doi=10.3406/ahess.1984.283112 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052331/https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1984_num_39_5_283112 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}} At the same time, silk production, which had traditionally been imported from Asia via the Silk Roads, was gradually mastered in Europe. In France, King Louis XII encouraged the establishment of silk workshops in Languedoc through letters patent.{{Cite journal |last=Dutil |first=Léon |date=1908 |title=L'industrie de la soie à Nîmes jusqu'en 1789 |trans-title=The silk industry in Nîmes until 1789 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0996-2743_1908_num_10_4_4580 |journal=Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine |language=fr |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=318–343 |doi=10.3406/rhmc.1908.4580 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052244/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0996-2743_1908_num_10_4_4580 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

In the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation, led by Martin Luther and John Calvin, profoundly reshaped Europe, introducing a new set of values that transformed conceptions of work and life.{{Harvsp|Weber|1905}} According to Max Weber, Protestantism rejected the idea that work was merely a punishment for original sin; instead, it elevated labor to a fundamental virtue, a means through which individuals could strive toward God.

While the Catholic Church condemned usury, John Calvin permitted it, making Protestantism more compatible with capitalism and financial speculation. Early economic expansion often occurred in regions that had already begun to break free from feudalism. Venice was dominated by merchant elites, while the Dutch Republic and England had both established parliamentary systems, granting greater political influence to the commercial class.

Starting in the 16th century, political thought was no longer dominated by theologians but by secular thinkers primarily concerned with the power of the state. They developed a new school of thought: mercantilism.{{Cite book |last=Etner |first=François |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |language=fr |chapter=Mercantilisme |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Commercialism |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/mercantilisme/ }} According to mercantilist thinkers, the state alone embodied the national interest and had to defend it against the actions of other nations, leading to authoritarian, protectionist, and highly aggressive policies. By the 16th century, various branches of mercantilism emerged across European countries: bullionism in Spain,{{Cite journal |last=Spector |first=Céline |date=2003 |title=Le concept de mercantilisme |trans-title=The concept of commercialism |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-de-metaphysique-et-de-morale-2003-3-page-289.htm |journal=Revue de métaphysique et de morale |volume=39 |issue=3 |language=fr |pages=289–309|doi=10.3917/rmm.033.0289 }} Colbertism (followed by physiocracy under François Quesnay){{Cite web |title=Les physiocrates |trans-title=The Physiocrats |url=https://www.economie.gouv.fr/facileco/physiocrates |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052400/https://www.economie.gouv.fr/facileco/physiocrates |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=economie.gouv.fr |language=fr}} in France, and commercialism in the Netherlands and England.

This school of thought was pre-capitalist, as it prioritized the power of the state over private wealth accumulation. However, by promoting the idea of a planned, deliberate, and structured economic development—favoring activities with increasing returns—mercantilism inspired political choices that contributed to economic growth in Europe from the 16th century onward.{{Cite book |last=Imbert |first=Jean |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Colbertisme, Une politique commerciale |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Colbertism, A trade policy |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/colbertisme/ }}

When Henry IV came to power in 1589, he ended the Wars of Religion by issuing the Edict of Nantes in 1598. However, the kingdom was devastated, and the economy had to be rebuilt.{{Harvsp|Laroche-Signorile|2018}} French cloth production had plummeted to a quarter of its pre-war levels between the outbreak of civil war in 1562 and its conclusion in 1598, while the number of silk artisans dropped from 40,000 to fewer than 1,000 over the same period.{{Harvsp|Fagniez|1883|pp=3-24}}

File:Proclamation_de_l'édit_de_Nantes.jpg by the Parliament of Paris in 1599.]]

Henry IV and his minister, Duke of Sully, sought to end massive tapestry imports from Flanders, which were disrupting France's trade balance. They also aimed to unlock the nation's creative potential, which was stifled by the restrictive guild system.{{Harvsp|Fagniez|1897|pp=103-125}}

In 1596, Barthélemy de Laffemas, economist and trade advisor to Henry IV, published a report titled General Regulation for Establishing Manufactories and Workshops in This Kingdom. It outlined a series of recommendations to revive the industry, including banning the import of manufactured goods, naturalizing foreign workers to attract them to France, and creating public workshops for able-bodied unemployed workers.

In 1601, weavers Marc de Comans and {{Interlanguage link|François de La Planche|lt=François de La Planche|fr|François de La Planche}} received permission to establish a royal tapestry manufactory in workshops in the {{Interlanguage link|Faubourg Saint-Marcel (district of Paris)|lt=Saint-Marcel district|fr|Faubourg Saint-Marcel (quartier de Paris)}}, later known as the Gobelins Manufactory.{{Harvsp|Fagniez|1883|pp=49-57}} In 1606, Henry IV transformed the galleries of the Louvre into a nursery for artists and artisans, competing with the guilds and integrating a wide variety of trades.

At the same time, Barthélemy de Laffemas and the gardener from Nîmes, François Traucat, drew inspiration from agronomist Olivier de Serres and played a crucial role in silk production by planting millions of mulberry trees in Languedoc. In 1605, work began on the Briare Canal, linking the Seine and the Loire—France’s first artificial waterway for transportation.{{Cite journal |last=Mirot |first=Léon |date=1944 |title=Pierre Pinsseau. Le canal Henri IV ou canal de Briare (1604- 1943). Orléans, Houzé ; Paris, Glavreuil, 1943. |trans-title=Pierre Pinsseau. The Henry IV Canal or Briare Canal (1604- 1943). Orleans, Houze ; Paris, Glavreuil, 1943. |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1944_num_105_1_460339_t1_0258_0000_3 |journal=Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes |language=fr |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=258–260}}

The reign of Louis XIII (1610–1643) was primarily marked by the expansion of the kingdom and the strengthening of royal power, orchestrated by Cardinal Richelieu, rather than by proactive economic policies.{{Cite web |last=Roman-Amat |first=Béatrice |date=2019 |title=Louis XIII (1601-1643) - Le précurseur de l'absolutisme |trans-title=Louis XIII (1601-1643) - The precursor of absolutism |url=https://www.herodote.net/Le_precurseur_de_l_absolutisme-synthese-336.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052228/https://www.herodote.net/Le_precurseur_de_l_absolutisme-synthese-336.php |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Herodote.net |language=fr}} However, Richelieu did establish the Maritime Company of New France in 1627 to promote the colonization of North America.{{Harvsp|Le Blant|1955|pp=69-93}} Meanwhile, France officially entered the transatlantic slave trade in 1642.{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2019 |title=Esclavage : 1642, et la France devint une puissance négrière |trans-title=Slavery: 1642, and France became a slave-trading power |url=https://www.geo.fr/histoire/esclavage-1642-et-la-france-devint-une-puissance-negriere-195001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615215234/https://www.geo.fr/histoire/esclavage-1642-et-la-france-devint-une-puissance-negriere-195001 |archive-date=June 15, 2020 |work=Geo |pages=1 |language=fr}}

Louis XIV ascended the French throne in 1643 after his father died. However, due to his young age, his mother, Anne of Austria, served as regent until 1651. During this period, the Trudon wax manufactory (1643) was established to supply candles for churches and royal palaces,{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2015 |title=À la découverte de la maison Trudon, plus vieille manufacture de cire au monde |trans-title=Discovering the House of Trudon, the world's oldest wax manufacturer |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/france/a-la-decouverte-de-la-maison-trudon-plus-vieille-manufacture-de-cire-au-monde_898339.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007042513/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/france/a-la-decouverte-de-la-maison-trudon-plus-vieille-manufacture-de-cire-au-monde_898339.html |archive-date=October 7, 2017 |work=France Info |pages=1 |language=fr}} while Anne of Austria supported the revival of the Rouen faience industry (1644).{{Cite web |title=Rouen, Musée de la céramique |trans-title=Rouen, Ceramics Museum |url=https://www.patrimoine-histoire.fr/Ceramique/Rouen-Musee-de-Ceramique.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052317/https://www.patrimoine-histoire.fr/Ceramique/Rouen-Musee-de-Ceramique.htm |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=patrimoine-histoire.fr |language=fr}}

In March 1661, seven years after his formal coronation, Louis XIV appointed Jean-Baptiste Colbert as Intendant of Finances, later promoting him to Controller-General of Finances in December 1665.{{Harvsp|d'Aubert|2014|pp=365-392}} Like his predecessors Sully and Richelieu, Colbert sought to close the gap between France’s economic potential and its underperforming economy, aiming to eliminate its trade deficit. To reduce imports of luxury goods from Italy and Flanders, he launched a program to establish state-sponsored manufactories and encouraged technology transfers by hiring foreign workers—sometimes even engaging in industrial espionage.{{Harvsp|Guery|1989|pp=297–312}}

File:Adam_Frans_van_der_Meulen_-_Construction_of_the_Château_de_Versailles_-_WGA15115.jpg, 1669.]]

In 1664, Colbert founded the Royal Manufactory of Mirrors (which would later become Saint-Gobain), responsible for producing the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles (1678–1684).{{Cite journal |last=Hamon |first=Maurice |date=2017 |title=La Manufacture royale des glaces et Versailles aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles |trans-title=The Royal Mirror Factory and Versailles in the 17th and 18th Centuries |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/versa_1285-8412_2017_num_20_1_1170 |journal=Versalia. Revue de la Société des Amis de Versailles |language=fr |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=135–156 |doi=10.3406/versa.2017.1170}} The same year, he authorized the creation of the royal manufactories of high- and low-warp tapestries in Beauvais.{{Cite news |last=Preveraud |first=Jean-Franois |date=2015 |title=Saint-Gobain : innovateur depuis 350 ans ! |trans-title=Saint-Gobain: innovating for 350 years! |url=https://www.industrie-techno.com/article/saint-gobain-innovateur-depuis-350-ans.40383 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052218/https://www.industrie-techno.com/article/saint-gobain-innovateur-depuis-350-ans.40383 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=Industrie et Technologies |pages=2 |language=fr}} Also in 1664, Colbert founded the French East India Company, which significantly expanded France’s economic reach—while further entrenching the kingdom in the slave trade. This allowed France to import low-cost raw materials from its colonies.{{Cite news |last=Laroche-Signorile |first=Véronique |date=September 5, 2018a |title=Qui était Jean-Baptiste Colbert, né il y a 400 ans? |trans-title=Who was Jean-Baptiste Colbert, born 400 years ago? |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/histoire/2018/09/05/26001-20180905ARTFIG00280-qui-etait-jean-baptiste-colbert-mort-il-y-a-335-ans.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052359/https://www.lefigaro.fr/histoire/2018/09/05/26001-20180905ARTFIG00280-qui-etait-jean-baptiste-colbert-mort-il-y-a-335-ans.php |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=Le Figaro |language=fr}}

At the start of the 1670s, Louis XIV revived the Franco-Ottoman alliance, which supported his expansionist policies against the Habsburgs and secured lucrative markets for French industry in the Levant.{{Cite journal |last=Buti |first=Gilbert |date=2008 |title=Des goûts et des couleurs. Draps du Languedoc pour clientèle levantine au XVIIIe siècle |trans-title=There's no accounting for taste. Languedoc sheets for Levantine clientele in the 18th century |journal=Rives méditerranéennes |language=fr |volume=29 |issue=29 |pages=125–140 |doi=10.4000/rives.1393 |issn=2103-4001}} Large quantities of goods, mainly textiles, were shipped from the ports of Sète and Marseille. In the following years, benefiting from these export subsidies, a dozen royal cloth manufactories were established in Languedoc.{{Harvsp|Fohlen|1949|pp=290–297}}

To improve the circulation of goods, Colbert developed new waterways, including the Orléans Canal (1676–1692) and the Canal du Midi (1666–1681), connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean via the Garonne.{{Cite web |title=« Carcassonne. J-B Colbert (1619-1683), le canal et la manufacture |trans-title=Carcassonne. J-B Colbert (1619-1683), the canal and the factory |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/2019/11/24/j-b-colbert-1619-1683-le-canal-et-la-manufacture,8559622.php |website=ladepeche.fr |language=fr}}

File:Riquet_Pierre-Paul.jpg, the architect of the Canal du Midi, presents his project to the King's and States' Commissioners.]]

In 1678, France’s victory in the Dutch War enabled territorial expansion eastward and facilitated exports through the Treaty of Nijmegen, which abolished customs duties at French borders.

However, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 (two years after Colbert’s death) led to a massive exodus of French Protestants, including many merchants, artisans, and skilled workers. This weakened France’s economy while benefiting countries that welcomed them, such as Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, and various German principalities.{{Cite journal |last=Magdelaine |first=Michelle |date=2014 |title=Le refuge huguenot, exil et accueil |trans-title=The Huguenot refuge, exile and hospitality |url=http://journals.openedition.org/abpo/2848 |journal=Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest. Anjou. Maine. Poitou-Charente. Touraine |volume=121-3 |language=fr |issue=121–3 |pages=131–143 |doi=10.4000/abpo.2848 |issn=0399-0826}} These economic challenges were partially offset by military expenditures and large-scale construction projects, which sustained domestic demand through public procurement and boosted production and trade.{{Harvsp|d'Aubert|2014|pp=365-392}}

In the late years of the 17th century, a new war led by Louis XIV against neighboring powers, the War of the League of Augsburg, allowed him to considerably weaken the British and Dutch economies, which benefited French producers and merchants in the textile sector.

From the beginning of the 18th century, a phase of growth in the French manufacturing industry began, lasting—despite some setbacks (wars, plague epidemics, commercial crises)—until the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). The {{Interlanguage link|Council and Bureau of Commerce|lt=Council and Bureau of Commerce|fr|Conseil et bureau du commerce}}, a royal institution and ancestor of the chambers of commerce, intended to stimulate exports, was founded in 1700.{{Cite web |title=Gouverner le commerce au XVIIIe siècle Conseil et Bureau du commerce |trans-title=Regulating trade in the 18th century Council and Board of Trade |url=https://www.economie.gouv.fr/igpde-editions-publications/gouverner-commerce-au-xviiie-siecle-conseil-et-bureau-commerce |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052411/https://www.economie.gouv.fr/igpde-editions-publications/gouverner-commerce-au-xviiie-siecle-conseil-et-bureau-commerce |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Ministry of Economics and Finance |language=fr}} The 18th century was thus characterized by a close symbiosis between provincial manufacturing regions and the dominant capital, which provided financial support and the conveniences of its commercial structures.

After the death of Louis XIV in 1715, his great-grandson Louis XV succeeded him, ascending the throne at the age of five, like his predecessor (his uncle Philippe d'Orléans served as regent until 1723).{{Cite news |last=Trenard |first=Louis |date= |title=Philippe d'Orléans |trans-title= |url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/philippe-orleans/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052411/https://www.economie.gouv.fr/igpde-editions-publications/gouverner-commerce-au-xviiie-siecle-conseil-et-bureau-commerce |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=2 |language=fr}}

File:Louis_XV_&_Peter_I.jpg and the Russian Tsar Peter I, the Great, during his trip to the Kingdom of France in 1717.]]

Two years later, Tsar Peter I the Great of Russia undertook a {{Interlanguage link|Journey of Peter I the Great to Western Europe (1716-1717)|lt=three-month journey to France|fr|Voyage de Pierre Ier le Grand en Europe occidentale (1716-1717)}} with the express intention of drawing inspiration from the kingdom's industrial development to modernize his empire.{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=January 23, 2017 |title=Pierre le Grand, un tsar en France. 1717 |trans-title=Peter the Great, a Tsar in France. 1717 |url=http://www.chateauversailles.fr/actualites/expositions/pierre-grand-tsar-france-1717 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218215754/http://www.chateauversailles.fr/actualites/expositions/pierre-grand-tsar-france-1717 |archive-date=February 18, 2022 |work=Château de Versailles |pages= |language=fr}}{{Cite journal |last=Blanc |first=Simone |date=1962 |title=À propos de la politique économique de Pierre le Grand |trans-title=About the economic policy of Peter the Great |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/cmr_0008-0160_1962_num_3_1_1499 |journal=Cahiers du Monde Russe |language=fr |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=122–139 |doi=10.3406/cmr.1962.1499}} He met the seven-year-old King Louis XV and visited the royal manufactories of the Gobelins (tapestry), Abbeville (luxury cloth), and {{Interlanguage link|Charleville weapons manufacture|lt=Charleville|fr|Manufacture d'armes de Charleville}} (firearms), as well as the Marly pumping system in the {{Interlanguage link|Paris Ekiden|lt=Versailles Park|fr|Parc de Versailles}}, the Champagne cellars in Reims, and the Royal Academy of Sciences (founded by Colbert in 1666).{{Cite journal |last=Mervaud |first=Michel |date=2012 |title=Pierre le Grand en France : les récits de Voltaire |trans-title=Peter the Great in France: the stories of Voltaire |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/slave_0080-2557_2012_num_83_2_8233 |journal=Revue des Études Slaves |language=fr |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=847–870 |doi=10.3406/slave.2012.8233}} Upon his return to Russia, he founded the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1724.{{Cite journal |last=Shafranovskij |first=K. I |date=1967 |title=Les salles de l'Académie des sciences de Saint-Pétersbourg -- en 1741 [Histoire d'un livre condamné] |trans-title=The rooms of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences -- in 1741 [Story of a condemned book] |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/cmr_0008-0160_1967_num_8_4_1726 |journal=Cahiers du Monde Russe |language=fr |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=604–615 |doi=10.3406/cmr.1967.1726}} Thus, barely half a century after the beginning of Colbert’s interventionist policies, the industrial development of the Kingdom of France had become an example for Europe.

In 1730, Louis XV tasked his Secretary of State for War, Nicolas-Prosper Bauyn d'Angervilliers, with creating a bladed weapons manufactory in Klingenthal, Alsace.{{Cite web |title=La Manufacture de Klingenthal |trans-title=The Klingenthal Manufactory |url=http://www.klingenthal.fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052310/http://www.klingenthal.fr/ |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=klingenthal.fr |language=fr}} In the context of the emerging exploitation of coal mines, a decree of the Council of State was issued in 1744, reaffirming that mines were subject to the rights attached to the Crown’s Domain and Sovereignty.{{Cite book |last=Morand |first=M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sgFYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA612 |title=L'art d'exploiter les mines de charbon de terre. Exploitation, commerce et usage du charbon de terre en France |date=1774 |pages=612 |language=fr |trans-title=The art of coal mining. Mining, trade and use of coal in France}}

At the same time, the reign of Louis XV, which occupied most of the 18th century, was marked by the "Age of Enlightenment," characterized by great literary, philosophical, and cultural richness, as well as an ambition to combat obscurantism and promote knowledge.{{Cite web |last=Malet |first=Tina |title=XVIIIe siècle - L'Europe des Lumières |trans-title=18th century - The Europe of the Enlightenment |url=https://www.herodote.net/L_Europe_en_marche_vers_un_monde_nouveau-synthese-2157.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240722014222/https://www.herodote.net/L_Europe_en_marche_vers_un_monde_nouveau-synthese-2157.php |archive-date=July 22, 2024 |website=Herodote.net |language=fr}}

File:EncycloBibMaz_Tome03_Corderie_Pl02-a.png for the article “Corderie” written by the botanist Duhamel du Monceau.]]

In this context, the first Encyclopédie was written between 1751 and 1772, with the aim of synthesizing and disseminating the technical and scientific knowledge of the time, with several articles describing industrial techniques and processes.{{Cite web |last1=Diderot |first1=Denis |last2=Le Rond d'Alembert |first2=Jean |date=1772 |title=Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers |trans-title=Encyclopedia, or Reasoned Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts |url=https://fr.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die,_ou_Dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_des_sciences,_des_arts_et_des_m%C3%A9tiers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521113449/https://fr.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die,_ou_Dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_des_sciences,_des_arts_et_des_m%C3%A9tiers |archive-date=May 21, 2024 |language=fr}} Some drew inspiration from or reproduced engravings included in Descriptions des arts et métiers, a collection of works published at the same time by the Royal Academy of Sciences.{{Harvsp|Daumas|Tresse|1954|pp=163–171}} These works of compilation, synthesis, and dissemination of knowledge in science and engineering benefited the national economy by spreading artisanal and industrial expertise.{{Cite book |last=Brossollet |first=Jacqueline |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter= |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/reaumur-rene-antoine-ferchault-de/ }} For example, the article by physicist René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (who directed Descriptions des arts et métiers at the beginning of its publication), The Art of Converting Wrought Iron into Steel, enabled the Kingdom of France to manufacture this metal, which had previously been imported.

The reign of Louis XVI was relatively short compared to his predecessors: ascending the throne in May 1774, he was overthrown eighteen years later by the French Revolution before being executed in January 1793 at the age of thirty-eight.{{Cite web |last=Manière |first=Fabienne |date=March 2020 |title=1774-1789 - Les prémices de la Révolution |trans-title=1774-1789 - The beginnings of the Revolution |url=https://www.herodote.net/Les_premices_de_la_Revolution-synthese-65-98.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226120738/https://www.herodote.net/Les_premices_de_la_Revolution-synthese-65-98.php |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |website=Herodote.net |language=fr}} The very year of his accession to the throne, in October 1774, he granted the title of royal manufactory to the {{Interlanguage link|Royal factory of Dugny|lt=Dugny factory of wax, candles, tapers, and torches|fr|Manufacture royale de Dugny}}. His reign was marked by France's intervention in the American War of Independence in 1778, which benefited French industries, particularly the firearms manufactories of {{Interlanguage link|Charleville weapons manufacture|lt=Charleville|fr|Manufacture d'armes de Charleville}} and Saint-Étienne, as well as the {{Interlanguage link|Royal Sailing Cloth Factory|lt=sailcloth manufactory|fr|Manufacture royale de toiles à voiles}} in Agen.{{Cite journal |last=Girault de Coursac |first=Pierrette |date=1977 |title=Guerre d'Amérique, guerre de Louis XVI. |trans-title=War of American Independence, War of the French Revolution. |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/abpo_0399-0826_1977_num_84_3_2899 |journal=Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l'Ouest |language=fr |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=247–256 |doi=10.3406/abpo.1977.2899}} The playwright, writer, and businessman Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais was commissioned by Louis XVI to organize the logistics of exporting French-made weapons to the American insurgents.

File:Benjamin_Franklin's_Reception_at_the_Court_of_France_1778.jpg received by King Louis XVI and Queen Marie-Antoinette at the French court in 1778 to sign the treaty of the Franco-American alliance.]]

However, this intervention proved extremely costly for the kingdom, and the deterioration of public finances, combined with poor harvests exacerbated by a particularly harsh winter, created the conditions for the French Revolution, which ended the monarchy in 1792.

Nevertheless, the reign of Louis XVI was marked by several progressive reforms, such as the {{Interlanguage link|Edict of August 8, 1779|lt=abolition of serfdom|fr|Édit du 8 août 1779}} in 1779 and the Edict of Versailles, which in 1787 reinstated the principles of the Edict of Nantes a century after its revocation by Louis XIV. That same year, Louis XVI ennobled Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf, a Protestant industrialist of German origin, four years after granting his {{Interlanguage link|Oberkampf Factory|lt=Indian cotton print manufactory|fr|Manufacture Oberkampf}} the title of the royal manufactory.{{Harvsp|Pean|2015}} Finally, it was under Louis XVI that the Paris School of Mines was created—{{Interlanguage link|History of French engineering schools|lt=one of France’s oldest|fr|Histoire des écoles d'ingénieurs françaises}} and most selective engineering schools—by an ordinance issued on March 19, 1783, at a time when the mining industry was in full expansion.{{Cite web |title=Arrêt du conseil d'État du Roi portant établissement d'une École de Mines du 19 mars 1783 |trans-title=Decree of the King's Council of State establishing a School of Mines, March 19, 1783 |url=http://www.admi.net/jo/LOUIS16/1783.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111104621/http://www.admi.net/jo/LOUIS16/1783.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |language=fr}}

In the following century, capitalizing on the technological and organizational innovations of the 17th and 18th centuries, part of Europe, including France, transitioned from a predominantly agrarian and artisanal society to a commercial and industrial one, in a process known as the "Industrial Revolution."{{Harvsp|Piketty|2019|pp=247-301}}

The industrial policy primarily initiated by Colbert and continued by his successors relied on creating protected manufactories (mainly through royal monopolies), privileged and subsidized, established in major centers or alongside guilds. In Colbert's vision, state support played the role of educational protectionism. Therefore, the goal was never to permanently maintain monopoly situations (often limited to twenty years), tax advantages, or even the certainty of public orders and subsidies enjoyed by the manufactories at their inception.

This concept is illustrated in a letter written by Colbert to the aldermen of Lyon: "The inhabitants of this city would do well to consider the favors granted to their industry as crutches with which they should quickly learn to walk on their own, as I intend to take them away afterward."

State support also manifested in facilitating technology and skills transfers through the hiring of specialized workers and through quality requirements imposed via royal ordinances to make French products competitive. Most royal manufactories were founded with the support of the monarchy, but it was also common for already existing and operational workshops to receive the title of "royal manufactory." This was the case for the textile workshops of Aubusson{{Cite book |last=Reynies |first=Nicole |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Manufacture d'Aubusson |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Aubusson Manufactory |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/manufactures-d-aubusson/ }} and Alençon (1665),{{Cite web |last=Bernard |first=Schotter |title=Création de la Manufacture royale d'Alençon |trans-title=Creation of the Manufacture royale d'Alençon |url=https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2015/39329 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121124435/https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2015/39329 |archive-date=January 21, 2025 |website=francearchives.fr |language=fr}} the Jouy manufactory (1770), and the {{Interlanguage link|Portieux Glassworks|lt=Portieux glassworks|fr|Cristallerie de Portieux}}{{Cite web |title=Les Jolies Céramiques: 3 siècles de céramiques et mosaïques |trans-title=Les Jolies Céramiques: 3 centuries of ceramics and mosaics |url=http://www.jolies-ceramiques.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250115011904/http://www.jolies-ceramiques.com/ |archive-date=January 15, 2025 |website=jolies-ceramiques.com |language=fr}} after the annexation of Lorraine to France (1767).{{Cite web |title=23 février 1766 : mort du roi Stanislas et rattachement de la Lorraine à la France |trans-title=February 23, 1766: death of King Stanislas and annexation of Lorraine to France |url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/grand-est/meurthe-et-moselle/nancy/23-fevrier-1766-mort-du-roi-stanislas-rattachement-lorraine-france-934149.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223070747/https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/grand-est/meurthe-et-moselle/nancy/23-fevrier-1766-mort-du-roi-stanislas-rattachement-lorraine-france-934149.html |archive-date=February 23, 2021 |website=France 3 Grand Est |date=23 February 2019 |language=fr}}

{{See also|Gobelins Manufactory}}

The Gobelins tapestry manufactory was established in Paris in April 1601 at the initiative of Henry IV and his commerce advisor, Barthélemy de Laffemas.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2017 |title=Manufacture des Gobelins |trans-title=Gobelins Manufactory |url=https://www.mobiliernational.culture.gouv.fr/fr/nous-connaitre/les-manufactures/manufacture-des-gobelins |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052215/https://www.mobiliernational.culture.gouv.fr/fr/nous-connaitre/les-manufactures/manufacture-des-gobelins |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Mobilier National |page=2 |language=fr}} A privilege was granted to two Flemish tapestry makers, Marc de Comans and {{Interlanguage link|François de La Planche|lt=François de La Planche|fr|François de La Planche}}, who came to France to open manufactories, prohibiting anyone else from establishing a similar workshop for 15 years.

File:Louis14-H.jpg visiting the Gobelins factory with Colbert in 1667.]]

Initially, these workshops were scattered until Colbert consolidated them into a single building in 1662, placing them under the direction of Charles Le Brun, Louis XIV's first painter, who held the position until his death in 1690.

In the 18th century, several architect-trained directors succeeded Charles Le Brun: Robert de Cotte, Jules-Robert de Cotte, {{Interlanguage link|Jean-Charles Gasnier d'Isle|lt=Jean-Charles Gasnier d'Isle|fr|Jean-Charles Gasnier d'Isle}}, and Jacques-Germain Soufflot.

After the French Revolution, the Gobelins manufactory served the First Empire, producing tapestries glorifying Napoleon’s military campaigns.

Attached to the administration of the Mobilier National in 1937, the Gobelins manufactory currently employs thirty workers and operates fifteen looms, producing six to seven pieces per year.

{{See also|Savonnerie manufactory}}

File:Louvre_-_Galerie_d_Apollon_-_Tapis_-_partie_centrale.JPG, after Charles Le Brun, made for the Galerie d'Apollon.]]

The Savonnerie manufactory was built in Paris in 1650 and reorganized by Colbert in 1663, placing it, like the Gobelins, under the artistic direction of painter Charles Le Brun.{{Cite web |title=Manufacture de la Savonnerie |trans-title=Savonnerie factory |url=https://www.mobiliernational.culture.gouv.fr/fr/nous-connaitre/les-manufactures/manufacture-de-la-savonnerie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052320/https://www.mobiliernational.culture.gouv.fr/fr/nous-connaitre/les-manufactures/manufacture-de-la-savonnerie |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Mobilier National |language=fr}} The Savonnerie manufactory was officially integrated into the Gobelins manufactory by King Charles X in 1825.{{Cite book |last=Alfred |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6422901v |title=Les manufactures nationales de tapisserie des Gobelins et de tapis de la Savonnerie et catalogue des tapisseries et des tapis |date=1885 |language=fr |trans-title=The national tapestry factories of the Gobelins and the Savonnerie and catalog of tapestries and carpets}}

{{See also|Beauvais Manufactory}}

The Beauvais tapestry manufactory was founded in 1664 by Colbert to develop domestic production and reduce the importation of Flemish tapestries.{{Cite web |last=Reyniès |first=Nicole |title=Création de la manufacture de tapisseries de Beauvais |trans-title=Creation of the Beauvais tapestry factory |url=https://francearchives.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2014/38834 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007223545/https://francearchives.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2014/38834 |archive-date=October 7, 2018 |website=FranceArchives |language=fr}} Unlike the Gobelins manufactory, whose production was mainly for the king, the Beauvais manufactory initially targeted the private market. In 1684, it became royal property, passing from one king to the next until the French Revolution. The painter Jean-Baptiste Huet took over its direction in 1790. Closed in 1793, the Beauvais manufactory reopened the following year as property of the Republican government, but its activity declined in the 19th century.

Administratively attached to the Mobilier National (which belongs to the French Ministry of Culture) in 1936 (as the Gobelins was in 1937), the manufactory was transferred to Aubusson in 1939 after its buildings in Beauvais were bombed during World War II, before being relocated back to Paris.

{{See also|Aubusson tapestry}}

File:L'éducation_d'Apollon.jpg (Musée Grobet-Labadié in Marseille), wool and silk tapestry from the Royal Manufactory of Aubusson, 18th century.]]

The existence of weaving workshops in the town of Aubusson near Limoges has been documented since the mid-16th century. However, this industry was in decline when Louis XIV decided to revive it in 1665 by granting all private workshops the title of "royal manufacture" and providing them with work-related benefits. The king's painter, Isaac Moillon, was made available to the producers, creating numerous "cartoons" for tapestries woven in Aubusson. The originality of the Aubusson royal manufacture lies in the fact that it was not a manufacture in the industrial sense but rather a group of preexisting workshops that received a royal label.

In 1732, a new royal edict granted workshops the assistance of a painter appointed by the monarchy to help with the execution of designs, as well as a dyer to serve as a consultant for the various manufacturers. This edict also regulated the colors used in tapestries, including blue borders and a requirement that the manufacturer's mark be woven after the mention of "Aubusson" rather than indicating its original workshop. However, these regulations were not always strictly followed, and several preserved pieces show that producers preferred to emphasize their title as a Royal Manufacture.

Many Aubusson tapestries are displayed at the {{Interlanguage link|Cité Internationale de la Tapisserie|lt=Cité Internationale de la Tapisserie|fr|Cité Internationale de la Tapisserie}}, which opened in 2016, replacing the previous museum from 1982 to 2016.{{Cite web |title=Aubusson : que devient l'ancien musée de la tapisserie ? |trans-title=Aubusson: what has become of the former tapestry museum? |url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/nouvelle-aquitaine/creuse/aubusson/aubusson-que-devient-ancien-musee-tapisserie-1737835.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019051424/https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/nouvelle-aquitaine/creuse/aubusson/aubusson-que-devient-ancien-musee-tapisserie-1737835.html |archive-date=October 19, 2019 |website=France 3 Nouvelle-Aquitaine |date=17 October 2019 |language=fr}} These tapestries are exhibited alongside temporary displays of contemporary works, including those inspired by the worlds of J.R.R. Tolkien and Hayao Miyazaki.{{Cite web |date=October 17, 2020 |title=Après Tolkien, la Cité de la tapisserie d'Aubusson se plonge dans l'univers onirique de Hayao Miyazaki |trans-title=After Tolkien, the Cité de la Tapisserie d'Aubusson immerses itself in the dreamlike world of Hayao Miyazaki |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/cinema/films-animation/apres-tolkien-la-cite-de-la-tapisserie-d-aubusson-se-plonge-dans-l-univers-onirique-de-hayao-miyazaki_4145599.html |website=Franceinfo |language=fr}}

{{See also|Toile}}

File:Christophe-Philippe_Oberkampf_(1738-1815).jpg, founder of the “manufacture Oberkampf”, and major player in the cotton industry in France.]]

The Manufacture of Toile de Jouy was founded in 1760 in the town of Jouy-en-Josas, near Paris, by Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf, a German-born industrialist who became a naturalized French citizen around 1770, and {{Interlanguage link|Antoine de Tavannes|lt=Antoine de Tavannes|fr|Antoine de Tavannes}}. The location was chosen due to the presence of the Bièvre River, whose chemical properties were favorable for washing textiles. This manufacture, known as the "Oberkampf Manufacture," quickly became one of the most significant textile printing factories (indienneries) in Europe during the 18th century and left its mark on the history of decorative arts.{{Harvsp|Bergeron|1999|pp=223-265}}

More than twenty years after its founding, in 1783, King Louis XVI granted the factory the title of "royal manufacture," and in 1787, Oberkampf was ennobled by a letter of merit. Having managed to continue operations during the French Revolution, Oberkampf introduced the first machine for printing Indian textiles in 1797 and developed new colors a few years later.{{Cite book |last=Tudesq |first=André Jean |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf |date=29 January 2025 |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/christophe-philippe-oberkampf/ }} By the early 19th century, when he had almost a monopoly on printed fabrics, Napoleon I visited his workshops in 1806 and awarded him the Legion of Honor. At its peak, the enterprise employed more than 1,300 weavers, engravers, and colorists. However, its growth halted with Oberkampf's death in October 1815, following the fall of the First French Empire.{{Cite web |date=May 29, 2015 |title=Sur les traces du créateur de la toile de Jouy |trans-title=In the footsteps of the creator of toile de Jouy |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/decouverte/sur-les-traces-du-createur-de-la-toile-de-jouy_927397.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602064138/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/decouverte/sur-les-traces-du-createur-de-la-toile-de-jouy_927397.html |archive-date=June 2, 2015 |website=Franceinfo |language=fr}}

In the years that followed, industrial production gradually overtook traditional craftsmanship, leading to lower textile prices that the Oberkampf Manufacture struggled to match. It closed in 1843, by which time the cotton industry—largely promoted by Oberkampf—employed about 300,000 workers in France.

File:Moquette_sacre_Charles_X_08287.jpg

{{See also|Fitted carpet}}

In 1667, Colbert brought the Flemish artisan Philippe Leclerc to Abbeville in Picardy to establish a carpet manufacturing workshop specializing in "mocades" (a type of textile). The business was taken over in 1686 by Jacques d’Homassel and later his son-in-law Jacques Hecquet, remaining in the family until 1823.

The company was then succeeded by the brothers Pierre-Antoine and {{Interlanguage link|Joseph Maximilien Vayson|lt=Joseph Maximilien Vayson|fr|Joseph Maximilien Vayson}}. During their administration, the manufacture was relocated to the former buildings of the {{Interlanguage link|Notre-Dame de Willencourt Abbey|lt=Notre-Dame de Willencourt Abbey|fr|Abbaye Notre-Dame de Willencourt}} and provided carpets for the coronation of Charles X. In 1867, {{Interlanguage link|Oar factory|lt=Abbeville's main carpet manufacture|fr|Manufacture des Rames}} closed, allowing Jean-Antoine Vayson, son of Pierre-Antoine, to centralize all his operations there. Carpet and rug production in Abbeville continued until 1912.

In the 18th century, Louis XIV and Colbert initiated the development of the cloth industry, hoping to compete with English and Dutch production. In 1670, at Colbert's request, the {{Interlanguage link|Compagnie du Levant|lt=Levant Company|fr|Compagnie du Levant}} was created to sell Languedocian cloth in the Ottoman Empire, through the port cities of Constantinople, Smyrna, and Alexandria.{{Harvsp|Boissonnade|1902|pp=5–49}} This industry expanded in the late 17th century when the War of the League of Augsburg weakened English and Dutch competitors, and Marseille merchants took control of the trade with the creation of the Bureau des Draps in 1693, which established a long trade route connecting Languedoc to the Échelles du Levant (trading posts in the Eastern Mediterranean).

File:Tournefort_Relation_T2_p184_Elegri.jpg (1717).]]

From approximately 10,000 pieces in 1700, shipments from the port of Marseille to the Eastern Mediterranean (Ottoman Empire and Persia) reached nearly 85,000 by 1775. Between 1757 and 1776, this region absorbed nearly 90% of Languedocian cloth production.

Producers and merchants were particularly attentive to product quality, a crucial factor in gaining access to distant markets. They relied on the "label" system to facilitate product identification based on origin and characteristics. To ensure the market received selected, competitive products, Colbert subjected production to strict regulations. Cloth underwent multiple inspections by a corps of manufacture inspectors before being shipped to the Échelles du Levant. Meanwhile, Marseille merchants' agents in the Levant provided insights into consumer preferences, tastes, and local fashion trends, prompting French producers to adapt by varying raw material and dye imports.

Several cloth manufactures were established in the Languedoc region, as well as in Île-de-France (Chevreuse),{{Cite journal |last=Owners of the Ribbon Manufacture of Chevreuse and Jean-Baptiste Colbert |date=1863 |title=Lettre de Jean-Baptiste Colbert (secrétaire d'Etat de la Marine et de la Maison du roi) aux propriétaires de la manufacture de rubans de Chevreuse datée du 29 juin 1670, à Paris |trans-title=Letter from Jean-Baptiste Colbert (Secretary of State for the Navy and the King's Household) to the owners of the Chevreuse ribbon factory dated June 29, 1670, in Paris |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/corr_0000-0002_1863_cor_2_2_924_t1_0532_0000_1 |journal=Collections numériques de la Sorbonne |language=fr |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=532}} Alsace (Sedan),{{Cite web |title=Ancienne manufacture royale de draps dite "le Dijonval" |trans-title=Former royal sheet factory known as “le Dijonval” |url=https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00078523 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504213054/https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00078523 |archive-date=May 4, 2019 |website=pop.culture.gouv.fr |language=fr}} Berry (Châteauroux),{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2018 |title=Châteauroux et les cités lainières d'Europe. De la manufacture royale de draps à l'usine Balsan |trans-title=Châteauroux and the wool cities of Europe. From the royal cloth factory to the Balsan factory |url=https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/article/97496544 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526180833/https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/article/97496544 |archive-date=May 26, 2023 |website=Archives Nationales |language=fr}} and Picardy (Abbeville).{{Cite web |date=1988 |title=Tissage de draps fins, filature de laine dit Manufacture des Rames |trans-title=Weaving of fine sheets, wool spinning, known as Manufacture des Rames |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/IA00076576 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052319/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/IA00076576 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}

{{See also|Saptes cloth factory|Villeneuvette manufactory|Royal Manufactory of Montolieu}}

Languedoc, historically very active in textile production and export, was particularly encouraged by the monarchy to host manufactures dedicated to cloth production. At the beginning of the 18th century, Languedoc had around a dozen royal manufactures—nine near Carcassonne—of varying sizes, along with about fifty private ones. The main royal manufactures were:

• The {{Interlanguage link|Saptes cloth factory|lt=Saptes Cloth Manufacture|fr|Manufacture de draps des Saptes}}, established in Carcassonne in 1667 by Colbert, employed 200 workers by 1689. Ten years later, facing competition from numerous newly established regional manufacturers, it was forced to cease operations before being revived by the state in the early 18th century.{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2004 |title=1699, décadence de la manufacture des Saptes |trans-title=1699, decline of the Saptes factory |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2004/08/16/245090-1699-decadence-de-la-manufacture-des-saptes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035106/https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2004/08/16/245090-1699-decadence-de-la-manufacture-des-saptes.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |work=La Dépêche du Midi |pages=1 |language=fr}} It closed permanently around 1780.

• {{Interlanguage link|Villeneuvette manufactory|lt=Villeneuvette Manufacture|fr|Manufacture de Villeneuvette}}, near Lodève, was founded in 1675 and declared a royal manufacture in 1677. Its high-quality production was intended for the Levant, though exports had varying success.{{Cite journal |last=Alberge |first=Claude |date=1970 |title=Villeneuvette : une manufacture en Bas-Languedoc |trans-title=Villeneuvette: a factory in Bas-Languedoc |url=https://www.etudesheraultaises.fr/wp-content/uploads/1970-3-02-villeneuvette-une-manufacture-en-bas-languedoc.pdf |journal=Études sur l'Hérault |language=fr |issue=3 |pages=17–42}} In 1803, it was taken over by the Maistre family and began producing military cloth for the army. From the late Second Empire until its closure in 1954, it operated under a paternalistic business model theorized by sociologist Frédéric Le Play.{{Cite journal |last=Silhol |first=Bruno |date=2007 |title=La théorie du patronage de Le Play : Une illustration |trans-title=Le Play's theory of patronage: An illustration |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-d-histoire-des-idees-politiques1-2007-1-page-109.htm |journal=Revue française d'Histoire des idées politiques |volume=25 |language=fr |issue=25 |pages=109–124|doi=10.3917/rfhip.025.0109 }} The site, now part of the commune of Villeneuvette, was listed as a historical monument in 2014.{{Cite web |title=Notice No. PA00103759 |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00103759 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052238/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00103759 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Base Mérimée, French Ministry for Culture |language=fr}}

• The Royal Manufacture of La Trivalle, founded in Carcassonne in 1694 by Guillaume III Castanier, received the status and privileges granted to royal industrial establishments in 1696.{{Cite journal |last1=Ferriol |first1=Marie-Chantal |last2=Pauly |first2=Marie-France |last3=Tarbouriech |first3=Christiane |last4=Cassagnaud |first4=Vincent |date=2014 |title=L'ancienne manufacture royale de draps de la Trivalle à Carcassonne |trans-title=The former royal Trivalle cloth factory in Carcassonne |url=https://www.carcassonne.org/sites/default/files/fichierattache/duo_manufacture_royale_web.pdf |journal=Direction régionale des affaires culturelles du Languedoc-Roussillon |language=fr |pages=47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052330/https://www.carcassonne.org/sites/default/files/fichierattache/duo_manufacture_royale_web.pdf |archive-date=January 3, 2022}} After continuous growth and multiple expansions during the 18th century, it went bankrupt in 1789. The building was purchased in 1812 and converted into a mechanized wool spinning mill.

• The Montolieu Royal Cloth Manufacture, near Carcassonne, was built by order of Louis XV in 1739 and reached its peak in the second half of the 18th century. However, the wars following the French Revolution slowed production and trade.{{Cite web |title=Ancienne manufacture royale |trans-title=Former royal factory |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA11000030 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052209/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA11000030 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=pop.culture.gouv.fr |language=fr}} The building, later transformed into a guesthouse in the early 20th century, was listed as a historical monument in 2004.{{Cite web |title=La Manufacture Royale à Montolieu ~ Bâtiment historique de 1739 |trans-title=The Manufacture Royale in Montolieu ~ Historic building from 1739 |url=https://la-manufacture-royale.fr/notre-histoire/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117090309/https://la-manufacture-royale.fr/notre-histoire/ |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |website=La Manufacture Royale à Montolieu |language=fr}}

{{See also|Le Dijonval, the Royal Linen Mill|Oar factory|Chevreuse ribbon factory}}

In the northern part of the Kingdom of France, the main royal cloth manufactures included:

• Le Dijonval Royal Manufacture, founded in 1646 in Sedan, was granted the privilege of producing fine cloth in the Dutch style. The site expanded throughout the 18th century and modernized in the 19th century with steam-powered machinery. Additional workshops were built, some leased to other industrialists. Operations ceased in 1958,{{Cite web |title=Usine textile dite manufacture royale du Dijonval |trans-title=Textile factory known as the royal factory of Dijonval |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/IA08000584 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222123117/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/IA08000584 |archive-date=December 22, 2021 |website=pop.culture.gouv.fr |language=fr}} and the building was classified as a historical monument in 1992.

• The Rames Manufacture, created in Abbeville in 1665 by Colbert and {{Interlanguage link|Van Robais family|lt=Josse Van Robais|fr|Famille Van Robais}},{{Cite book |last=Collomb |first=Olivier |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Josse Van Robais |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter= |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/josse-van-robais/ }} employed 3,000 workers at its peak around 1724. The company flourished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries before being acquired by industrialist Janin Vayson in 1867. It ceased operations in the 20th century, and the building was designated a historical monument in 1986.

• The Chevreuse Ribbon Manufacture, established in the Paris region by Colbert in 1670, but it ceased operations after only a few years.

{{See also|Balsan (company)}}

Unlike the other cloth manufactures mentioned above, the Châteauroux Manufacture, founded in 1665 as a "collective royal manufacture," is still active today under the name Balsan.

In 1751, a significant milestone was reached when Louis XV granted permission to establish a royal cloth manufacture in the {{Interlanguage link|Château du Parc (Châteauroux)|lt=park of Châteauroux Castle|fr|Château du Parc (Châteauroux)}}, where workshops specifically designed for textile production were built. Their simple, regular layout enabled a concentrated and efficient work organization, facilitated supervision, and ensured higher-quality production.

File:Manufacture-Balsan-Plan-1862-Sud.jpg, engraving from 1862.]]

From the 19th century, these workshops were mechanized, with the production process supplemented by home-based spinning carried out by numerous workers. In 1859, the manufacture was purchased by {{Interlanguage link|Pierre Balsan|lt=Pierre Balsan|fr|Pierre Balsan}}, who gave his name to the company and moved operations to a new six-hectare factory west of the original site. The {{Interlanguage link|Balsan family|lt=Balsan family|fr|Famille Balsan}} managed it until 1974. In 1973, Balsan shifted its focus to carpet manufacturing and relocated again to Arthon, near Châteauroux, where it remains in operation today.{{Cite web |title=Site de l'entreprise |trans-title=Company website |url=https://www.balsan.com/catalogue |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119083545/https://www.balsan.com/catalogue |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |website=balsan.com |language=fr}}

{{See also|Silk stocking factory}}

The establishment of the silk stocking manufacture in Neuilly-sur-Seine in 1656 resulted from a royal privilege granted to Jean Hindret. However, this monopoly was not respected, and several other silk stocking manufactures were founded in Lyon and Orange in 1662, followed by others in Nîmes, Montauban, and Chambéry.{{Cite book |last1=Piuz |first1=Anne-Marie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tZ34SIKrjeUC&dq=%22Manufacture+de+bas+de+soie%22&pg=PA450 |title=L'économie genevoise de la Réforme à la fin de l'Ancien Régime, XVIe – XVIIIe siècles |last2=Mottu-Weber |first2=Liliane |date=1990 |publisher=Librairie Droz |isbn=978-2-8257-0422-6 |pages=450 |language=fr |trans-title=The Geneva economy from the Reformation to the end of the Ancien Régime, 16thth – 18thth centuries}} Facing difficulties due to competition and a shortage of skilled labor after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the silk stocking manufacture ceased operations by the late 17th century.

{{See also|Alençon lace}}

File:Portrait_of_a_member_of_the_Chigi_family.jpg, on display at the Museum of Fine Arts and Lace in Alençon.]]

In the 1650s, the Venetian Point lace technique was introduced in Alençon, Normandy, by Marthe La Perrière, a French noblewoman and engineer. She refined it to create the Point d’Alençon lace, for which she received a royal privilege from Louis XIV in 1665. Anticipating Taylorism, she implemented a {{Interlanguage link|Scientific organization of work|lt=scientific work organization|fr|Organisation scientifique du travail}} that specialized workers in different tasks, providing employment to thousands of people in the Alençon area. Her designs were influenced by Charles Le Brun, the king’s chief painter and director of the Gobelins, until his death in 1690.

In the 18th century, competition from Flemish bobbin lace and changes in fashion (both male and female) reduced demand for Alençon lace, leading to a decline in orders until the French Revolution. In February 1794, revolutionary leader Saint-Just granted a subsidy to Alençon in an attempt to save the needle lace industry, a concern later shared by Napoleon I as part of his policy to support luxury industries.

At the beginning of the 19th century, production was revived thanks to the {{Interlanguage link|Sisters of Charity of Our Lady of Évron|lt=Congregation of the Sisters of Providence of Alençon|fr|Sœurs de la charité de Notre-Dame d'Évron}}, who preserved the tradition despite competition from mechanical lace and enabled the craft to continue through a few devoted clients. Alençon lace was inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity on November 16, 2010, after being included in the Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage in France.{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2010 |title=Des traditions françaises distinguées par l'Unesco |trans-title=French traditions honored by UNESCO |url=https://www.la-croix.com/Culture/Actualite/Des-traditions-francaises-distinguees-par-l-Unesco-_NG_-2010-11-17-558995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718164607/https://www.la-croix.com/Culture/Actualite/Des-traditions-francaises-distinguees-par-l-Unesco-_NG_-2010-11-17-558995 |archive-date=July 18, 2020 |work=La Croix |pages=1 |language=fr |issn=0242-6056}} The manufacture, still in operation with about ten specialized workers, has been attached to the Mobilier National since 1976.

Upholstery velvet was used to decorate the interiors of homes, particularly furniture such as armchairs and sofas. Since the Middle Ages, the city of Amiens had been renowned for its cloth production,{{Cite web |title=L'industrie textile à Amiens |trans-title=The textile industry in Amiens |url=http://www.accueil-mobilite.fr/art/presentation-du-territoire/amiens/l-industrie-textile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173851/http://www.accueil-mobilite.fr/art/presentation-du-territoire/amiens/l-industrie-textile |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |website=accueil-mobilité.fr |language=fr}} made possible by woad cultivation. Velvet, however, did not appear until the 17th century, when it was made from linen and mohair.

After revocating the Edict of Nantes by the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, Huguenot manufacturers had to leave France to maintain their religion. Many of them, including some from Amiens, settled in Utrecht in the Dutch Republic. The quality of their production established the reputation of upholstery velvet, which became known as "Utrecht velvet."

To compete with {{Interlanguage link|Utrecht velvet|lt=Dutch|fr|Velours d'Utrecht}} and {{Interlanguage link|Velvet from Genoa|lt=Italian|fr|Velours de Gênes}} production, a Royal Manufacture of Floral Fabrics was established in Amiens in 1755 by Alexandre Bonvallet, a cloth merchant from Picardy.{{Cite web |title=Alexandre Bonvallet (1717-1795) |url=http://bleudecocagne.org/tag/inventeur/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202195215/http://bleudecocagne.org/tag/inventeur/ |archive-date=December 2, 2021 |website=bleudecocagne.org |language=fr}} He developed the embossing of velvet using a cylinder and relief printing with a copper plate. This type of production gave rise to {{Interlanguage link|Amiens Velvet|lt=Amiens Velvet|fr|Velours d'Amiens}}, which brought the city great fame until the 20th century. The manufacture ceased operations during the interwar period, but its technique and several cylinders were taken over by the company Tosccan, which has been located since 2017 in the former premises of the {{Interlanguage link|Cosserat velvet and cotton mill|lt=Cosserat Velvet Manufacture|fr|Manufacture de velours et coton Cosserat}} in Amiens.

A second royal manufacture, Morgan et Delahaye, was established in 1765 in the Picardy capital and began producing cotton velvet for clothing and "Utrecht velvet" for furnishings. It was so successful that it dominated the industrial production of Amiens for two centuries.{{Cite journal |last=Molitor |first=Gabrielle |date=1932 |title=Les industries d'Amiens |trans-title=The industries of Amiens |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/geo_0003-4010_1932_num_41_233_10731 |journal=Annales de géographie |language=fr |volume=41 |issue=233 |pages=449–459|doi=10.3406/geo.1932.10731 }}

{{See also|Royal Sailing Cloth Factory}}

The Royal Sailcloth Manufacture was built between 1764 and 1780 in Agen by the merchant Pierre Gounon, under authorization from the financial intendant Daniel-Charles Trudaine, from whom it derived its royal status.{{Cite web |date=August 2020 |title=La gendarmerie et la manufacture de toile royale |trans-title=The gendarmerie and the royal canvas factory |url=https://www.petitbleu.fr/2020/08/02/la-gendarmerie-et-la-manufacture-de-toile-royale-9004358.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803122727/https://www.petitbleu.fr/2020/08/02/la-gendarmerie-et-la-manufacture-de-toile-royale-9004358.php |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |website=Le Petit Bleu d'Agen |language=fr}}{{Cite web |title=Un jour, une histoire Une manufacture royale de toile à voiles caserne Valence |trans-title=A day, a story A royal sailcloth factory Valence barracks |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2011/07/26/1134816-un-jour-une-histoire-une-manufacture-royale-de-toile-a-voiles-caserne-valence.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912022902/https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2011/07/26/1134816-un-jour-une-histoire-une-manufacture-royale-de-toile-a-voiles-caserne-valence.html |archive-date=September 12, 2015 |website=ladepeche.fr |language=fr}} Like the royal firearms manufactures, the Agen sailcloth manufacture benefited greatly from the American War of Independence, which spurred significant growth.

However, the manufacture quickly entered a period of decline at the beginning of the 19th century, suffering from the effects of Napoleon I's Continental Blockade against Great Britain and the decline of sailing ships in favor of steamships. Currently, the building serves as a barracks for the Agen Gendarmerie.

{{See also|Glassworks in Nord-Pas-de-Calais-Picardie}}

The use of glass for making windows, known since Roman antiquity, remained rare during the Middle Ages except for stained glass.{{Cite journal |last=Foy |first=Danièle |date=2014 |title=Verres médiévaux (XIIIe – XIVe siècles) à décor de gouttes rapportées. Les témoignages du midi de la France et leurs parallèles : variantes, chronologie et filiation |trans-title=Medieval glasses (13th and 14th and 15th centuries) with applied drop decoration. The testimonies of the south of France and their parallels: variants, chronology and filiation |url=https://journals.openedition.org/archeomed/8193 |journal=Archéologie médiévale |language=fr |issue=44 |pages=125–154 |doi=10.4000/archeomed.8193 |issn=0153-9337}} At the end of the 13th century, Venetian glassworks were established on the island of Murano to prevent fire hazards in the city. Their isolation allowed them to innovate and refine their expertise while protecting their manufacturing secrets.{{Cite web |date=January 6, 2021 |title=Les perliers de Venise espèrent que leur classement au patrimoine de l'Unesco sera "un moteur de la reprise" |trans-title=The pearl divers of Venice hope that their classification as a UNESCO World Heritage Site will be “a driving force for recovery”. |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/mode/les-perliers-de-venise-esperent-que-leur-classement-au-patrimoine-de-l-unesco-sera-un-moteur-de-la-reprise_4246445.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106111910/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/mode/les-perliers-de-venise-esperent-que-leur-classement-au-patrimoine-de-l-unesco-sera-un-moteur-de-la-reprise_4246445.html |archive-date=January 6, 2021 |website=France Info |language=fr}} As Venetian glass became a valuable export, Colbert sought to replicate their methods and founded several glassworks in France.{{Harvsp|Pris|Marquant|1977|p=6}} The three royal manufactures detailed below, dedicated to the production of glass and mirrors, have since merged into today’s major company Saint-Gobain.{{Cite web |title=Les archives historiques de Saint-Gobain |trans-title=The Saint-Gobain historical archives |url=https://archives.saint-gobain.com/les-archives-historiques-de-saint-gobain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123014149/https://archives.saint-gobain.com/les-archives-historiques-de-saint-gobain |archive-date=January 23, 2021 |website=Saint-Gobain Archives |language=fr}}

{{See also|Saint-Gobain|Hall of Mirrors}}

Colbert quickly took an interest in the glass and mirror industry, which was monopolized by the Republic of Venice, exporting Venetian glass across Europe at high costs. To uncover their manufacturing secrets, Colbert ordered the espionage of Venetian glassmakers and successfully lured some to France with financial incentives—although several were later assassinated by Venetian agents.

File:Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg at the Palace of Versailles.]]

In October 1665, Colbert founded the Royal Mirror Glass Manufacture and appointed financier Nicolas du Noyer, general tax collector in Orléans, as its first director, giving the manufacture the name "Compagnie du Noyer." Nicolas du Noyer and his partners received a 20-year monopoly on the production of glass and mirrors, beginning operations the following year in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine district of Paris. However, the first flawless glass sheets were not produced until 1672. The Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, built between 1678 and 1684, spanning 73 meters and adorned with 357 mirrors, demonstrated the manufacturing prowess of the Royal Mirror Glass Manufacture.{{Cite web |date=March 24, 2016 |title=La galerie des Glaces |trans-title=The Hall of Mirrors |url=http://www.chateauversailles.fr/decouvrir/domaine/chateau/galerie-glaces |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419130335/http://www.chateauversailles.fr/decouvrir/domaine/chateau/galerie-glaces |archive-date=April 19, 2021 |website=Palace of Versailles |language=fr}} In 1692, the company relocated to the former Château of the Lords of Coucy in Saint-Gobain, as the new production process required large quantities of wood, which were abundantly available in the Retz Forest, then managed primarily to supply wood for Paris. That same year, the manufacture was renamed the Compagnie Plastrier.

File:Saint-Gobain_18Jhdt.jpg in the 18th century, origin unknown.]]

At the end of the 18th century, the Saint-Gobain site alone employed between 2,000 and 3,000 workers, but the French Revolution led to the abolition of the manufacture’s monopoly, causing the international market to collapse. It was not until 1830 that its activities resulted in the creation of the Saint-Gobain company, which in 1858 absorbed its main competitor, the {{Interlanguage link|Mirror and glass manufacturers of Saint-Quirin, Cirey and Monthermé|lt=Saint-Quirin glassworks|fr|Manufactures de glaces et verres de Saint-Quirin, Cirey et Monthermé}}, and became publicly traded in 1902.

Still operating in 2015 with more than 170,000 employees, Saint-Gobain is the oldest company listed on the CAC 40 and a major historical legacy of Colbert. However, its historical premises in the town of Saint-Gobain are no longer used by the company and have since been repurposed for the manufacture of carousels.{{Cite web |title=Concept 1900 des carrousels made in Aisne à Saint-Gobain qui s'exportent dans le monde entier |trans-title=Concept 1900 carousels made in Aisne at Saint-Gobain, exported all over the world |url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/hauts-de-france/aisne/concept-1900-carrousels-made-in-aisne-saint-gobain-qui-s-exportent-monde-entier-1555594.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924084327/https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/hauts-de-france/aisne/concept-1900-carrousels-made-in-aisne-saint-gobain-qui-s-exportent-monde-entier-1555594.html |archive-date=September 24, 2020 |website=France 3 Hauts-de-France |language=fr}}

{{See also|La Glacerie}}

Glass manufacturing in the village of La Glacerie dates back to the early 16th century, with King Francis I granting a royal privilege to the Belleville family in 1540.{{Cite news |date=April 2019 |title=Cherbourg-en-Cotentin. Le site historique de la Manufacture en voie d'être préservé |trans-title=Cherbourg-en-Cotentin. The historic site of the Manufacture is in the process of being preserved |url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/cherbourg-en-cotentin-le-site-historique-de-la-manufacture-en-voie-d-etre-preserve-6306931 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405064058/https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/cherbourg-en-cotentin-le-site-historique-de-la-manufacture-en-voie-d-etre-preserve-6306931 |archive-date=April 5, 2022 |work=Ouest-France |language=fr}} The site benefited from its natural surroundings: a large supply of wood from the Brix Forest, the Trottebec River to power mills, and seaweed for producing soda ash, an essential ingredient in glassmaking. Additionally, its geographic position provided a double advantage: proximity to the {{Interlanguage link|Port of Cherbourg|lt=port of Cherbourg|fr|Port de Cherbourg}} for shipping products via sea and river transport and seclusion to protect manufacturing secrets.

Starting in 1655, the glassworks were managed by {{Interlanguage link|Richard Lucas de Néhou|lt=Richard Lucas de Néhou|fr|Richard Lucas de Néhou}}, who modernized it by diversifying production to include crystals, window glass, and spectacle lenses. He partnered with Colbert to make the factory a subcontractor for the Royal Mirror Glass Manufacture. In 1667, the La Glacerie factory was officially integrated into the royal manufacture, contributing to the production of mirrors for the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The factory produced the glass, which was then polished in Parisian workshops. Closed in 1834, the La Glacerie factory was later converted into a museum but was destroyed by Allied bombings in Normandy in 1944.{{Cite web |date=April 16, 2016 |title=La Glacerie. Anéanti en 1944, le musée renaîtra de ses cendres en 1985 |trans-title=La Glacerie. Destroyed in 1944, the museum rose from the ashes in 1985. |url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/la-glacerie-aneanti-en-1944-le-musee-renaitra-de-ses-cendres-en-1985-4167070 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520031130/https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/la-glacerie-aneanti-en-1944-le-musee-renaitra-de-ses-cendres-en-1985-4167070 |archive-date=May 20, 2016 |website=ouest-france.fr |language=fr}}

{{See also|Mirror and glass manufacturers of Saint-Quirin, Cirey and Monthermé}}

The glass and mirror manufactures of Saint-Quirin, Cirey, and Monthermé consisted of three factories built between 1737 and 1762 in these villages in Champagne. The Saint-Quirin glassworks was granted the title of "Royal Manufacture" by Louis XV in 1755, adopting the name "Royal Manufacture of Crystals and Table Glass." The three establishments merged in 1766, becoming a major competitor to the Royal Mirror Glass Manufacture for a century. Eventually, the two companies merged in 1858.

{{See also|Saint-Louis (glass manufacturer)|Portieux Glassworks|Baccarat (company)}}

The Compagnie des Cristalleries de Saint-Louis was founded in 1586 in the Münzthal Valley, making it France’s oldest crystal manufacturer. Specializing in decorative arts, tableware, lighting, and furniture, it has been owned by Hermès since 1994.{{Cite news |date=1994 |title=Hermès prend le contrôle de Saint-Louis et de Puiforcat |trans-title=Hermès takes control of Saint-Louis and Puiforcat |url=https://www.lesechos.fr/1994/06/hermes-prend-le-controle-de-saint-louis-et-de-puiforcat-883517 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214093137/https://www.lesechos.fr/1994/06/hermes-prend-le-controle-de-saint-louis-et-de-puiforcat-883517 |archive-date=December 14, 2019 |work=Les Echos |pages=1 |language=fr}} The Portieux crystalworks was established in Lorraine around 1690. It was granted royal status in 1767, the year after Lorraine was annexed to France. Currently, it is a subsidiary of the Paris-based company {{Interlanguage link|Les Jolies Céramiques au kaolin|lt=The Pretty Kaolin Ceramics|fr|Les Jolies Céramiques au kaolin}}.

The Baccarat crystalworks was founded in 1764 by Bishop Louis-Joseph de Montmorency-Laval of Metz, under permission from King Louis XV. Production included window panes, mercury-silvered mirrors, and glassware.{{Cite web |date=July 22, 2020 |title=Inquiétudes sur l'avenir de la Cristallerie de Baccarat |trans-title=Concerns about the future of the Baccarat Crystal Works |url=https://www.francebleu.fr/infos/economie-social/inquietudes-sur-l-avenir-de-la-cristallerie-de-baccarat-1595323706 |website=France Bleu |language=fr}} After a period of rapid growth, the manufacture struggled economically after the French Revolution, eventually going bankrupt in 1806. It was later revived and modernized following its purchase in 1820 by industrialist {{Interlanguage link|Aimé-Gabriel d’Artigues|lt=Aimé-Gabriel d’Artigues|fr|Aimé-Gabriel d’Artigues}}, then in 1822 by three associates, including businessman {{Interlanguage link|Pierre Antoine Godard-Desmarest|lt=Pierre Antoine Godard-Desmarest|fr|Pierre Antoine Godard-Desmarest}}. The factory experienced renewed growth during the Industrial Revolution.{{Cite web |title=Carafe - Les œuvres majeures - Collections |trans-title=Carafe - The major works - Collections |url=http://www.musee-lorrain.nancy.fr/fr/collections/les-oeuvres-majeures/carafe-48 |website=musee-lorrain.nancy.fr |language=fr}} Still in operation today, the Baccarat crystalworks employed 650 workers in 2018.{{Cite web |title=Baccarat Cristal - Bijoux, Decoration, Luminaire, Arts de la table et Cadeaux de luxe |trans-title=Baccarat Cristal - Jewelry, Decorations, Lighting, Tableware and Luxury Gifts |url=https://www.baccarat.fr |website=Baccarat |language=fr}}

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the numerous wars involving the Kingdom of France necessitated the establishment of weapons factories, which gained international fame after supplying firearms to the American revolutionaries during the War of Independence.{{Cite journal |last=Lebois |first=André |date=1977 |title=Beaumarchais et les insurgents d'Amérique |trans-title=Beaumarchais and the American insurgents |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/abpo_0399-0826_1977_num_84_3_2893 |journal=Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l'Ouest |language=fr |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=173–182 |doi=10.3406/abpo.1977.2893}}{{Cite web |date=July 16, 2020 |title=L'histoire des marques ardennaises 01/10: le Charleville, fusil emblématique de la guerre d'indépendance américaine |trans-title=The history of the brands of the Ardennes 01/10: the Charleville, the iconic rifle of the American War of Independence |url=https://www.lardennais.fr/id176687/article/2020-07-16/lhistoire-des-marques-ardennaises-0110-le-charleville-fusil-emblematique-de-la |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404025807/https://www.lardennais.fr/id176687/article/2020-07-16/lhistoire-des-marques-ardennaises-0110-le-charleville-fusil-emblematique-de-la |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |website=L'Ardennais |language=fr}}

{{See also|Charleville weapons manufacture}}

File:Nozon_fabrique_d'armes_08439.JPG forge, {{Interlanguage link|Ardennes Museum|lt=Musée de l'Ardenne|fr|Musée de l'Ardenne}}, date unknown.]]

The {{Interlanguage link|Charleville weapons manufacture|lt=Charleville weapons manufacture|fr|Manufacture d'armes de Charleville}} was established in 1675 by {{Interlanguage link|Maximilien Titon|lt=Maximilien Titon|fr|Maximilien Titon}}, Director-General of Royal Arms Manufactures and Warehouses, along with merchant Toussaint Fournier. In 1688, the city was granted the title of Royal Manufacture, along with a warehouse on Rue de Nevers, managed by Victor Fournier, which then became an exclusive supplier of firearms to the king. Firearms were assembled in Charleville using parts produced in two other main sites: Nouzonville, located on the {{Interlanguage link|Goutelle|lt=Goutelle|fr|Goutelle}} River, and Mohon, as well as in numerous small artisanal workshops scattered throughout the Meuse and Semois valleys.{{Cite web |date=August 26, 2019 |title=De la «Manu» au dernier pilon de Nouzonville |trans-title=From the “Manu” to the last pestle in Nouzonville |url=https://www.lardennais.fr/id88755/article/2019-08-26/de-la-manu-au-dernier-pilon-de-nouzonville |website=L'Ardennais |language=fr}} In 1717, Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, visited the Charleville arms factory on his {{Interlanguage link|Journey of Peter I the Great to Western Europe (1716-1717)|lt=way back|fr|Voyage de Pierre Ier le Grand en Europe occidentale (1716-1717)}} from Paris, where he had met Louis XV.{{Cite web |date=April 2017 |title=Il y a 300 ans, le tsar débarquait à Charleville |trans-title=Three hundred years ago, the Tsar arrived in Charleville |url=https://www.lardennais.fr/art/26655/article/2017-04-19/il-y-300-ans-le-tsar-debarquait-charleville |website=L'Ardennais |language=fr}}

At the end of the 18th century, the Charleville musket, designed by engineer Gribeauval, was produced. This firearm became widely known for its massive use on European battlefields (French Revolution, War in the Vendée, Napoleonic Wars) as well as in America (United States War of Independence). The Charleville manufacture was shut down in 1836, as it was deemed too close to the borders established in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna following Napoleon I’s defeat.{{Cite web |title=Manufacture d'armes, une part du patrimoine culturel |trans-title=Arms factory, part of the cultural heritage |url=https://www.business-in-ardennes.fr/manufacture-darmes-ou-manufacture-royale-de-charleville/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052353/https://www.business-in-ardennes.fr/manufacture-darmes-ou-manufacture-royale-de-charleville/ |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Business in Ardennes |language=fr}} This closure triggered an economic crisis in the region but benefited another former royal manufacture, the Saint-Étienne arms factory.

{{See also|Klingenthal, Bas-Rhin|Manufacture d'armes de Châtellerault}}

The Alsace Edged Weapons Manufacture was established in 1730 by order of Louis XV. It was the first of its kind in France, where edged weapons had previously been crafted by local blacksmiths and sword makers.{{Cite web |title=La Maison de la Manufacture de Klingenthal perpétue le savoir-faire des forgerons d'antan |trans-title=The Klingenthal House of Crafts perpetuates the know-how of the blacksmiths of yesteryear |url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/grand-est/2013/11/03/la-maison-de-la-manufacture-de-klingenthal-perpetue-le-savoir-faire-des-forgerons-d-antan-350711.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052319/https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/grand-est/2013/11/03/la-maison-de-la-manufacture-de-klingenthal-perpetue-le-savoir-faire-des-forgerons-d-antan-350711.html |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=France 3 Grand Est |date=11 March 2013 |language=fr}} The {{Interlanguage link|Ehn (river)|lt=Ehn|fr|Ehn}} Valley, upstream from Obernai, was chosen as the site due to the river’s energy production, as well as the abundant raw materials needed for the factory’s construction and operation (wood, sandstone). Additionally, the Rhine River’s proximity facilitated steel imports from Siegen and the distribution of weapons via Strasbourg’s arsenal. The Alsatian dialect, commonly spoken in the region, also helped the first workers from Solingen integrate more easily.

The village of Klingenthal was built from scratch around the manufacture in 1730. By the mid-19th century, Alsace was seen as a vulnerable region (it was eventually annexed by Germany in 1870), leading to the relocation of the manufacture to Châtellerault, near Poitiers.{{Cite web |date=November 20, 2013 |title=L'arrivée des Alsaciens à la Manu |trans-title=The arrival of the Alsatians at the Manu |url=https://www.lanouvellerepublique.fr/chatellerault/3-l-arrivee-des-alsaciens-a-la-manu |website=lanouvellerepublique.fr |language=fr}} In the 1990s, a museum was opened in the original Klingenthal buildings.{{Cite web |title=Klingenthal. Le musée de la manufacture d'armes blanches rouvre dimanche |trans-title=Klingenthal. The museum of the blade factory reopens on Sunday |url=https://www.dna.fr/culture-loisirs/2020/06/24/le-musee-de-la-manufacture-d-armes-blanches-rouvre-dimanche |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020151914/https://www.dna.fr/culture-loisirs/2020/06/24/le-musee-de-la-manufacture-d-armes-blanches-rouvre-dimanche |archive-date=October 20, 2020 |website=dna.fr |date=24 June 2020 |language=fr}}

{{See also|Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne|}}

The Saint-Étienne Royal Arms Manufacture was founded in 1764 with the approval of Louis XV and under the direction of M. de Montbéliard, an inspector of the {{Interlanguage link|Charleville weapons manufacture|lt=Charleville manufacture|fr|Manufacture d'armes de Charleville}}.{{Cite book |last=Constant |first=Jean-Marie |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Saint-Étienne arms factory |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/manufacture-d-armes-de-saint-etienne/ }} The title of "Royal Manufacture," granted in the late 18th century, allowed it to become the official supplier of French and foreign troops. However, it was not an industrial facility in the modern sense but rather an administrative grouping of nine existing workshops.{{Cite journal |last=Zanetti |first=Thomas |date=2011 |title=La Manufacture d'Armes de Saint-Étienne : un patrimoine militaire saisi par l'économie créative |trans-title=The Manufacture d'Armes de Saint-Étienne: a military heritage captured by the creative economy |url=https://journals.openedition.org/insitu/206 |journal=In Situ. Revue des patrimoines |issue=16 |doi=10.4000/insitu.206 |issn=1630-7305 |trans-quote=fr}}

File:Manufact_armes-OGIER_Th._1856.jpg in 1764, engraving from 1856.]]

Starting in 1775, during the American War of Independence, Louis XVI used this manufacture to support the American insurgents, in collaboration with poet Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais and shipowner {{Interlanguage link|Jean Peltier Dudoyer|lt=Jean Peltier Dudoyer|fr|Jean Peltier Dudoyer}} from Nantes.{{Cite news |date=March 2016 |title=Littérature. De la manufacture d'armes stéphanoise aux bateaux de Beaumarchais |trans-title=Literature. From the arms factory in Saint-Étienne to Beaumarchais' ships |url=https://www.leprogres.fr/sortir/2016/03/26/de-la-manufacture-d-armes-stephanoise-aux-bateaux-de-beaumarchais |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052304/https://www.leprogres.fr/sortir/2016/03/26/de-la-manufacture-d-armes-stephanoise-aux-bateaux-de-beaumarchais |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=Le Progrès |language=fr}}

In 1864, a century after receiving its royal title, the Saint-Étienne arms manufacture was transformed into a fully operational factory, covering 12 hectares. The closures of the Charleville and Klingenthal manufactures significantly increased its production. Its workforce grew from 10,000 workers in 1890 to 16,000 during World War I. However, after World War II, the factory suffered a severe decline and eventually closed in 1990.

{{See also|Manufacture Nationale d'Armes de Tulle|}}

The Tulle arms manufacture was founded in 1690 by Martial Fénis de Lacombe, King’s Prosecutor at the Presidial Court of Tulle. It was officially granted royal recognition in 1777.{{Cite book |last=Mortal |first=Patrick |url=https://books.openedition.org/septentrion/57135?lang=fr |title=Les armuriers de l'État. Du Grand Siècle à la globalisation 1665-1989 |date=2007 |publisher=Presses universitaires du Septentrion |isbn=9782859399917 |location=Villeneuve-d'Ascq |pages=19–45 |language=fr |trans-title=The State Gunsmiths. From the Grand Siècle to globalization 1665-1989 |chapter=De la fabrique à la manufacture royale |trans-chapter=From the factory to the royal manufactory}}

{{See also|Royal Company of Mines and Foundries of Languedoc|}}

The Royal Company of Mines and Foundries of Languedoc was founded in 1666 to exploit lead and copper deposits in the province, as well as those in Rouergue and Foix, and to establish foundries to refine the ore. The Company sought Colbert's support to bring miners from Sweden experienced in finding copper and lead veins, as well as ore processing, and sent engineers to Germany to study the mining systems of the Harz and Saxony regions. However, the knowledge transfer operation failed, and the project was abandoned in 1670.{{Cite book |last=Jarnac |first=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3KILEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT382 |title=Histoire du trésor de Rennes-le-Château |date=1998 |publisher=Bélisane |isbn=978-2-307-11359-1 |pages=401–410 |language=fr |trans-title=History of the Rennes-le-Château treasure}}

{{See also|Royal factory of Bains-les-Bains|}}

The Royal Tinplate Manufacture of Bains-les-Bains in Lorraine was established in 1733 through a patent letter from Duchess Élisabeth Charlotte, granddaughter of King Louis XIII and wife of Duke Leopold I of Lorraine.{{Cite web |title=Manufacture |url=https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00107087 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052249/https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00107087 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=www.pop.culture.gouv.fr |language=fr}} In the 19th century, the site was converted into a horse nail factory, before ceasing operations in 1950. In the 2000s, the site was privatized and turned into a gîte.{{Cite news |last=Ambrosi |first=Pascal |date=2016 |title=Les Cornevaux font revivre la Manufacture de Bains-les-Bains |trans-title=The Cornevaux bring the Bains-les-Bains factory back to life |url=https://www.lesechos.fr/2016/08/les-cornevaux-font-revivre-la-manufacture-de-bains-les-bains-1112199 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107022707/https://www.lesechos.fr/2016/08/les-cornevaux-font-revivre-la-manufacture-de-bains-les-bains-1112199 |archive-date=November 7, 2020 |work=Les Echos |pages=1 |language=fr}}

The techniques for manufacturing faience were known in France at the beginning of the 16th century, after developing in Spain and Northern Italy.{{Harvsp|Hossard|1953|pp=147-151}} Ceramists Masséot Abaquesne and Bernard Palissy were pioneers in France and significantly contributed to introducing this craft under the reign of Francis I.{{Cite web |last=Robert |first=Halleux |title=Bernard Palissy |url=https://francearchives.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2010/39153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052348/https://francearchives.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2010/39153 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=francearchives.fr}} The faience of Rouen, founded by Masséot Abaquesne, was one of the oldest in the kingdom but ceased operations after its founder’s death in 1564, only to be revived a century later by Regent Anne of Austria.

File:Bernard_Palissy.jpg (1501-1590), pioneer of ceramic craftsmanship in the Kingdom of France.]]

The 17th and 18th centuries were marked by a rapid increase in the number of faience manufactories in France, driven by several factors. On the one hand, Louis XIV’s foreign policy, aimed at financing his wars against foreign powers, required the melting down of all gold and silver objects and furniture in the kingdom. This decision directly impacted the noble families' tableware, leading them to turn to faience. On the other hand, France's economic boom allowed the bourgeoisie to become a new clientele for faience.{{Cite web |last=Prat |first=Véronique |date=December 14, 2007 |title=Versailles: le mobilier d'argent du Roi-Soleil |trans-title=Versailles: the Sun King's silver furniture |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/lefigaromagazine/2007/12/14/01006-20071214ARTFIG00437-versailles-le-mobilier-dargent-du-roi-soleil.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052356/https://www.lefigaro.fr/lefigaromagazine/2007/12/14/01006-20071214ARTFIG00437-versailles-le-mobilier-dargent-du-roi-soleil.php |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Le Figaro |language=fr}} Additionally, in the second half of the 18th century, the discovery of kaolinite, a white clay used in porcelain production, further contributed to the growth of this industry.{{Harvsp|Bouet|Balabanian|1994|pp=719-723}} Benefiting from these favorable circumstances, many private companies were founded alongside the royal manufactories: in Marseille (from 1677) and Varages nearby (1695), in Quimper (1708), in Strasbourg (1721), in Angoulême (1731), in Bourg-la-Reine (1735), in Malicorne in Sarthe (1747), in Martres-Tolosane in Languedoc (1748), in Desvres in the North (1748), and Moustiers in the Alps (1749).{{Cite journal |last=Rosen |first=Jean |date=2018 |title=La faïence en France du XIIIe au XIXe siècle : technique et histoire |trans-title=Earthenware in France from the 13th to the 19th century: technique and history |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01973891/file/Rosen%202018.pdf |journal=CNRS de Dijon |language=fr |pages=164 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052333/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01973891/file/Rosen%202018.pdf |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

The faience of Niderviller, while not receiving the title of Royal Manufacture, was one of the main faience factories in the kingdom when it was founded in 1730. The Lorraine village of Niderviller was attached to it before the Duchy of Lorraine by the Treaty of Vincennes in 1661, and it remains one of the last active faience factories in France, purchased in 1993 by the group "Les Jolies Céramiques sans Kaolin."{{Cite web |title=La faïencerie de Niderviller - La faïence emblématique d'Alsace-Lorraine |trans-title=The Niderviller pottery - The emblematic earthenware of Alsace-Lorraine |url=https://faience-niderviller.fr/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052334/https://faience-niderviller.fr/ |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=La Faïencerie de Niderviller |language=fr}} Except for Rouen faience, Colbert was relatively uninvolved in the development of this sector in France, most of whose growth occurred after he died in 1683.

{{See also|Rouen faience}}

The faïence of Rouen was founded in the 16th century by Masséot Abaquesne, who created pharmacy and grocery containers with Italian influences. His masterpiece is a series of tiles produced between 1540 and 1548 to decorate Château d'Écouen, now the National Renaissance Museum. The enterprise ceased operations after the death of its founder in 1564.{{Cite journal |last=Leroy |first=Catherine |date=1997 |title=Avers et revers des pavements du château d'Ecouen |trans-title=Obverse and reverse of the paving stones of the Château d'Ecouen |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rvart_0035-1326_1997_num_116_1_348325 |journal=Revue de l'Art |language=fr |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=27–41 |doi=10.3406/rvart.1997.348325}}

It was revived in 1644 thanks to a 50-year monopoly granted by Regent Anne of Austria to entrepreneurs Nicolas Poirel and Edme Poterat, becoming a Royal Manufacture. In the 1660s, Colbert supported the workshop with an order for tiles for the Trianon of Porcelain. In 1673, Louis Poterat, Edme's son, obtained royal permission to manufacture soft porcelain. Later, with the end of the Poterat monopoly, numerous competing factories opened (at its peak, Rouen had 22 factories), employing hundreds of workers. This growth was followed by a decline in the second half of the 18th century due to increasing competition, and by the end of the century, most of these factories ceased operations (including Edme Poterat’s factory in 1795).

{{See also|Bordeaux faience}}

On November 13, 1714, Jacques Hustin, the treasurer of the Bordeaux navy, obtained patent letters with an exclusive privilege for the production and marketing of stanniferous faience within a 10-league radius. Thanks to this royal privilege, which was renewed until 1762, he held the monopoly on faience production in his Bordeaux workshops.{{Cite web |title=Moncaut. Un petit bout de l'histoire de la faïence de Bordeaux |trans-title=Moncaut. A little piece of the history of Bordeaux earthenware |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2011/10/03/1181945-moncaut-un-petit-bout-de-l-histoire-de-la-faience-de-bordeaux.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052229/https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2011/10/03/1181945-moncaut-un-petit-bout-de-l-histoire-de-la-faience-de-bordeaux.html |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=ladepeche.fr |language=fr}}

In the 19th century, the Bordeaux faience factories were consolidated into the {{Interlanguage link|David Johnston (politician, 1789-1853)|lt=David Johnston|fr|David Johnston (homme politique, 1789-1853)}} Manufacture, an entrepreneur of Irish origin and Mayor of Bordeaux from 1838 to 1842.{{Cite news |title=Ces maires de Bordeaux surprenants (4/5) : David Johnston, un patron social à la faïencerie |trans-title=These surprising mayors of Bordeaux (4/5): David Johnston, a social leader at the pottery |url=https://www.sudouest.fr/elections/municipales/ces-maires-de-bordeaux-surprenants-4-5-david-johnston-un-patron-social-a-la-faiencerie-2027189.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052407/https://www.sudouest.fr/elections/municipales/ces-maires-de-bordeaux-surprenants-4-5-david-johnston-un-patron-social-a-la-faiencerie-2027189.php |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=SudOuest.fr |language=fr}} This manufacture was later acquired in 1845 by {{Interlanguage link|Jules Vieillard|lt=Jules Vieillard|fr|Jules Vieillard}} under the name "{{Interlanguage link|Manufacture J. Vieillard & Cie|lt=J. Vieillard & Cie|fr|Manufacture J. Vieillard & Cie}}", employing 1,300 workers in 1870, but ultimately ceased operations in 1895.{{Cite web |title=Jules Vieillard et Cie |url=https://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/espace-professionnels/professionnels/chercheurs/rech-rec-art-home/notice-artiste.html?no_cache=1&nnumid=39040&retouroeuvre=%252Ffr%252Fcollections%252Fcatalogue-des-oeuvres%252Fnotice.html%253Fnnumid%253D100146 |website=Musée d'Orsay |language=fr}}

{{See also|Vincennes porcelain|Manufacture nationale de Sèvres}}

The Vincennes manufacture, dedicated to producing soft porcelain, was established with the support of Louis XV in 1740 within the Vincennes Castle grounds, then transferred in 1756 to Sèvres to form the Sèvres Manufacture.{{Cite web |date=October 13, 2018 |title=Manufacture de Sèvres : les secrets de la porcelaine d'exception |trans-title=Manufacture de Sèvres: the secrets of exceptional porcelain |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/france/ile-de-france/hauts-de-seine/manufacture-de-sevres-les-secrets-de-la-porcelaine-d-exception_3000303.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052402/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/france/ile-de-france/hauts-de-seine/manufacture-de-sevres-les-secrets-de-la-porcelaine-d-exception_3000303.html |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Franceinfo |language=fr}} The manufacture was attached to the Crown in 1759, and hard porcelain was commercialized at Sèvres starting in 1770.{{Cite web |title=Manufacture et Musée nationaux |trans-title=National Museum and Factory |url=https://www.sevres.fr/culture/sevres-manufacture-et-musee-nationaux |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202065538/https://www.sevres.fr/culture/sevres-manufacture-et-musee-nationaux |archive-date=December 2, 2020 |website=Sèvres |language=fr}}

From 1800 to 1847, the manufacture flourished and gained international renown under the leadership of Alexandre Brongniart, a mineralogist and geologist appointed by Claude Berthollet.{{Cite book |last= |first= |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Alexandre Brongniart |date= 29 January 2025|chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/alexandre-brongniart/ }} In 1875, the manufacturer was relocated to specially built buildings by the French state, on the edge of Saint-Cloud Park, and it continues to operate in these historically protected sites, employing 120 official ceramists.

{{See also|Limoges porcelain|}}

In 1767, a kaolin deposit, white clay used in porcelain manufacturing, was discovered in Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche, near Limoges. The deposit was purchased by Louis XV in 1769, making porcelain production a royal privilege. The first Limoges porcelain factory was founded in 1771 and came under the protection of Count of Artois in 1774.

Throughout the 19th century, many factories were created in the Haute-Vienne, either near the forests (such as Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat, Sauviat-sur-Vige, and Rochechouart) or along rivers, or close to kaolin quarries (in Saint-Yrieix and Coussac-Bonneval), with industrialists like François Alluaud, who innovated and improved manufacturing processes, and the American David Haviland.

During the second half of the 19th century, the American market absorbed up to three-quarters of the value of production, and to meet demand, production became concentrated in Limoges. The {{Interlanguage link|Four des Casseaux|lt=Casseaux kiln|fr|Four des Casseaux}}, built in 1884, was used until 1959, and it is now preserved by the city of Limoges as a symbol of the city's porcelain tradition. The kiln has been listed as a historical monument since July 6, 1987.

{{See also|Lunéville-Saint-Clément pottery|}}

The Lunéville and Saint-Clément earthenware factories were founded in 1730 and 1758 by Jacques Chambrette, who entrusted the management of the Saint-Clément factory to his son Gabriel. Like the tinplate factory in Bains-les-Bains, the Lunéville factory became "royal" by the decision of Duchess Élisabeth Charlotte, who granted it tax exemptions. The Saint-Clément factory was officially authorized by Louis XV in 1758, located 7 km from Lunéville but on the territory of the Bishopric of Metz, allowing the Chambrette family to trade with the Kingdom of France without paying customs duties.{{Cite journal |last1=Guenot |first1=Jeannine |last2=Saillard |first2=Denis |date=2019 |title=La faïencerie de Lunéville. Du repérage d'objets à la patrimonialisation participative |trans-title=The Faïencerie de Lunéville. From the identification of objects to participatory heritage listing |url=https://journals.openedition.org/insitu/26079 |journal=In Situ. Revue des patrimoines |language=fr |issue=41 |doi=10.4000/insitu.26079 |issn=1630-7305}}

The Saint-Clément site was purchased in 1763 by sculptor {{Interlanguage link|Paul-Louis Cyfflé|lt=Paul-Louis Cyfflé|fr|Paul-Louis Cyfflé}} and royal architect Richard Mique, who also obtained public orders for their earthenware.{{Cite web |date=October 6, 2021 |title=Richard Mique |url=http://www.chateauversailles.fr/decouvrir/histoire/grands-personnages/richard-mique |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107124304/http://www.chateauversailles.fr/decouvrir/histoire/grands-personnages/richard-mique |archive-date=January 7, 2020 |website=Palace of Versailles}} The two sites were merged in 1892 to form the {{Interlanguage link|Lunéville-Saint-Clément earthenware factory|lt=Lunéville-Saint-Clément earthenware factory|fr|Faïencerie de Lunéville-Saint-Clément}}, which remains in operation and is currently owned by the company Les Jolies Céramiques sans kaolin.{{Harvsp|Guenot|Saillard|2019}}

{{See also|Cire Trudon|Royal Wax Manufactory|Royal factory of Dugny}}

The Antony factory for wax bleaching and candle making, known as the Royal Wax Factory, was founded in 1702 in Antony (south of Paris) by Brice Péan de Saint-Gilles and was acquired in 1737 by the Trudon family, active since 1643 also in Antony. Initially founded to supply candles to the Palace of Versailles, churches, and other royal castles, the company "Trudon," still in business today and currently based in Paris, now largely exports its products.{{Cite web |title=Histoire de Trudon |trans-title=Trudon history |url=https://trudon.com/eu_fr/univers-trudon/histoire.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413040032/https://trudon.com/eu_fr/univers-trudon/histoire.html |archive-date=April 13, 2020 |website=trudon.com |language=fr}}

In March 2020, the buildings of the former factory were sold to a property developer by the Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Cluny, which had owned the site since 1890. Historian and heritage defender Stéphane Bern, informed of plans to destroy part of the site to build housing, intervened with local officials to halt the project and preserve the historic factory. The mayor of Antony, {{Interlanguage link|Jean-Yves Sénant|lt=Jean-Yves Sénant|fr|Jean-Yves Sénant}}, responded positively, stating the city's intent to purchase and restore the site as a cultural venue.{{Cite web |date=March 2, 2020 |title=Patrimoine : Stéphane Bern au chevet de la manufacture royale des cires d'Antony |trans-title=Heritage: Stéphane Bern at the bedside of the Manufacture Royale des Cires d'Antony |url=https://www.leparisien.fr/hauts-de-seine-92/patrimoine-stephane-bern-au-chevet-de-la-manufacture-royale-des-cires-d-antony-02-03-2020-8271087.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303002006/https://www.leparisien.fr/hauts-de-seine-92/patrimoine-stephane-bern-au-chevet-de-la-manufacture-royale-des-cires-d-antony-02-03-2020-8271087.php |archive-date=March 3, 2020 |website=leparisien.fr |language=fr}}

The {{Interlanguage link|Royal factory of Dugny|lt=Royal Wax Factory of Dugny|fr|Manufacture royale de Dugny}}, specializing in the production of wax, candles, tapers, and torches, was granted the title of royal factory in 1774. It participated in the Industrial Revolution by being one of the first French factories to use steam engines for pressing candles.{{Cite book |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5495453h |title=Catalogue général descriptif de l'exposition : section française / Exposition universelle de Paris 1878 |date=1878 |language=fr |trans-title=General descriptive catalog of the exhibition: French section / Universal Exhibition of Paris 1878}}

{{See also|Tobacco Factory|Morlaix tobacco factory|Le Havre Tobacco Factory}}

In 1674, Colbert established a state monopoly on tobacco products and granted royal privileges to the tobacco operations in Morlaix, Dieppe, and Paris.{{Cite news |last=Nourrisson |first=Didier |date=2003 |title=Le tabac, le fisc et le buraliste |trans-title=Tobacco, the taxman and the tobacconist |url=https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-tabac-le-fisc-et-le-buraliste |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716071529/https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-tabac-le-fisc-et-le-buraliste |archive-date=July 16, 2018 |work=L'Histoire |language=fr}} These were managed by the General Farm, founded in 1680 by Louis XIV on Colbert's recommendation, with the mission of handling indirect tax collection, customs duties, stamp acts, and domain products.{{Harvsp|Cohen|1992|pp=108-112}}

In 1724, the French East India Company, founded by Colbert in 1664, established a {{Interlanguage link|Le Havre Tobacco Factory|lt=tobacco factory in Le Havre|fr|Manufacture des tabacs du Havre}}, initially set up in an old handball court and later constructed in 1726 by engineers {{Interlanguage link|Jean-Jacques Martinet|lt=Jean-Jacques Martinet|fr|Jean-Jacques Martinet}} and Jacques III Jules Gabriel.{{Cite web |date=1992 |title=Manufacture des Tabacs |trans-title=Tobacco Factory |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00100715 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505110430/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00100715 |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}} Active until the early 20th century, it was destroyed in 1944 by Allied bombings in Normandy.

The Morlaix factory was built starting in 1736 by Jean-François Blondel, architect of the Royal Academy of Architecture, and employed nearly 1,800 workers in the 19th century. Active until the mid-20th century,{{Cite web |date=1997 |title=Manufacture des tabacs de Morlaix |trans-title=Tobacco factory of Morlaix |url=https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA29000015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052250/https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA29000015 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}{{Cite news |date=2018 |title=Morlaix. L'Espace des sciences donne rendez-vous en 2020 à la Manu ! |trans-title=Morlaix. The Espace des sciences is organizing an event at the Manu in 2020! |url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/bretagne/morlaix-29600/morlaix-l-espace-des-sciences-donne-rendez-vous-en-2020-6142959 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221051715/https://www.ouest-france.fr/bretagne/morlaix-29600/morlaix-l-espace-des-sciences-donne-rendez-vous-en-2020-6142959 |archive-date=December 21, 2018 |work=Ouest France |language=fr}} the building was classified as a historical monument in 1997 and became a branch of the {{Interlanguage link|Espace des sciences|lt=Espace des sciences|fr|Espace des sciences}} in Rennes in 2020. The royal tobacco monopoly was abolished by the French Revolution in 1789, but other public monopolies on tobacco were established by the regimes that succeeded the Ancien Régime.

While Jean-Baptiste Colbert undeniably left his mark on French history with his determination to advance the country's economic development under Louis XIV, contemporary economists and historians are somewhat divided in evaluating his legacy.

Regarding the successes of Colbert's economic policies, historians and economists highlight:

• His management of France’s foreign trade, which saw the balance of trade, become highly favorable during his tenure.{{Harvsp|Marseille|2007}}

• The modernization of the state’s legal tools to regulate the kingdom's economy, such as the creation of the Forest Code (from which the current Code forestier comes), the Maritime Code, the Commerce Code (the "{{Interlanguage link|Savary Code|lt=Savary Code|fr|Code Savary}}"), and the {{Interlanguage link|Ordinance of March 1685 on the slaves of the American islands|lt=Black Code|fr|Ordonnance de mars 1685 sur les esclaves des îles de l'Amérique}} regulating the status and condition of slaves in the colonies.{{Cite web |title=Colbert et le Code noir: quels sont exactement les faits ? |trans-title=Colbert and the Code noir: what exactly are the facts? |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/histoire/colbert-qui-a-supervise-l-elaboration-du-code-noir-merite-t-il-vraiment-d-etre-deboulonne-20200625 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628120208/https://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/histoire/colbert-qui-a-supervise-l-elaboration-du-code-noir-merite-t-il-vraiment-d-etre-deboulonne-20200625 |archive-date=June 28, 2020 |website=Le Figaro |date=25 June 2020 |language=fr}}

• The creation of several {{Interlanguage link|French colonial companies|lt=French colonial companies|fr|Compagnies coloniales françaises}} and a powerful navy to import raw materials and export finished products, although these companies were much less successful than their English and Dutch counterparts.

• An effective transfer of skills, such as Dutch textile artisans brought in to develop the Gobelins factory, and Venetian glassmakers hired to establish the Royal Mirror Glass Factory. In addition to workers, great intellectuals like César-François Cassini, Christian Huygens, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz settled in France, some of whom worked for the Academy of Sciences.

• The development of transport infrastructure, like canals, helped unify the kingdom, and several ports. New cities were also created around certain factories, such as La Glacerie and Klingenthal.

• Finally, the state’s support for the creation of businesses through financial aid and protectionist measures helped several of them reach a critical size that favored their longevity, as evidenced by royal factories still in operation today, such as Saint-Gobain (formerly the Royal Mirror Glass Factory), Balsan (formerly the Châteauroux cloth factory), and Baccarat.

Colbert has been criticized by historians and proponents of economic liberalism, who accuse him of:

• An authoritarian, dirigiste approach to manufacturing, akin to the absolute monarchy he supported, aimed at maintaining order in the kingdom, where labor was intended to discipline and subjugate the population.

• Prioritizing certain sectors focused on "luxury industries," whose production and the jobs created benefited only a minority of the French population, while the majority remained rural and agricultural. Thus, by the time of Louis XIV's death in 1715, France’s GDP per capita had grown only 8% over the century, whereas that of the English had increased by 28%, and that of the Dutch by 54%.

• An economic pursuit primarily aimed at increasing the kingdom's tax base to support the king's military campaigns and lavish constructions such as the Palace of Versailles.

• Excessive protectionism justified by the search for a trade surplus, which led to the prohibition of importing "Indian" fabrics by the Marquis de Louvois in 1685, even though France did not produce any comparable fabrics, at least until the creation of the {{Interlanguage link|Oberkampf Factory|lt=Oberkampf factory|fr|Manufacture Oberkampf}} in 1760. This prohibition mainly resulted in an increase in smuggling in the short term.{{Harvsp|Margoline-Plot|2011|p=16}}

• The regulations and monopolies granted simultaneously prevented business projects within France (since they were prohibited in regulated sectors), which weakened France in favor of the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the Italian republics.

• Another effect of this excessive protectionism was that it discouraged innovation among industrial actors benefiting from state-granted monopolies and reinforced "technical conservatism."

{{See also|Industrial Revolution}}

At the start of the French Revolution, the new power rushed to "liberate market forces" by abolishing corporations (Allarde decree, 1791) and {{Interlanguage link|Offense of Coalition|lt=banning any coalitions|fr|Délit de coalition}} (Le Chapelier law, 1791). This legislation established the freedom of trade and industry, which became the foundation of economic liberalism in France.{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2015 |title=Décret d'Allarde, Loi Le Chapelier, textes libéraux ? |trans-title=Decree of Allarde, Law of Le Chapelier, liberal texts? |url=https://www.contrepoints.org/2015/06/19/211315-decret-dallarde-loi-le-chapelier-textes-liberaux |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307210726/https://www.contrepoints.org/2015/06/19/211315-decret-dallarde-loi-le-chapelier-textes-liberaux |archive-date=March 7, 2018 |work=Contrepoints |pages=1 |language=fr}} The bourgeoisie, the triumphant class of the Revolution, became the main driving force behind the industrialization of France, as it now had the most significant financial resources.

Several former royal manufactures thrived and modernized in the 19th century as private enterprises, such as the Oberkampf factory (which became royal 20 years after its founding in 1760), the {{Interlanguage link|Le Dijonval, the Royal Linen Mill|lt=Le Dijonval cloth factory|fr|Manufacture royale de draps Le Dijonval}}, the Rames factory, and most of the glass and ceramics factories. The Charleville and Klingenthal armaments factories, deemed too vulnerable due to their proximity to the Eastern border, were closed or relocated, benefiting the nationalized Saint-Étienne armaments factory in 1838, which was modernized with steam engines in 1864. In 1858, the Saint-Gobain factories merged with the {{Interlanguage link|Mirror and glass manufacturers of Saint-Quirin, Cirey and Monthermé|lt=Saint-Quirin, Cirey, and Monthermé glass and mirror factories|fr|Manufactures de glaces et verres de Saint-Quirin, Cirey et Monthermé}} and went public in 1902, making it the oldest company on the CAC 40 index.

Although the economic system was now liberal, the state financially invested in territorial development (like Colbert, who developed river and port infrastructures) to promote economic growth. The Guizot law (1842){{Cite journal |date=1842 |title=n°10023 - Loi relative à l'établissement de grandes lignes de chemin de fer |trans-title=No. 10023 - Law on the establishment of main railway lines |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k486426k/f500 |journal=Bulletin des lois du royaume de France |language=fr |location=Paris |volume=24 |issue=914 |pages=482–486}} and the Freycinet Plan (1879-1882){{Harvsp|Hautcoeur|2020}} favored the expansion of the railway system across the country, while Baron Haussmann carried out large-scale transformations of Paris under the Second Empire (1853-1870).{{Cite web |date=January 31, 2017 |title=Comment Haussmann a réussi son Paris |trans-title=How Haussmann won his bet on Paris |url=https://www.franceculture.fr/architecture/comment-haussmann-reussi-son-paris |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624215231/https://www.franceculture.fr/architecture/comment-haussmann-reussi-son-paris |archive-date=June 24, 2020 |website=France Culture |language=fr}} Another occasional persistence of Colbertist policies was the introduction of protectionist measures during unfavorable economic conditions, such as the Méline tariff of 1892, which created a dual customs tariff.{{Harvsp|Bezbakh|2014}}

The French colonial empire, largely established and organized by Richelieu and Colbert, also contributed to supporting industrialization by supplying raw materials to the mainland, primarily from the Caribbean, such as cotton, sugar, tobacco, and wood.{{Cite journal |last1=Becuwe |first1=Stéphane |last2=Blancheton |first2=Bertrand |date=2014 |title=Les colonies sucrières françaises, victimes de la libéralisation commerciale internationale des années 1860 ? |trans-title=The French sugar colonies, victims of the international trade liberalization of the 1860s? |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_1631-0438_2014_num_101_382_5094 |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |language=fr |volume=101 |issue=382 |pages=201–214 |doi=10.3406/outre.2014.5094}}

In 1992, French economist {{Interlanguage link|Élie Cohen (economist)|lt=Élie Cohen|fr|Élie Cohen (économiste)}} published an essay analyzing, among other things, France's industrial successes during the Thirty Glorious Years in the export sectors of capital goods, with state support. He defined "high-tech Colbertism" as a combination of public initiative in research, off-market financing, and public orders in service of companies and industries promoted as "attributes of sovereignty." While he focused on the telecommunications sector (the {{Interlanguage link|General Telecommunications Directorate|lt=General Telecommunications Directorate|fr|Direction générale des Télécommunications}} and Minitel), he also mentioned other industrial successes resulting from collaboration between the public and private sectors, particularly in transportation (Ariane, Airbus, or the TGV), energy (the Framatome nuclear sector, later Areva), and oil technologies (Coflexip, Technip).

In 2013, the French government launched a major reindustrialization project for France titled "34 Plans for a New Industrial France," led by President François Hollande and {{Interlanguage link|Ministry of Industry (France)|lt=Minister for Productive Recovery|fr|Ministère de l'Industrie (France)}} Arnaud Montebourg.{{Cite web |title=Nouvelle France industrielle : 34 plans de reconquête |trans-title=Nouvelle France industrielle: 34 plans for recovery |url=https://www.economie.gouv.fr/presentation-nouvelle-france-industrielle |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140925013011/https://www.economie.gouv.fr/presentation-nouvelle-france-industrielle |archive-date=September 25, 2014 |website=www.economie.gouv.fr |language=fr}} Among the 34 plans for reconquest announced by the government were the development of robotics, renewable energy, supercomputers, and the production of autonomous vehicles. "Plan leaders," mostly industrialists, were appointed to organize collective work and collaborative projects and report on the progress of their plan under the predefined roadmaps.{{Cite news |date=May 18, 2015 |title=La "nouvelle doctrine de l'État actionnaire", selon Emmanuel Macron |trans-title=The “new doctrine of the shareholder state”, according to Emmanuel Macron |url=https://www.usinenouvelle.com/editorial/la-nouvelle-doctrine-de-l-etat-actionnaire-selon-emmanuel-macron.N330005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428194656/https://www.usinenouvelle.com/editorial/la-nouvelle-doctrine-de-l-etat-actionnaire-selon-emmanuel-macron.N330005 |archive-date=April 28, 2017 |work=Usine Nouvelle |language=fr}}

This government-driven initiative to foster the growth of certain sectors considered strategic is seen by some economists as a "resurrection of Colbertism," especially since it includes sectors already considered strategic in the 18th century, such as textiles and the timber industry.{{Cite web |date=September 12, 2013 |title=Nouvelle France industrielle: "On ne peut pas jouer à Colbert en menant une politique d'austérité" |trans-title=Nouvelle France industrielle: “We can't play Colbert by pursuing an austerity policy” |url=https://www.lexpress.fr/economie/video-nouvelle-france-industrielle-on-ne-peut-pas-jouer-a-colbert-en-menant-une-politique-d-austerite_1353277.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528105519/https://www.lexpress.fr/economie/video-nouvelle-france-industrielle-on-ne-peut-pas-jouer-a-colbert-en-menant-une-politique-d-austerite_1353277.html |archive-date=May 28, 2023 |website=lexpress.fr |language=fr}} In his autobiography, published in 2020, Arnaud Montebourg gives particularly high praise to Colbert and states that he regularly drew inspiration from his industrial development plans under the Ancien Régime to revive the {{Interlanguage link|Industry in France|lt=French industry|fr|Industrie en France}} at the start of the 21st century.{{Harvsp|Montebourg|2020|pp=129-147}}

• Colbertism

• Mercantilism

• Infant industry argument

• Letters patent

• Monument historique

• {{Cite book |last1=Diderot |first1=Denis |url= |title=Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers |last2=Le Rond d'Alembert |first2=Jean |date=1751–1772 |publisher=André Le Breton |language=fr |trans-title= }}

• {{Cite book |last=Fagniez |first=Gustave |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k669186 |title=L'Industrie en France sous Henri IV (1589-1610) |date=1883 |publisher=Revue historique |language=fr |trans-title=Industry in France under Henry IV (1589-1610) |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite book |last=Fagniez |first=Gustave |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k25919g/f1 |title=L'Économie sociale de la France sous Henri IV (1589-1610) |date=1897 |publisher=Hachette |pages=101–162 |language=fr |trans-title=The Social Economy of France under Henry IV (1589-1610) |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite book |last=Weber |first=Max |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k25919g/f1 |title=L'Éthique protestante et l'esprit du capitalisme |date=1905 |publisher=Édition Plon |pages= |language=fr |trans-title=The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite book |last=Markovitch |first=Tihomir J |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9xHnArfZSMC&q=%22draps+de+Saptes%22&pg=PA245 |title=Les Industries lainières de Colbert à la Révolution |date=1976 |publisher= Librairie Droz|pages=244–271 |isbn=978-2-600-04075-4 |language=fr |trans-title=Colbert's wool industry during the Revolution |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Élie |url= |title=Le colbertisme high-tech. Économie des Télécom et du grand projet |date=1992 |publisher=Hachette Livre |pages=14–18 & 108–112 |language=fr |trans-title=High-tech Colbertism. The economics of Telecom and major projects }}

• {{Cite book |last=Teisseyre-Sallmann |first=Line |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swWTYmYon-8C&dq=%22Fran%C3%A7ois+Traucat%22&pg=PA25 |title=L'Industrie de la soie en Bas-Languedoc : XVIIe – XVIIIe siècles |date=1995 |publisher= École nationale des chartes|pages=25 |isbn=978-2-900791-12-7 |language=fr |trans-title=The silk industry in Bas-Languedoc: 17thth – 18thth centuries |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite book |last=Bergeron |first=Louis |url=https://books.openedition.org/editionsehess/222 |title=Banquiers, négociants et manufacturiers parisiens du Directoire à l'Empire |chapter=Chapitre IX. l'Entreprise Oberkampf |series=Les ré-impressions |date=1999 |publisher=School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences |pages=223–265 |isbn=978-2-7132-2552-9 |language=fr |trans-title=Parisian bankers, traders and manufacturers from the Directory to the Empire |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite book |last=Attali |first=Jacques |url= |title=Une brève histoire de l'avenir |date=2006 |publisher=Fayard |pages=81–95 |language=fr |trans-title=A Brief History of the Future }}

• {{Cite book |last=Mortal |first=Patrick |url=https://books.openedition.org/septentrion/57135?lang=fr |title=Les armuriers L'État, Du Grand Siècle à la globalisation 1665-1989 |chapter=– 1 – de la fabrique à la manufacture royale |series=Histoire et civilisations |date=2007 |publisher=Presses universitaires du Septentrion |pages=19–45 |isbn=978-2-7574-2276-2 |language=fr |trans-title=The Gunsmiths The State, From the Grand Siècle to Globalization 1665-1989 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite journal |last=d'Aubert |first=François |url=https://www.cairn.info/colbert--9782262050122-page-365.htm |title=Colbert, La vertu usurpée |journal=Tempus |date=2014 |publisher=Éditions Perrin |pages=365–392 |language=fr |trans-title=Colbert, The Usurped Virtue |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite book |last=Piketty |first=Thomas |url= |title=Capital et Idéologie |date=2019 |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |pages=159–192 & 247–301 |language=fr |trans-title=Capital and Ideology }}

• {{Cite book |last=Montebourg |first=Arnaud |url= |title=L'Engagement |date=2020 |publisher=Éditions Grasset |pages=129–147 |language=fr |trans-title=The Commitment }}

• {{Cite journal |last=Boissonnade |first=Prosper |date=1902 |title=Colbert, son système et les entreprises industrielles en Languedoc (1661-1683) |trans-title=Colbert, his system and the industrial companies in Languedoc (1661-1683) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/anami_0003-4398_1902_num_14_53_3511 |journal=Annales du Midi |language=fr |pages=46 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120185210/https://www.persee.fr/doc/anami_0003-4398_1902_num_14_53_3511 |archive-date=January 20, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Dutil |first=Léon |date=1908 |title=L'industrie de la soie à Nîmes jusqu'en 1789 |trans-title=The silk industry in Nîmes until 1789 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0996-2743_1908_num_10_4_4580 |journal=Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine |language=fr |pages=25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052244/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0996-2743_1908_num_10_4_4580 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Pinsseau |first=Pierre |date=1944 |title=Le canal Henri IV ou canal de Briare (1604-1943). Orléans, Houzé |trans-title=The Henri IV canal or Briare canal (1604-1943). Orléans, Houzé |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1944_num_105_1_460339_t1_0258_0000_3 |journal=Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes |language=fr |pages=25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052315/https://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1944_num_105_1_460339_t1_0258_0000_3 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Fohlen |first=Claude |date=1949 |title=En Languedoc : vigne contre draperie |trans-title=In Languedoc: vineyards for cloth factories |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1949_num_4_3_1739 |journal=Annales |language=fr |pages=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052358/https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1949_num_4_3_1739 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Hossard |first=Jean |date=1953 |title=Abaquesne, premier faïencier français au service de la pharmacie |trans-title=Abaquesne, the first French earthenware manufacturer to serve the pharmaceutical industry |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/pharm_0035-2349_1953_num_41_139_8563 |journal=Revue d'histoire de la pharmacie |language=fr |pages=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052322/https://www.persee.fr/doc/pharm_0035-2349_1953_num_41_139_8563 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last1=Daumas |first1=Maurice |last2=Tresse |first2=René |date=1954 |title=La Description des Arts et Métiers de l'Académie des Sciences et le sort de ses planches gravées en taille douce |trans-title=The Description des Arts et Métiers of the Académie des Sciences and the fate of its engraved plates |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhs_0048-7996_1954_num_7_2_3408 |journal=Revue d'histoire des sciences |language=fr |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052232/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhs_0048-7996_1954_num_7_2_3408 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Le Blant |first=Robert |date=1955 |title=La Compagnie de la Nouvelle-France et la restitution de l'Acadie (1627-1636) |trans-title=The Compagnie de la Nouvelle-France and the restoration of Acadia (1627-1636) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_0399-1385_1955_num_42_146_1229 |journal=Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire |language=fr |pages=14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052313/https://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_0399-1385_1955_num_42_146_1229 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last1=Pris |first1=Claude |last2=Marquant |first2=Robert |date=1977 |title=La Manufacture royale des glaces de Saint-Gobain, 1665-1830. Une grande entreprise sous l'Ancien Régime |trans-title=The Saint-Gobain Royal Mirror Factory, 1665-1830. A large company under the Ancien Régime |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1977_num_135_1_450094_t1_0218_0000_001 |journal=Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes |language=fr |pages=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052318/https://www.persee.fr/doc/bec_0373-6237_1977_num_135_1_450094_t1_0218_0000_001 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Mendels |first=Franklin |date=1984 |title=Des industries rurales à la protoindustrialisation : historique d'un changement de perspective |trans-title=From rural industries to proto-industrialization: the story of a change of perspective |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1984_num_39_5_283112 |journal=Annales |language=fr |pages=31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052331/https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1984_num_39_5_283112 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Guery |first=Alain |date=1989 |title=Industrie et Colbertisme ; origines de la forme française de la politique industrielle |trans-title=Industry and Colbertism; origins of the French form of industrial policy |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/hes_0752-5702_1989_num_8_3_1528 |journal=Histoire, économie & société |language=fr |pages=15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052312/https://www.persee.fr/doc/hes_0752-5702_1989_num_8_3_1528 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last1=Bouet |first1=Guy |last2=Balabanian |first2=Olivier |date=1994 |title=La porcelaine de Limoges |trans-title=Limoges porcelain |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/noroi_0029-182x_1994_num_164_1_6599 |journal=Norois |language=fr |volume=164 |issue=1 |pages=5 |doi=10.3406/noroi.1994.6599 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052229/https://www.persee.fr/doc/noroi_0029-182x_1994_num_164_1_6599 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Buti |first=Gilbert |date=2008 |title=Des goûts et des couleurs : Draps du Languedoc pour clientèle levantine au XVIIIe siècle |trans-title=Different strokes: Languedoc sheets for Levantine clientele in the 18th century |url=https://journals.openedition.org/rives/1393 |journal=Rives méditerranéennes |issue=29 |language=fr |pages=15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529062001/https://journals.openedition.org/rives/1393 |archive-date=May 29, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Hocquet |first=Jean-Claude |date=2011 |title=L'arsenal de Venise. Créations, modernisations, survie d'une grande structure industrielle |trans-title=The arsenal of Venice. Creation, modernization, survival of a large industrial structure |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-dix-septieme-siecle-2011-4-page-627.htm |journal=Rives méditerranéennes |volume=253 |issue=4 |language=fr |pages=627–638 |doi=10.3917/dss.114.0627 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405064127/https://www.cairn.info/revue-dix-septieme-siecle-2011-4-page-627.htm |archive-date=April 5, 2022}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Margoline-Plot |first=Eugénie |date=2011 |title=Les circuits parallèles des toiles de l'océan Indien |trans-title=The parallel circuits of the Indian Ocean's surface currents |url=https://shs.cairn.info/journal-histoire-urbaine-2011-1-page-109?lang=fr |journal=Société française d'histoire urbaine |volume=30 |issue=1 |language=fr |pages=109–125 |doi=10.3917/rhu.030.0109 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Borello |first=Céline |date=2018 |title=Droit naturel, intolérance et tolérance à l'égard des huguenots au XVIIIe siècle |trans-title=Natural law, intolerance and tolerance towards the Huguenots in the 18th century |url=https://journals.openedition.org/abpo/3773 |journal=Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l'Ouest |volume=125-1 |language=fr |pages=71–82 |doi=10.4000/abpo.3773 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052239/https://journals.openedition.org/abpo/3773 |archive-date=January 3, 2022}}

• {{Cite book |last=Tudesq |first=André Jean |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf |date=29 January 2025 |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/christophe-philippe-oberkampf/ }}

• {{Cite book |last=Etner |first=François |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Mercantilisme |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Commercialism |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/mercantilisme/ }}

• {{Cite book |last=Brossollet |first=Jacqueline |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter= |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/reaumur-rene-antoine-ferchault-de/ }}

• {{Cite book |last=Imbert |first=Jean |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Colbertisme, Une politique commerciale |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Colbertism, A trade policy |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/colbertisme/ }}

• {{Cite book |last=Constant |first=Jean-Marie |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Saint-Étienne arms factory |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/manufacture-d-armes-de-saint-etienne/ }}

• {{Cite book |last=Reynies |first=Nicole |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Manufacture d'Aubusson |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter=Aubusson Manufactory |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/manufactures-d-aubusson/ }}

• {{Cite book |last=Collomb |first=Olivier |url= |title=Encyclopædia Universalis |pages=1 |language=fr |chapter=Josse Van Robais |date=29 January 2025 |trans-chapter= |chapter-url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/josse-van-robais/ }}

• {{Cite news |date=1994 |title=Hermès prend le contrôle de Saint-Louis et de Puiforcat |trans-title=Hermès takes control of Saint-Louis and Puiforcat |url=https://www.lesechos.fr/1994/06/hermes-prend-le-controle-de-saint-louis-et-de-puiforcat-883517 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214093137/https://www.lesechos.fr/1994/06/hermes-prend-le-controle-de-saint-louis-et-de-puiforcat-883517 |archive-date=December 14, 2019 |work=Les Echos |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Nourrisson |first=Didier |date=2003 |title=Le tabac, le fisc et le buraliste |trans-title=Tobacco, the taxman and the tobacconist |url=https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-tabac-le-fisc-et-le-buraliste |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716071529/https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-tabac-le-fisc-et-le-buraliste |archive-date=July 16, 2018 |work=L'Histoire |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2004 |title=1699, décadence de la manufacture des Saptes |trans-title=1699, decline of the Saptes factory |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2004/08/16/245090-1699-decadence-de-la-manufacture-des-saptes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035106/https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2004/08/16/245090-1699-decadence-de-la-manufacture-des-saptes.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |work=La Dépêche du Midi |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Marseille |first=Jacques |date=2007 |title=La faute à Colbert ? |trans-title=Colbert to blame? |url=http://archives.lesechos.fr/archives/2007/Enjeux/00234-058-ENJ.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718113526/http://archives.lesechos.fr/archives/2007/Enjeux/00234-058-ENJ.htm |archive-date=July 18, 2017 |work=Les Echos |pages=2 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2010 |title=Des traditions françaises distinguées par l'Unesco |trans-title=French traditions honored by UNESCO |url=https://www.la-croix.com/Culture/Actualite/Des-traditions-francaises-distinguees-par-l-Unesco-_NG_-2010-11-17-558995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718164607/https://www.la-croix.com/Culture/Actualite/Des-traditions-francaises-distinguees-par-l-Unesco-_NG_-2010-11-17-558995 |archive-date=July 18, 2020 |work=La Croix |pages=1 |language=fr |issn=0242-6056}}

• {{Cite news |last=Solès |first=Bertrand |date=2011 |title=Une manufacture royale de toile à voiles caserne Valence |trans-title=A royal sailcloth factory Valence barracks |url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2011/07/26/1134816-un-jour-une-histoire-une-manufacture-royale-de-toile-a-voiles-caserne-valence.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413013452/https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2011/07/26/1134816-un-jour-une-histoire-une-manufacture-royale-de-toile-a-voiles-caserne-valence.html |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |work=La Dépêche du Midi |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Colletis |first=Gabriel |date=2013 |title=On ne peut pas jouer à Colbert en menant une politique d'austérité |trans-title=You can't play Colbert and pursue an austerity policy at the same time |url=https://www.lexpress.fr/economie/video-nouvelle-france-industrielle-on-ne-peut-pas-jouer-a-colbert-en-menant-une-politique-d-austerite_1353277.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528105519/https://www.lexpress.fr/economie/video-nouvelle-france-industrielle-on-ne-peut-pas-jouer-a-colbert-en-menant-une-politique-d-austerite_1353277.html |archive-date=May 28, 2023 |work=L'Expansion |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Bezbakh |first=Pierre |date=2014 |title=Jules Méline (1838-1925), chantre du protectionnisme |trans-title=Jules Méline (1838-1925), champion of protectionism |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2014/08/29/jules-meline-1838-1925-chantre-du-protectionnisme_4478823_3234.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830042253/https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2014/08/29/jules-meline-1838-1925-chantre-du-protectionnisme_4478823_3234.html |archive-date=August 30, 2014 |work=Le Monde |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2015 |title=La nouvelle doctrine de l'État actionnaire, selon Emmanuel Macron |trans-title=The new doctrine of the state as shareholder, according to Emmanuel Macron |url=https://www.usinenouvelle.com/editorial/la-nouvelle-doctrine-de-l-etat-actionnaire-selon-emmanuel-macron.N330005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428194656/https://www.usinenouvelle.com/editorial/la-nouvelle-doctrine-de-l-etat-actionnaire-selon-emmanuel-macron.N330005 |archive-date=April 28, 2017 |work=L'Usine nouvelle |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2015 |title=À la découverte de la maison Trudon, plus vieille manufacture de cire au monde |trans-title=Discovering the House of Trudon, the world's oldest wax manufacturer |url=https://www.francetvinfo.fr/france/a-la-decouverte-de-la-maison-trudon-plus-vieille-manufacture-de-cire-au-monde_898339.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007042513/https://www.francetvinfo.fr/france/a-la-decouverte-de-la-maison-trudon-plus-vieille-manufacture-de-cire-au-monde_898339.html |archive-date=October 7, 2017 |work=France Info |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2015 |title=Décret d'Allarde, Loi Le Chapelier, textes libéraux ? |trans-title=Decree of Allarde, Law of Le Chapelier, liberal texts? |url=https://www.contrepoints.org/2015/06/19/211315-decret-dallarde-loi-le-chapelier-textes-liberaux |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307210726/https://www.contrepoints.org/2015/06/19/211315-decret-dallarde-loi-le-chapelier-textes-liberaux |archive-date=March 7, 2018 |work=Contrepoints |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Pean |first=Laurence |date=2015 |title=Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf, le maître de la toile de Jouy |trans-title=Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf, the master of Toile de Jouy |url=https://www.la-croix.com/Archives/2015-10-03/Christophe-Philippe-Oberkampf-le-maitre-de-la-toile-de-Jouy-2015-10-03-1364104 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052343/https://www.la-croix.com/Archives/2015-10-03/Christophe-Philippe-Oberkampf-le-maitre-de-la-toile-de-Jouy-2015-10-03-1364104 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=La Croix |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Preveraud |first=Jean-Franois |date=2015 |title=Saint-Gobain : innovateur depuis 350 ans ! |trans-title=Saint-Gobain: innovating for 350 years! |url=https://www.industrie-techno.com/article/saint-gobain-innovateur-depuis-350-ans.40383 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052218/https://www.industrie-techno.com/article/saint-gobain-innovateur-depuis-350-ans.40383 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=Industrie et Technologies |pages=2 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2016 |title=De la manufacture d'armes stéphanoise aux bateaux de Beaumarchais |trans-title=From the arms factory in Saint-Étienne to Beaumarchais' ships |url=https://www.leprogres.fr/sortir/2016/03/26/de-la-manufacture-d-armes-stephanoise-aux-bateaux-de-beaumarchais |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052304/https://www.leprogres.fr/sortir/2016/03/26/de-la-manufacture-d-armes-stephanoise-aux-bateaux-de-beaumarchais |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=Le Progrès |pages=2 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2016 |title=La Glacerie : Anéanti en 1944, le musée renaîtra de ses cendres en 1985 |trans-title=La Glacerie: Destroyed in 1944, the museum rose from the ashes in 1985. |url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/la-glacerie-aneanti-en-1944-le-musee-renaitra-de-ses-cendres-en-1985-4167070 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419062625/https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/la-glacerie-aneanti-en-1944-le-musee-renaitra-de-ses-cendres-en-1985-4167070 |archive-date=April 19, 2016 |work=Ouest-France |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Ambrosi |first=Pascal |date=2016 |title=Les Cornevaux font revivre la Manufacture de Bains-les-Bains |trans-title=The Cornevaux bring the Bains-les-Bains factory back to life |url=https://www.lesechos.fr/2016/08/les-cornevaux-font-revivre-la-manufacture-de-bains-les-bains-1112199 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107022707/https://www.lesechos.fr/2016/08/les-cornevaux-font-revivre-la-manufacture-de-bains-les-bains-1112199 |archive-date=November 7, 2020 |work=Les Echos |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Coste |first=Gérard |date=February 8, 2018 |title=L'avant et l'après Gutenberg : la révolution par l'imprimerie |trans-title=Before and after Gutenberg: revolution through printing |url=https://www.sudouest.fr/2018/01/30/l-avant-et-l-apres-gutenberg-la-revolution-par-l-imprimerie-4157076-10275.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124101756/https://www.sudouest.fr/2018/01/30/l-avant-et-l-apres-gutenberg-la-revolution-par-l-imprimerie-4157076-10275.php |archive-date=November 24, 2020 |work=Sud Ouest |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Laroche-Signorile |first=Véronique |date=April 12, 2018 |title=Le 13 avril 1598 Henri IV en signant l'édit de Nantes, pacifie la France |trans-title=On April 13, 1598, Henri IV signed the Edict of Nantes, bringing peace to France. |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/histoire/2018/04/12/26001-20180412ARTFIG00327-le-13-avril-1598-henri-iv-en-signant-l-edit-de-nantes-pacifie-la-france.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330213341/https://www.lefigaro.fr/histoire/2018/04/12/26001-20180412ARTFIG00327-le-13-avril-1598-henri-iv-en-signant-l-edit-de-nantes-pacifie-la-france.php |archive-date=March 30, 2020 |work=Le Figaro |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2019 |title=Esclavage : 1642, et la France devint une puissance négrière |trans-title=Slavery: 1642, and France became a slave-trading power |url=https://www.geo.fr/histoire/esclavage-1642-et-la-france-devint-une-puissance-negriere-195001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615215234/https://www.geo.fr/histoire/esclavage-1642-et-la-france-devint-une-puissance-negriere-195001 |archive-date=June 15, 2020 |work=Geo |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=April 12, 2019 |title=Cherbourg-en-Cotentin. Le site historique de la Manufacture en voie d'être préservé |trans-title=Cherbourg-en-Cotentin. The historic site of the Manufacture is in the process of being preserved |url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/cherbourg-en-cotentin-le-site-historique-de-la-manufacture-en-voie-d-etre-preserve-6306931 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405064058/https://www.ouest-france.fr/normandie/cherbourg-en-cotentin-50100/cherbourg-en-cotentin-le-site-historique-de-la-manufacture-en-voie-d-etre-preserve-6306931 |archive-date=April 5, 2022 |work=Ouest-France |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Roman-Amat |first=Béatrice |date=2019 |title=Louis XIII (1601-1643), Le précurseur de l'absolutisme |trans-title=Louis XIII (1601-1643), the precursor of absolutism |url=https://www.herodote.net/Le_precurseur_de_l_absolutisme-synthese-336.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052228/https://www.herodote.net/Le_precurseur_de_l_absolutisme-synthese-336.php |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |work=Herodote.net |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Hammadi |first=Anissa |date=March 2, 2020 |title=Patrimoine : Stéphane Bern au chevet de la manufacture royale des cires d'Antony |trans-title=Heritage: Stéphane Bern at the bedside of the Manufacture Royale des Cires d'Antony |url=https://www.leparisien.fr/hauts-de-seine-92/patrimoine-stephane-bern-au-chevet-de-la-manufacture-royale-des-cires-d-antony-02-03-2020-8271087.php |archive-url= |archive-date= |work=Le Parisien |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Sarmant |first=Thierry |date=June 25, 2020 |title=Colbert et le Code noir: quels sont exactement les faits? |trans-title=Colbert and the Code Noir: what exactly are the facts? |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/histoire/colbert-qui-a-supervise-l-elaboration-du-code-noir-merite-t-il-vraiment-d-etre-deboulonne-20200625 |archive-url= |archive-date= |work=Le Figaro |pages=2 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2020 |title=L'histoire des marques ardennaises : le Charleville, fusil emblématique de la guerre d'indépendance américaine |trans-title=The history of the Ardennes brands: the Charleville, the iconic rifle of the American War of Independence |url=https://abonne.lardennais.fr/id176687/article/2020-07-16/lhistoire-des-marques-ardennaises-0110-le-charleville-fusil-emblematique-de-la |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020143149/https://abonne.lardennais.fr/id176687/article/2020-07-16/lhistoire-des-marques-ardennaises-0110-le-charleville-fusil-emblematique-de-la |archive-date=October 20, 2021 |work=L'Ardennais |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Hautcoeur |first=Pierre-Cyrille |date=October 1, 2020 |title=Le plan Freycinet de 1879, une autre "relance" française |trans-title=The Freycinet plan of 1879, another French “revival” |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/10/01/le-plan-freycinet-de-1879-une-autre-relance-francaise_6054307_3232.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409173359/https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/10/01/le-plan-freycinet-de-1879-une-autre-relance-francaise_6054307_3232.html |archive-date=April 9, 2021 |work=Le Monde |pages=1 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite news |last=Bouissou |first=Julien |date=October 6, 2020 |title=La traite négrière, oubliée de l'histoire économique |trans-title=The slave trade, forgotten in economic history |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/10/06/la-traite-negriere-oubliee-de-l-histoire-economique_6054887_3232.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203041116/https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/10/06/la-traite-negriere-oubliee-de-l-histoire-economique_6054887_3232.html |archive-date=February 3, 2021 |work=Le Monde |pages=2 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |date=1988 |title=Tissage de draps fins, filature de laine dit Manufacture des Rames |trans-title=Weaving of fine sheets, wool spinning, known as Manufacture des Rames |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/IA00076576 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052319/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/IA00076576 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |date=1992 |title=Ancienne manufacture royale de draps Le Dijonval |trans-title=Former royal sheet factory Le Dijonval |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00078523 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052209/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00078523 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |date=1992 |title=Manufacture des Tabacs |trans-title=Tobacco Factory |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00100715 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052414/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00100715 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |date=1992 |title=Ancien four à porcelaine G.D.A. |trans-title=Former G.D.A. porcelain kiln |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00100348 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052304/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00100348 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |date=1997 |title=Manufacture des tabacs de Morlaix |trans-title=Tobacco factory of Morlaix |url=https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA29000015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052250/https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA29000015 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |date=2004 |title=Ancienne manufacture royale de Montolieu |trans-title=Former royal factory of Montolieu |url=https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA11000030 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052209/https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA11000030 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Plateforme Ouverte du Patrimoine |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last=Halleux |first=Robert |date=2010 |title=Bernard Palissy |trans-title= |url=https://francearchives.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2010/39153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052348/https://francearchives.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2010/39153 |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Archives Nationales |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last=Schotter |first=Bernard |date=2015 |title=Création de la Manufacture royale d'Alençon |trans-title=Creation of the Manufacture royale d'Alençon |url=https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2015/39329 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121124435/https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/commemo/recueil-2015/39329 |archive-date=January 21, 2025 |website=Archives Nationales |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2017 |title=Manufacture des Gobelins |trans-title=Gobelins Manufactory |url=https://www.mobiliernational.culture.gouv.fr/fr/nous-connaitre/les-manufactures/manufacture-des-gobelins |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103052215/https://www.mobiliernational.culture.gouv.fr/fr/nous-connaitre/les-manufactures/manufacture-des-gobelins |archive-date=January 3, 2022 |website=Mobilier National |page=2 |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2018 |title=Châteauroux et les cités lainières d'Europe. De la manufacture royale de draps à l'usine Balsan |trans-title=Châteauroux and the wool cities of Europe. From the royal cloth factory to the Balsan factory |url=https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/article/97496544 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526180833/https://francearchives.gouv.fr/fr/article/97496544 |archive-date=May 26, 2023 |website=Archives Nationales |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Château de Versailles |trans-title= |url=http://www.chateauversailles.fr/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530014731/http://www.chateauversailles.fr/ |archive-date=May 30, 2023 |website= |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=L'entreprise Saint-Gobain, ancienne Manufacture royale de glaces de miroirs |trans-title=The Saint-Gobain company, formerly the Manufacture royale de glaces de miroirs |url=https://www.saint-gobain.com/fr/groupe/notre-histoire |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120155952/https://www.saint-gobain.com/fr/groupe/notre-histoire |archive-date=January 20, 2023 |website= |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=L'entreprise Balsan, ancienne Manufacture royale du Parc de Châteauroux |trans-title=The Balsan company, formerly the Manufacture royale du Parc de Châteauroux |url=https://trudon.com/eu_fr/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130053029/https://trudon.com/eu_fr/ |archive-date=January 30, 2023 |website= |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=L'entreprise Baccarat, fondée en 1764 avec l'aval de Louis XV |trans-title=The Baccarat company, founded in 1764 with the backing of Louis XV |url=https://www.baccarat.fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103133717/https://www.baccarat.fr/ |archive-date=January 3, 2018 |website= |language=fr}}

• {{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=L'entreprise Les Jolies Céramiques sans kaolin, au sein de laquelle plusieurs manufactures de cristal ont fusionné |trans-title=The company Les Jolies Céramiques sans kaolin, which is a merger of several crystal manufacturers |url=http://www.jolies-ceramiques.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727145702/http://www.jolies-ceramiques.com/ |archive-date=July 27, 2018 |website= |language=fr}}

{{Portal|Companies|Clothing

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