Drinking water#Health aspects

{{Further|Water resources|Water security}}

File:E8661-Pattaya-water-vending-machines.jpg in Thailand. One litre of potable water is sold (into the customer's own bottle) for 1 baht.]]

File:Water well types wiki.svg

File:Water system.pdf

Potable water is available in almost all populated areas of the world, although it may be expensive, and the supply may not always be sustainable. Sources where drinking water is commonly obtained include springs, hyporheic zones and aquifers (groundwater), from rainwater harvesting, surface water (from rivers, streams, glaciers), or desalinated seawater.

For these water sources to be consumed safely, they must receive adequate water treatment and meet drinking water quality standards.Hall, Ellen L.; Dietrich, Andrea M. (2000). [http://www.wrb.ri.gov/data_education/Education_Drinking_Water_History.pdf "A Brief History of Drinking Water."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208023718/http://www.wrb.ri.gov/data_education/Education_Drinking_Water_History.pdf|date=8 February 2015}} Washington: American Water Works Association. Product No. OPF-0051634, Accessed 13 June 2012.

An experimental source is solar-powered atmospheric water generators.{{cite journal |last1=Lord |first1=Jackson |last2=Thomas |first2=Ashley |last3=Treat |first3=Neil |last4=Forkin |first4=Matthew |last5=Bain |first5=Robert |last6=Dulac |first6=Pierre |last7=Behroozi |first7=Cyrus H. |last8=Mamutov |first8=Tilek |last9=Fongheiser |first9=Jillia |last10=Kobilansky |first10=Nicole |last11=Washburn |first11=Shane |last12=Truesdell |first12=Claudia |last13=Lee |first13=Clare |last14=Schmaelzle |first14=Philipp H. |date=October 2021 |title=Global potential for harvesting drinking water from air using solar energy |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=598 |issue=7882 |pages=611–617 |bibcode=2021Natur.598..611L |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03900-w |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=8550973 |pmid=34707305}}

Springs are often used as sources for bottled waters.{{cite web |author=Schardt, David |date=2000 |title=Water, Water Everywhere |url=http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516005745/http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water |archive-date=16 May 2009 |publisher=Center for Science in the Public Interest |location=Washington, D.C.}}

{{Main|Water supply|Water supply network}}

The most efficient and convenient way to transport and deliver potable water is through pipes. Plumbing can require significant capital investment. Some systems suffer high operating costs. The cost to replace the deteriorating water and sanitation infrastructure of industrialized countries may be as high as $200 billion a year. Leakage of untreated and treated water from pipes reduces access to water. Leakage rates of 50% are not uncommon in urban systems.United Nations. World Water Assessment Programme (2009). [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3-2009/downloads-wwdr3/ "Water in a Changing World: Facts and Figures."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624080709/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3-2009/downloads-wwdr3|date=24 June 2012}} World Water Development Report 3. p. 58 Accessed 13 June 2012.

Tap water, delivered by domestic water systems refers to water piped to homes and delivered to a tap or spigot.

{{Further|Water use|Residential water use in the U.S. and Canada}}

In the United States, the typical water consumption per capita, at home, is {{Convert|69.3|USgal|}} of water per day.Mayer, P.W.; DeOreo, W.B.; Opitz, E.M.; Kiefer, J.C.; Davis, W.Y.; Dziegielewski, B.; & Nelson, J.O., 1999. Residential End Uses of Water. AWWARF and AWWA, Denver.William B. DeOreo, Peter Mayer, Benedykt Dziegielewski, Jack Kiefer. 2016. Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2. Water Research Foundation. Denver, Colorado. Of this, only 1% of the water provided by public water suppliers is for drinking and cooking.Joseph Cotruvo, Victor Kimm, Arden Calvert. [http://www.epaalumni.org/hcp/drinkingwater.pdf "Drinking Water: A Half Century of Progress."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731153608/http://www.epaalumni.org/hcp/drinkingwater.pdf |date=2020-07-31 }} EPA Alumni Association. 1 March 2016. Uses include (in decreasing order) toilets, washing machines, showers, baths, faucets, and leaks.

File:Total Renewable Water Resources Per Capita (2020).svg

{{excerpt|Daily consumption of drinking water|paragraphs=1}}

The qualitative and quantitative aspects of drinking water requirements on domesticated animals are studied and described within the context of animal husbandry. For example, a farmer might plan for {{Convert|35|gal|liter}} per day for a dairy cow, a third of that for a horse, and a tenth of that for a hog.{{Cite web |title=Average Daily Water Needs |url=https://aermotorwindmill.com/pages/windmills-and-water-needs |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=Aermotor Windmill Company}}

However, relatively few studies have been focused on the drinking behavior of wild animals.

Image:Safe drink tap water map.png

{{main|Water quality}}

{{further|Water pollution|Hard water}}

According to the World Health Organization's 2017 report, safe drinking water is water that "does not represent any significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that may occur between life stages".{{rp|2}}

According to a report by UNICEF and UNESCO, Finland has the best drinking water quality in the world.{{cite web |date=2003 |title=WWDR1: Water for People – water for life |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129726e.pdf |access-date=21 September 2022 |publisher=UNESCO and Berghahn Books |archive-date=16 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616003750/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129726e.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite web |date=1 December 2021 |title=The quality of water produced by Turku Region Water is rated the best in the world by Unesco |url=https://www.turku.fi/en/news/2021-12-01_quality-water-produced-turku-region-water-rated-best-world-unesco |access-date=21 September 2022 |publisher=City of Turku |archive-date=21 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921173945/https://www.turku.fi/en/news/2021-12-01_quality-water-produced-turku-region-water-rated-best-world-unesco |url-status=live }}

Parameters for drinking water quality typically fall within three categories: microbiological, chemical, physical.

Microbiological parameters include coliform bacteria, E. coli, and specific pathogenic species of bacteria (such as cholera-causing Vibrio cholerae), viruses, and protozoan parasites. Originally, fecal contamination was determined with the presence of coliform bacteria, a convenient marker for a class of harmful fecal pathogens. The presence of fecal coliforms (like E. Coli) serves as an indication of contamination by sewage. Additional contaminants include protozoan oocysts such as Cryptosporidium sp., Giardia lamblia, Legionella, and viruses (enteric).{{cite web |publisher=EPA |url=http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm#Microorganisms |title=Drinking Water Contaminants: Microorganisms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202094944/http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm |archive-date=2 February 2015 |date=21 September 2010}} Microbial pathogenic parameters are typically of greatest concern because of their immediate health risk.

File:1-s2.0-S0048969723055547-gr5_lrg.jpg of published literature{{Cite journal |last1=Nowicki |first1=Saskia |last2=Birhanu |first2=Behailu |last3=Tanui |first3=Florence |last4=Sule |first4=May N. |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Olago |first6=Daniel |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |date=2023 |title=Water chemistry poses health risks as reliance on groundwater increases: A systematic review of hydrogeochemistry research from Ethiopia and Kenya |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=904 |pages=166929 |bibcode= 2023ScTEn.90466929N|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166929 |pmid=37689199 |doi-access=free}} 50x50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]

Physical and chemical parameters include heavy metals, trace organic compounds, total suspended solids, and turbidity. Chemical parameters tend to pose more of a chronic health risk through buildup of heavy metals although some components like nitrates/nitrites and arsenic can have a more immediate impact. Physical parameters affect the aesthetics and taste of the drinking water and may complicate the removal of microbial pathogens.

Pesticides are also potential drinking water contaminants of the category chemical contaminants. Pesticides may be present in drinking water in low concentrations, but the toxicity of the chemical and the extent of human exposure are factors that are used to determine the specific health risk.{{cite web |title=Drinking Water and Pesticides |url=http://npic.orst.edu/envir/dwater.html |date=16 September 2021 |website=National Pesticide Information Center |publisher=Oregon State University |location=Corvallis, OR |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=16 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916161010/http://npic.orst.edu/envir/dwater.html |url-status=live }}

Perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic compounds used in a large variety of consumer products, such as food packaging, waterproof fabrics, carpeting and cookware. PFAS are known to persist in the environment and are commonly described as persistent organic pollutants. PFAS chemicals have been detected in blood, both humans and animals, worldwide, as well as in food products, water, air and soil.{{cite web |title=PFAS Explained |url=https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-explained |date=18 October 2021 |publisher=EPA |access-date=7 January 2022 |archive-date=22 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222135331/https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-explained |url-status=live }} Animal testing studies with PFAS have shown effects on growth and development, and possibly effects on reproduction, thyroid, the immune system and liver.{{cite web |title=Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances Factsheet |url=https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/PFAS_FactSheet.html |date=16 August 2021 |publisher=CDC |access-date=7 January 2022 |archive-date=22 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222184801/https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/PFAS_FactSheet.html |url-status=live }} As of 2022 the health impacts of many PFAS compounds are not understood. Scientists are conducting research to determine the extent and severity of impacts from PFAS on human health.{{cite web |title=Increasing Our Understanding of the Health Risks from PFAS and How to Address Them |url=https://www.epa.gov/pfas/increasing-our-understanding-health-risks-pfas-and-how-address-them |date=3 November 2021 |publisher=EPA |access-date=7 January 2022 |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129202924/https://www.epa.gov/pfas/increasing-our-understanding-health-risks-pfas-and-how-address-them |url-status=live }} PFAS have been widely detected in drinking water worldwide and regulations have been developed, or are under development, in many countries.{{cite journal |first1=Sudarshan |last1=Kurwadkar |first2=Jason |last2=Danea |first3=Sushil R. |last3=Kanel |first4=Mallikarjuna N. |last4= Nadagouda |display-authors=3 |title=Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution |date=22 October 2021 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=809 |page=151003 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151003|pmid=34695467 |pmc=10184764 |s2cid=239494337 |doi-access=free }}

{{excerpt|Drinking water quality standards|paragraphs=1-3}}

{{Further|WASH#Health aspects|Waterborne diseases}}

File:Mortality rate attributable to unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), OWID.svg

File:F-diagram-01.jpg, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food), showing pathways of fecal–oral disease transmission. The vertical blue lines show barriers: toilets, safe water, hygiene and handwashing.]]

The World Health Organization considers access to safe drinking-water a basic human right.

Contaminated water is estimated to result in more than half a million deaths per year. More people die from unsafe water than from war, then-U.N. secretary-general Ban Ki-moon said in 2010. Contaminated water together with the lack of sanitation was estimated to cause about one percent of disability adjusted life years worldwide in 2010.{{Cite journal |last1=Engell |first1=Rebecca E |last2=Lim |first2=Stephen S |date=2013 |title=Does clean water matter? An updated meta-analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions and diarrhoeal diseases |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673613612982 |journal=The Lancet |language=en |volume=381 |pages=S44 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61298-2 |access-date=2023-10-26 |archive-date=2022-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721094617/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673613612982 |url-status=live }} According to the WHO, the most common diseases linked with poor water quality are cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio.{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water |website=www.who.int |access-date=2020-11-28 |archive-date=2021-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710200519/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water/ |url-status=live }}

One of the main causes for contaminated drinking water in developing countries is lack of sanitation and poor hygiene. For this reason, the quantification of the burden of disease from consuming contaminated drinking water usually looks at water, sanitation and hygiene aspects together. The acronym for this is WASH - standing for water, sanitation and hygiene.

{{excerpt|WASH#WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries|paragraphs=1-2}}

File:Slum_and_dirty_river.jpg and hygiene.]]

{{excerpt|WASH#Diarrhea, malnutrition and stunting|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}

{{Main|Groundwater pollution|Arsenic contamination of groundwater}}

Sixty million people are estimated to have been poisoned by well water contaminated by excessive fluoride, which dissolved from granite rocks. The effects are particularly evident in the bone deformations of children. Similar or larger problems are anticipated in other countries including China, Uzbekistan, and Ethiopia. Although helpful for dental health in low dosage, fluoride in large amounts interferes with bone formation.{{cite book |last=Pearce |first=Fred |title=When the Rivers Run Dry: Journeys Into the Heart of the World's Water Crisis |publisher=Key Porter |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55263-741-8 |location=Toronto}}

Long-term consumption of water with high fluoride concentration (> 1.5 ppm F) can have serious undesirable consequences such as dental fluorosis, enamel mottle and skeletal fluorosis, bone deformities in children. Fluorosis severity depends on how much fluoride is present in the water, as well as people's diet and physical activity. Defluoridation methods include membrane-based methods, precipitation, absorption, and electrocoagulation.{{Cite book |last=Ahuja |first=Satinder |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1078565849 |title=Advances in Water Purification Techniques: Meeting the Needs of Developed and Developing Countries |date=2018 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-814791-7 |location=San Diego |oclc=1078565849}}

Natural arsenic contamination of groundwater is a global threat with 140 million people affected in 70 countries globally.{{cite journal |last1=Bagchi |first1=Sanjit |date=20 November 2007 |title=Arsenic threat reaching global dimensions |url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/reprint/177/11/1344.pdf |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=177 |issue=11 |pages=1344–45 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.071456 |issn=1488-2329 |pmc=2072985 |pmid=18025421}}

Some well-known examples of water quality problems with drinking water supplies include:{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Nameerah |last2=Charles |first2=Katrina J. |date=2023 |title=When Water Quality Crises Drive Change: A Comparative Analysis of the Policy Processes Behind Major Water Contamination Events |journal=Exposure and Health |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=519–537 |doi=10.1007/s12403-022-00505-0 |issn=2451-9766 |pmc=9522453 |pmid=36196073 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023ExpHe..15..519K }} 50x50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

• In 1854, a cholera outbreak in London's Soho district was identified by John Snow as originating from contaminated water from the Broad Street pump. This can be regarded as a founding event of the science of epidemiology.
• Contamination of groundwater with arsenic in Bangladesh; considered to be "the largest-scale mass poisoning of a population" (began in the 1970s–1980s, officially recognized in 1993)
• Hinkley groundwater contamination (Chromium-6 contamination of private groundwater wells in Hinkley, California, United States (settled in 1996).
• Walkerton E. coli outbreak (Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Campylobacter contamination of water supply in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada in 2000). In 2000, an E. coli outbreak occurred in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Seven people died from drinking contaminated water. Hundreds suffered from the symptoms of the disease, not knowing if they too would die.{{cite web |title=Canada's worst-ever E. coli contamination |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/walkerton/ |access-date=18 September 2009 |publisher=CBC |archive-date=23 October 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041023231617/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/walkerton/ |url-status=live }}
• Flint water crisis (lead and Legionella contamination of water supply in Flint, Michigan, United States, started in 2014)
• Jackson, Mississippi water crisis, United States (2022)

Water supply can get contaminated by pathogens which may originate from human excreta, for example due to a breakdown or design fault in the sanitation system, or by chemical contaminants.

Further examples of contamination include:

• In 1987, a cryptosporidiosis outbreak is caused by the public water supply of which the filtration was contaminated, in western Georgia{{cite journal |vauthors=Hayes EB, Matte TD, O'Brien TR, etal |date=May 1989 |title=Large community outbreak of cryptosporidiosis due to contamination of a filtered public water supply |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=320 |issue=21 |pages=1372–76 |doi=10.1056/NEJM198905253202103 |pmid=2716783}}
• In 1993, Milwaukee Cryptosporidium outbreak
• In 1998, an outbreak of typhoid fever in northern Israel, which was associated with the contaminated municipal water supply{{cite journal |vauthors=Egoz N, Shihab S, Leitner L, Lucian M |date=November 1988 |title=An outbreak of typhoid fever due to contamination of the municipal water supply in northern Israel |journal=Isr. J. Med. Sci. |volume=24 |issue=11 |pages=640–43 |pmid=3215755}}
• In 1997, 369 cases of cryptosporidiosis occurred, caused by a contaminated fountain in the Minnesota zoo. Most of the sufferers were children{{cite journal |author1=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |date=October 1998 |title=Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a water sprinkler fountain – Minnesota, 1997 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00055289.htm |journal=MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. |volume=47 |issue=40 |pages=856–60 |pmid=9790661 |access-date=2023-10-25 |archive-date=2022-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307232613/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00055289.htm |url-status=live }}
• In 1998, a non-chlorinated municipal water supply was blamed for a campylobacteriosis outbreak in northern Finland{{cite journal |vauthors=Kuusi M, Nuorti JP, Hänninen ML, etal |date=August 2005 |title=A large outbreak of campylobacteriosis associated with a municipal water supply in Finland |journal=Epidemiol. Infect. |volume=133 |issue=4 |pages=593–601 |doi=10.1017/S0950268805003808 |doi-broken-date=10 December 2024 |pmc=2870285 |pmid=16050503}}
• In 2000, a gastroenteritis outbreak that was brought by a non-chlorinated community water supply, in southern Finland{{cite journal |vauthors=Kuusi M, Klemets P, Miettinen I, etal |date=April 2004 |title=An outbreak of gastroenteritis from a non-chlorinated community water supply |journal=J Epidemiol Community Health |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=273–77 |doi=10.1136/jech.2003.009928 |pmc=1732716 |pmid=15026434}}
• In 2004, contamination of the community water supply, serving the Bergen city centre of Norway, was later reported after the outbreak of waterborne giardiasis{{cite journal |vauthors=Nygård K, Schimmer B, Søbstad Ø, etal |year=2006 |title=A large community outbreak of waterborne giardiasis-delayed detection in a non-endemic urban area |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=6 |pages=141 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-6-141 |pmc=1524744 |pmid=16725025 |doi-access=free}}
• In 2007, contaminated drinking water was pinpointed which had led to the outbreak of gastroenteritis with multiple aetiologies in Denmark{{cite journal |vauthors=Vestergaard LS, Olsen KE, Stensvold R, etal |date=March 2007 |title=Outbreak of severe gastroenteritis with multiple aetiologies caused by contaminated drinking water in Denmark, January 2007 |journal=Euro Surveill. |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=E070329.1 |doi=10.2807/esw.12.13.03164-en |pmid=17439795 |doi-access=free }}

Examples of chemical contamination include:

• In 1988, many people were poisoned in Camelford, when a worker put 20 tonnes of aluminium sulphate coagulant in the wrong tank.
• In 1993, a fluoride poisoning outbreak resulting from overfeeding of fluoride, in Mississippi{{cite journal |vauthors=Penman AD, Brackin BT, Embrey R |year=1997 |title=Outbreak of acute fluoride poisoning caused by a fluoride overfeed, Mississippi, 1993 |journal=Public Health Rep |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=403–09 |pmc=1381948 |pmid=9323392}}
• In 2019 oil for an electric transformer oil entered the water supply for the city of Uummannaq in Greenland. A cargo ship in harbour was able to maintain a minimum supply to the city for two days until the mains supply was restored and flushing of all the pipework was started.{{Cite web |title=Uummannaq: Vand fra vandværket kan drikkes igen |url=https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/216621 |access-date=2020-09-23 |website=Sermitsiaq.AG |date=21 December 2011 |language=da |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819112629/https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/216621 |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Water purification|Water treatment}}

File:Water Treatment Plant.jpg

Most water requires some treatment before use; even water from deep wells or springs. The extent of treatment depends on the source of the water. Appropriate technology options in water treatment include both community-scale and household-scale point-of-use (POU) designs.Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology. Calgary, Alberta. [http://webmail.cawst.org/documents/Camille/New%20Training%20Materials/HWT%20Manual_Mar%2008.pdf "Household Water Treatment Guide," March 2008.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920233035/http://webmail.cawst.org/documents/Camille/New%20Training%20Materials/HWT%20Manual_Mar%2008.pdf|date=20 September 2008}}. Only a few large urban areas such as Christchurch, New Zealand have access to sufficiently pure water of sufficient volume that no treatment of the raw water is required.{{cite web|title=Our water – Water supply|url=http://www.ccc.govt.nz/homeliving/watersupply/ourwater/index.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512163008/http://www.ccc.govt.nz/homeliving/watersupply/ourwater/index.aspx|archive-date=12 May 2015|work=Christchurch City Council|location=Christchurch, NZ}}

In emergency situations when conventional treatment systems have been compromised, waterborne pathogens may be killed or inactivated by boilingWorld Health Organization, Geneva (2004). [https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/GDWQ2004web.pdf "Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Volume 1: Recommendations."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061127/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/GDWQ2004web.pdf|date=4 March 2016}} 3rd ed. but this requires abundant sources of fuel, and can be very onerous on consumers, especially where it is difficult to store boiled water in sterile conditions. Other techniques, such as filtration, chemical disinfection, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation (including solar UV) have been demonstrated in an array of randomized control trials to significantly reduce levels of water-borne disease among users in low-income countries,{{cite journal|last1=Clasen|first1=T.|last2=Schmidt|first2=W.|last3=Rabie|first3=T.|last4=Roberts|first4=I.|last5=Cairncross|first5=S.|date=12 March 2007|title=Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea: systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=334|issue=7597|page=782|doi=10.1136/bmj.39118.489931.BE|pmc=1851994|pmid=17353208}} but these suffer from the same problems as boiling methods.

Another type of water treatment is called desalination and is used mainly in dry areas with access to large bodies of saltwater.

Publicly available treated water has historically been associated with major increases in life expectancy and improved public health. Water disinfection can greatly reduce the risks of waterborne diseases such as typhoid and cholera. Chlorination is currently the most widely used water disinfection method, although chlorine compounds can react with substances in water and produce disinfection by-products (DBP) that pose problems to human health.{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/730450380 |title=Water disinfection |date=2010 |publisher=Nova Science Publishers |first=Kelly M. |last=Buchanan |isbn=978-1-61122-401-6 |location=Hauppauge, N.Y. |oclc=730450380}} Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for the presence of various metal ions, often rendering the water "soft" or "hard".{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

In the event of contamination of drinking water, government officials typically issue an advisory regarding water consumption. In the case of biological contamination, residents are usually advised to boil their water before consumption or to use bottled water as an alternative. In the case of chemical contamination, residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until the matter is resolved.

{{Main|Portable water purification|Self-supply of water and sanitation}}

The ability of point of use (POU) options to reduce disease is a function of both their ability to remove microbial pathogens if properly applied and such social factors as ease of use and cultural appropriateness. Technologies may generate more (or less) health benefit than their lab-based microbial removal performance would suggest.

The current priority of the proponents of POU treatment is to reach large numbers of low-income households on a sustainable basis. Few POU measures have reached significant scale thus far, but efforts to promote and commercially distribute these products to the world's poor have only been under way for a few years.

Solar water disinfection is a low-cost method of purifying water that can often be implemented with locally available materials.{{Cite journal|last1=Conroy|first1=RM.|last2=Meegan|first2=ME.|last3=Joyce|first3=T.|last4=McGuigan|first4=K.|last5=Barnes|first5=J.|date=October 1999|title=Solar disinfection of water reduces diarrhoeal disease: an update|journal=Arch Dis Child|volume=81|issue=4|pages=337–38|doi=10.1136/adc.81.4.337|pmc=1718112|pmid=10490440}}{{cite journal|last1=Conroy|first1=R.M.|last2=Meegan|first2=M.E.|last3=Joyce|first3=T.M.|last4=McGuigan|first4=K.G.|last5=Barnes|first5=J.|year=2001|title=Solar disinfection of drinking water protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age|journal=Arch Dis Child|volume=85|issue=4|pages=293–95|doi=10.1136/adc.85.4.293|pmc=1718943|pmid=11567937}}{{cite journal|last1=Rose|first1=A|last2=Roy|first2=S|last3=Abraham|first3=V|last4=Holmgren|first4=G|last5=George|first5=K|last6=Balraj|first6=V|last7=Abraham|first7=S|last8=Muliyil|first8=J|last9=Joseph|first9=A|last10=Kang|first10=G|display-authors=8|year=2006|title=Solar disinfection of water for diarrhoeal prevention in southern India|journal=Arch Dis Child|volume=91|issue=2|pages=139–41|doi=10.1136/adc.2005.077867|pmc=2082686|pmid=16403847}}Hobbins M. (2003). The SODIS Health Impact Study, Ph.D. Thesis, Swiss Tropical Institute Basel Unlike methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on the environment.

In many areas, low concentration of fluoride (< 1.0 ppm F) is intentionally added to tap water to improve dental health, although in some communities water fluoridation remains a controversial issue. (See water fluoridation controversy).

{{excerpt|water fluoridation|paragraphs=1|file=no}}

{{Further|WASH|List of countries by access to clean water}}

File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg Indicator 6.1.1 in 2022: "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services"]]

File:Population in survey regions living without safely managed drinking water.webpAccording to the World Health Organization (WHO), "access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection."{{cite report|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254637/9789241549950-eng.pdf;jsessionid=DA6171D77279042976C951FA548B1900?sequence=1|title=Guidelines for Drinking‑water Quality|publisher=World Health Organization|edition=4|pages=631|isbn=978-92-4-154995-0|format=PDF|year=2017|access-date=2018-03-22|archive-date=2021-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102153739/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254637/9789241549950-eng.pdf;jsessionid=DA6171D77279042976C951FA548B1900?sequence=1|url-status=live}}{{rp|2}} In 1990, only 76 percent of the global population had access to drinking water. By 2015 that number had increased to 91 percent.{{citation|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |title=Water Access, Resources & Sanitation|url=https://ourworldindata.org/water-access-resources-sanitation#access-to-improved-water-sources|work=OurWorldInData.org|year=2018|access-date=22 March 2018|last2=Roser|first2=Max|author2-link=Max Roser |archive-date=21 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321131312/https://ourworldindata.org/water-access-resources-sanitation#access-to-improved-water-sources|url-status=live}} In 1990, most countries in Latin America, East and South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa were well below 90%. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where the rates are lowest, household access ranges from 40 to 80 percent. Countries that experience violent conflict can have reductions in drinking water access: One study found that a conflict with about 2,500 battle deaths deprives 1.8% of the population of potable water.{{cite journal|last1=Davenport|first1=Christian|last2=Mokleiv Nygård|first2=Håvard|last3=Fjelde|first3=Hanne|last4=Armstrong|first4=David|year=2019|title=The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=22|pages=361–377|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057|doi-access=free}}

Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, even though only a small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Other typical uses for tap water include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation. Its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks.

Globally, by 2015, 89% of people had access to water from a source that is suitable for drinking{{Snd}}called improved water sources.{{cite web |title=Water Fact sheet N°391 |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |access-date=24 May 2015 |date=July 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605071028/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/|archive-date=5 June 2015 }} In sub-Saharan Africa, access to potable water ranged from 40% to 80% of the population. Nearly 4.2 billion people worldwide had access to tap water, while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps.

By 2015, 5.2 billion people representing 71% of the global population used safely managed drinking water services.{{cite report|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/258617/9789241512893-eng.pdf?sequence=1|title=Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene|date=2014|publisher=JMP, WHO and UNICEF|pages=|isbn=978-92-4-151289-3|quote=|access-date=22 March 2018|format=PDF|archive-date=20 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720202542/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/258617/9789241512893-eng.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}} As of 2017, 90% of people having access to water from a source that is suitable for drinking{{Snd}}called improved water source{{Snd}}and 71% of the world could access safely managed drinking water that is clean and available on-demand. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination. 1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in infectious diseases, such as gastroenteritis, cholera, and typhoid, among others. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of safe water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. In 2017, almost 22 million Americans drank from water systems that were in violation of public health standards, which could contribute to citizens developing water-borne illnesses.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report on the environment: drinking water. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov. Accessed March 3, 2023. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310174310/http://cfpub.epa.gov/ |date=March 10, 2023 }}{{Full citation needed|date=March 2023}} Safe drinking water is an environmental health concern. Bottled water is sold for public consumption in most parts of the world.

Improved sources are also monitored based on whether water is available when needed (5.8 billion people), located on premises (5.4 billion), free from contamination (5.4 billion), and within a 30-minute round trip.{{rp|3}} While improved water sources such as protected piped water are more likely to provide safe and adequate water as they may prevent contact with human excreta, for example, this is not always the case. According to a 2014 study, approximately 25% of improved sources contained fecal contamination.

The population in Australia, New Zealand, North America and Europe have achieved nearly universal basic drinking water services.{{rp|3}}

Because of the high initial investments, many less wealthy nations cannot afford to develop or sustain appropriate infrastructure, and as a consequence people in these areas may spend a correspondingly higher fraction of their income on water.{{cite news |date=5 February 2009 |title=The water vendors of Nigeria |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7867202.stm |first1=Andrew |last1=Walker |website=BBC News |url-status=live |access-date=23 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091022072711/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7867202.stm |archive-date=22 October 2009}} 2003 statistics from El Salvador, for example, indicate that the poorest 20% of households spend more than 10% of their total income on water. In the United Kingdom, authorities define spending of more than 3% of one's income on water as a hardship.{{cite web |title=| Human Development Reports |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDRO6-complete.pdf |access-date=23 October 2009 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402110314/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDRO6-complete.pdf |url-status=live }} page 51 Referenced 20 October 2008

The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation{{cite web |publisher = WHO and UNICEF |url = https://washdata.org/how-we-work/about-jmp |title = About the JMP |website = JMP |access-date = 16 October 2019 |archive-date = 19 August 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190819034235/https://washdata.org/how-we-work/about-jmp |url-status = live }} is the official United Nations mechanism tasked with monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) relating to drinking-water and sanitation (MDG 7, Target 7c), which is to: "Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation".United Nations:[http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/facts_figures/basic_needs.shtml World Water Assessment Program] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121032640/http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/facts_figures/basic_needs.shtml|date=21 January 2008}}, accessed on 27 February 2010

Access to safe drinking water is indicated by safe water sources. These improved drinking water sources include household connection, public standpipe, borehole condition, protected dug well, protected spring, and rain water collection. Sources that do not encourage improved drinking water to the same extent as previously mentioned include: unprotected wells, unprotected springs, rivers or ponds, vender-provided water, bottled water (consequential of limitations in quantity, not quality of water), and tanker truck water. Access to sanitary water comes hand in hand with access to improved sanitation facilities for excreta, such as connection to public sewer, connection to septic system, or a pit latrine with a slab or water seal.{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103848/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-Term Assessment of Progress|archivedate=March 4, 2016}}

According to this indicator on improved water sources, the MDG was met in 2010, five years ahead of schedule. Over 2 billion more people used improved drinking water sources in 2010 than did in 1990. However, the job is far from finished. 780 million people are still without improved sources of drinking water, and many more people still lack safe drinking water. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination{{Cite journal|last1=Bain|first1=R.|last2=Cronk|first2=R.|last3=Wright|first3=J.|last4=Yang|first4=H.|last5=Slaymaker|first5=T.|last6=Bartram|first6=J.|year=2014|title=Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=PLOS Medicine|volume=11|issue=5|pages=e1001644|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001644|pmid=24800926|pmc=4011876 |doi-access=free }} and an estimated 1.8 billion people globally use a source of drinking water that suffers from fecal contamination.{{Cite journal|last1=Bain|first1=R.|last2=Cronk|first2=R.|last3=Hossain|first3=R.|last4=Bonjour|first4=S.|last5=Onda|first5=K.|last6=Wright|first6=J.|last7=Yang|first7=H.|last8=Slaymaker|first8=T.|last9=Hunter|first9=P.|year=2014|title=Global assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water based on a systematic review|journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health|volume=19|issue=8|pages=917–27|doi=10.1111/tmi.12334|pmid=24811893|last10=Prüss-Ustün|first10=A.|last11=Bartram|first11=J.|pmc=4255778}} The quality of these sources varies over time and often gets worse during the wet season.{{Cite journal|last1=Kostyla|first1=C.|last2=Bain|first2=R.|last3=Cronk|first3=R.|last4=Bartram|first4=J.|year=2015|title=Seasonal variation of fecal contamination in drinking water sources in developing countries: A systematic review|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=514|pages=333–43|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.018|pmid=25676921|bibcode=2015ScTEn.514..333K}} Continued efforts are needed to reduce urban-rural disparities and inequities associated with poverty; to dramatically increase safe drinking water coverage in countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania; to promote global monitoring of drinking water quality; and to look beyond the MDG target towards universal coverage.{{cite web|title=Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2012 Update|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-report-2012-en.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328173008/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-report-2012-en.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2012}}

{{Main|Drinking water quality standards|List of water supply and sanitation by country}}

Guidelines for the assessment and improvement of service activities relating to drinking water have been published in the form of drinking water quality standards such as ISO 24510.ISO 24510 Activities relating to drinking water and wastewater services. Guidelines for the assessment and for the improvement of the service to users

{{See also|Water Framework Directive|Water supply and sanitation in the European Union}}

For example, the EU sets legislation on water quality. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy, known as the water framework directive, is the primary piece of legislation governing water.{{cite journal |last=Maria |first=Kaika |date=April 2003 |title=The Water Framework Directive: A New Directive for a Changing Social, Political and Economic European Framework |url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-water-framework-directive-a-new-directive-for-a-changing-social-political-and-economic-european-framework(1128bc36-393f-419b-be6e-c964582603af).html |journal=European Planning Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=299–316 |doi=10.1080/09654310303640 |s2cid=153351550 |access-date=2020-08-31 |archive-date=2022-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229022815/https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/the-water-framework-directive-a-new-directive-for-a-changing-soci |url-status=live }} This drinking water directive relates specifically to water intended for human consumption. Each member state is responsible for establishing the required policing measures to ensure that the legislation is implemented. For example, in the UK the Water Quality Regulations prescribe maximum values for substances that affect wholesomeness and the Drinking Water Inspectorate polices the water companies.

{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Japan}}

To improve water quality, Japan's Ministry of Health revised its water quality standards, which were implemented in April 2004.{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare: Water Supply in Japan |url=https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health/water_supply/4.html |access-date=2021-11-18 |website=www.mhlw.go.jp |archive-date=2021-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118004820/https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health/water_supply/4.html |url-status=live }} Numerous professionals developed the drinking water standards. They also determined ways to manage the high quality water system. In 2008, improved regulations were conducted to improve the water quality and reduce the risk of water contamination.

{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand}}

The Water Services Act 2021 brought Taumata Arowai' into existence as the new regulator of drinking water and waste water treatment in New Zealand. Initial activities including the establishment of a national register of water suppliers and establishing a network of accredited laboratories for drinking water and waste water analysis{{cite web |date=9 June 2022 |title=Taumata Arowai: a new water regulator |url=https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/environmental-health/drinking-water |access-date=28 June 2022 |publisher=NZ Ministry of Health |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523164133/https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/environmental-health/drinking-water |url-status=live }}

{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Singapore}}

Singapore is a significant importer of water from neighbouring Malaysia but also has made great efforts to reclaim as much used water as possible to ensure adequate provision for the very crowded city-state. Their reclaimed water is marketed as NEWater. Singapore updated its water quality regulation in 2019, setting standards consistent with the WHO recommended standards. Monitoring is undertaken by the Environmental Public Health Department of the Singaporean Government{{cite web |title=Our Drinking Water Quality |url=https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/Singapore_Drinking_Water_Quality.pdf |access-date=28 June 2022 |publisher=Singapore National Water Agency |archive-date=18 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718210326/https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/Singapore_Drinking_Water_Quality.pdf |url-status=dead }}

{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom}}

In the United Kingdom regulation of water supplies is a devolved matter to the Welsh and Scottish Parliaments and the Northern Ireland Assembly.

In England and Wales there are two water industry regulatory authorities.

• Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat) is the economic regulator of the water sector; it protects the interests of consumers by promoting effective competition and ensuring that water companies carry out their statutory functions. Ofwat has a management board comprising a chairman, Chief Executive and Executive and Non-Executive members. There is a staff of about 240.{{Cite web |title=Our duties |url=https://www.ofwat.gov.uk/about-us/our-duties/ |access-date=2020-10-23 |website=About us |publisher=Ofwat (Water Services Regulation Authority) |location=London}}
• The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) provides independent assurance that the privatised water industry delivers safe, clean drinking water to consumers. The DWI was established in 1990 and comprises a Chief Inspector of Drinking Water and a team of about 40 people.{{Cite web |date=2020-06-15 |title=What We Do |url=http://www.dwi.gov.uk/about/what-we-do/ |website=About Us |publisher=Drinking Water Inspectorate |location=London |access-date=2023-01-13 |archive-date=2020-11-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125193410/http://www.dwi.gov.uk/about/what-we-do/ |url-status=live }} The current standards of water quality are defined in Statutory Instrument 2016 No. 614 the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2016.{{Cite web |title=The Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2016 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2016/614/contents |access-date=2020-10-23 |website=UK Statutory Instruments |publisher=National Archives, UK |location=London |archive-date=2020-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101191804/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2016/614/contents |url-status=live }}

The functions and duties of the bodies are formally defined in the Water Industry Act 1991 (1991 c. 56) as amended by the Water Act 2003 (2003 c. 37) and the Water Act 2014 (2014 c. 21).{{Cite web |title=Water Industry Act 1991 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1991/56/contents |access-date=2020-10-23 |website=UK Public General Acts |publisher=National Archives, UK |location=London |archive-date=2020-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102112620/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1991/56/contents |url-status=live }}

In Scotland water quality is the responsibility of independent Drinking Water Quality Regulator (DWQR).{{Cite web |date=2019-08-05 |title=Water Quality Regulator says Scotland's tap water quality remains high |url=https://www.gov.scot/news/water-quality-regulator-says-scotlands-tap-water-quality-remains-high/#:~:text=Water%20Quality%20Regulator%20says%20Scotland's%20tap%20water%20quality%20remains%20high,-Published%3A%2005%20Aug&text=The%20Drinking%20Water%20Quality%20Regulator%20(DWQR)%20for%20Scotland's%20latest%20annual,water%20is%20high%20at%2099.90%25. |website=News |publisher=Scottish Government |location=Edinburgh |access-date=2023-01-13 |archive-date=2023-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113114634/https://www.gov.scot/news/water-quality-regulator-says-scotlands-tap-water-quality-remains-high/#:~:text=Water%20Quality%20Regulator%20says%20Scotland's%20tap%20water%20quality%20remains%20high,-Published%3A%2005%20Aug&text=The%20Drinking%20Water%20Quality%20Regulator%20(DWQR)%20for%20Scotland's%20latest%20annual,water%20is%20high%20at%2099.90%25. |url-status=live }}

In Northern Ireland the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) regulates drinking water quality of public and private supplies.{{Cite web |date=26 May 2016 |title=Duties of the Drinking Water Inspectorate |url=https://www.daera-ni.gov.uk/articles/duties-drinking-water-inspectorate-dwi#:~:text=DWI%20responsibilities-,The%20DWI%3A,water%20quality%20in%20Northern%20Ireland. |access-date=2020-10-23 |publisher=Northern Ireland Environment Agency |location=Belfast |archive-date=2020-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015204048/https://www.daera-ni.gov.uk/articles/duties-drinking-water-inspectorate-dwi#:~:text=DWI%20responsibilities-,The%20DWI%3A,water%20quality%20in%20Northern%20Ireland. |url-status=live }} The current standards of water quality are defined in the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2017.{{Cite web |title=The Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2017 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2017/212/contents |access-date=2020-10-23 |website=Northern Ireland Statutory Rules |publisher=National Archives, UK |location=London |archive-date=2020-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028095605/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2017/212/contents |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in the United States}}

{{excerpt|Drinking water quality in the United States|paragraphs=1-3}}

{{Main|History of water supply and sanitation}}

In drinking water access, quality and quantity are both important parameters but the quantity is often prioritized. Throughout human history, water quality has been a constant and ongoing challenge. Certain crises have led to major changes in knowledge, policy, and regulatory structures. The drivers of change can vary: the cholera epidemic in the 1850s in London led John Snow to further our understanding of waterborne diseases. However, London's sanitary revolution was driven by political motivations and social priorities before the science was accepted.

{{Portal|Water}}

• Boil-water advisory
• Human right to water and sanitation
• List of countries by access to clean water
• List of water supply and sanitation by country
• Water filter
• Water fluoridation
• Water intoxication
• Water security

{{Reflist}}

{{Wiktionary}}

{{Wikibooks|Drinking water}}

{{Commons category|Drinking water}}

{{wikivoyage|Water}}

{{Wiktionary|drinking water|potable}}

{{Scholia|topic}}

• [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water WHO fact sheet on drinking water]
• [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064 WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality (2022)]
• [https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/ Drinking Water] - US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. General info, data and publications.
• [https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water Ground water and drinking water] - US Environmental Protection Agency. General info, regulations & technical publications.

{{Natural resources}}

{{Plumbing}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Drinking Water}}

Category:Sanitation