Ecofascism#Association with violence

In 2005, environmental historian Michael E. Zimmerman defined "ecofascism" as "a totalitarian government that requires individuals to sacrifice their interests to the well-being of the 'land', understood as the splendid web of life, or the organic whole of nature, including peoples and their states".{{sfn|Zimmerman|2008|p=531}} This was supported by philosopher Patrick Hassan's work analysing historical accusations of ecofascism in academic literature.{{sfn|Hassan|2021|p=53}} Zimmerman argued that while no ecofascist government has existed so far, "important aspects of it can be found in German National Socialism, one of whose central slogans was "Blood and Soil".{{sfn|Zimmerman|2008|p=531}}{{harvnb|Macklin|2022|p=982}}: "Instead, this article highlights an emerging strain of "eco-fascism" within sections of the contemporary extreme right that takes "Blood and Soil" as its ideological baseline and fuses it with a particularly virulent form of misanthropic ecological nihilism that views violence and terrorism against the current social, political, and economic order, as the only means of restoring man to a state of pristine pastoral purity." Other political agendas, instead of environmental protection and prevention of climate change, are nationalist approaches to climate such as national economic environmentalism, securitisation of climate change, and ecobordering.{{harvnb|Huq|Mochida|2018|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Yakushko|De Francisco|2022|pp=471–472}}; {{harvnb|Lynch|2022|pp=17–18|ps=: "Similar to other critical perspectives of the greening of hate, the authors critique what they call 'ecobordering,' which represents 'the consolidation and sanitization of a constellation of 19th and 20th century Malthusian, conservative, and ecofascist ideas, as well as Romantic-era notions of nature and belonging.'"}}; {{harvnb|Saltmarsh|2022|ps=: "Moore and Roberts describe the contemporary far-right's approach to climate change, despite historical nods at 'nature protection', as a combination of denialism and securitisation, with the first undermining mitigation and promoting continued extraction, and the second redirecting security complexes toward expanding and protecting sites of extraction from resistance."}}; {{harvnb|Satgar|2021|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=36–37}}

Ecofascists often believe there is a symbiotic relationship between a nation-group and its homeland.{{harvnb|Forchtner|Lubarda|2023}}; {{harvnb|Yakushko|De Francisco|2022|p=472}}; {{harvnb|Farrell-Molloy|Macklin|2022}}; {{harvnb|Hancock|2022}}; {{harvnb|Chalecki|2023|p=6|ps=: "Ecofascists believe that race and nationality are literally tied to the natural environment of the country and that "blood and soil" determines who belongs in a country and who doesn't."}}; {{harvnb|Armiero|von Hardenberg|2013|p=291|ps=: "Nevertheless, in Fascist discourses and politics, reclamation was not only about land and water; it also included humans, who needed to be redeemed as well. The blend of soil and people in a racist and nationalistic fusion gave the Fascist environmental narrative its distinctive character."}} They often blame the global south for ecological problems,{{sfn|Kitch|2023|p=34}}{{sfn|Lynch|2022|pp=6–8}} with their proposed solutions often entailing extreme population control measures based on racial categorisations,{{harvnb|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=40–43}}; {{harvnb|Lynch|2022|pp=17–18}}; {{harvnb|Walsh|2022}}: "They are often radicalized online, as the latest alleged shooter claims to have been, and many believe that white people, along with the environment, are threatened by non-white overpopulation. They often call for a halt to immigration, or the eradication of non-white populations."; {{harvnb|Tilley|Ajl|2022|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Anantharaman|2022}} and advocating for the accelerated collapse of current society to be replaced by fascist societies.{{harvnb|Richards|Jones|Brinn|2022|p=1|ps=: "Expressions of eco-fascism often entail extreme population control measures advocated by right-wing activists and ethnonationalist governments, and accelerationist propaganda hastening the collapse of societies worldwide."}}; {{harvnb|Manavis|2018}}; {{harvnb|Yakushko|De Francisco|2022|pp=457–458, 472}}; {{harvnb|Farrell-Molloy|Macklin|2022}}: "The co-opting of Kaczynski provides eco-fascists with a 'green accelerationist' pathway as the use of violent tactics to increase tensions can easily be applied to his ideas, elevating him as 'an obvious sage of violence.'"; {{harvnb|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020|p=3|ps=: {{lang|sv|"Ett drag som ekofascimen delar med många av de nyare radikalnationalistiska rörelserna, som exempelvis the Base eller Atomwaffen Division, är accelerationism. Accelerationismen hos dessa grupper går ut på att försöka påskynda det moderna samhällets undergång genom upprepade aktioner som skapar kaos och splittring. Strategierna innefattar bland annat sabotage, mord och masskjutningar."}} ["A trait that eco-fascism shares with many of the newer radical nationalist movements, such as the Base or Atomwaffen Division, is accelerationism. The accelerationism of these groups consists of trying to hasten the demise of modern society through repeated actions that create chaos and division. The strategies include sabotage, murder and mass shootings."]}}; {{harvnb|Molloy|2022|ps=: "The fusion between militant accelerationism and eco-fascism produced a distinctly high level of content promoting sabotage and infrastructural attack"}} This latter belief is often accompanied with vocal support for terrorist actions.{{sfn|Dannemann|2023|p=5}}{{sfn|d'Allens|2022a}}{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=982}}

Vice has defined ecofascism as an ideology "which blames the demise of the environment on overpopulation, immigration, and over-industrialization, problems that followers think could be partly remedied through the mass murder of refugees in Western countries."{{sfn|Kamel|Lamoureux|Makuch|2020}} Environmentalist author Naomi Klein has suggested that ecofascists' primary objectives are to close borders to immigrants and, on the more extreme end, to embrace the idea of climate change as a divinely-ordained signal to begin a mass purge of sections of the human race. Ecofascism is "environmentalism through genocide", opined Klein.{{sfn|Corcione|2020}} Political researcher Alex Amend defined ecofascist belief as "The devaluing of human life—particularly of populations seen as inferior—in order to protect the environment viewed as essential to White identity."{{sfn|Amend|2020}}

Terrorism researcher Kristy Campion defined ecofascism as "a reactionary and revolutionary ideology that champions the regeneration of an imagined community through a return to a romanticised, ethnopluralist vision of the natural order."{{sfn|Campion|2021|pp=933–934}}

The European Commission describes ecofascism as the "weaponization of climate change by far right populist political parties and white supremacist groups".{{sfn|CORDIS|2023}} Tactics of this weaponisation include the use of language and equating actors in population and migration discourses to components of the climate crisis. As said in a policy brief for The International Center for Counter-Terrorism, this "linguistic violence"{{sfn|CORDIS|2023}} entails that "the invasion of non-native species that threaten the environment becomes synonymous with the invasion of immigrants, the protection of the environment with the protection of borders, trash with people, and environmental cleansing with ethnic cleaning."{{sfn|CORDIS|2023}}

Helen Cawood and Xany Jansen Van Vuuren have criticised previous attempts to define ecofascism as focusing too heavily on environmental and ecological conservationism in historical fascist movements, and the subsequent definitions being too broad and encompassing many ontologically different ideologies.{{sfn|Cawood|Vuuren|2022|pp=90–92}} In their criticism they summarise the current definition of ecofascism as used in the academic literature as "a movement that uses environmental and ecological conservationist talking points to push an ideology of ethnic or racial separatism".{{sfn|Cawood|Vuuren|2022|pp=89–91}} This is supported by Blair Taylor statement that ecofascism refers to "groups and ideologies that offer authoritarian, hierarchical, and racist analyses and solutions to environmental problems".{{sfn|Arvin|2021}} Similarly, extremism researchers Brian Hughes, Dave Jones, and Amarnath Amarasingam argue that ecofascism is less a coherent ideology and more a cultural expression of mystical, anti-humanist romanticism.{{sfn|Hughes|Jones|Amarasingam|2022|p=998}} This is further supported by Maria Darwish in her research into the Nordic Resistance Movement where while there is concern for environmental issues they are "a concern for Neo-Nazis only in so far as it supports and popularizes the backstage mission of the NRM", that is the implementation of a fascist regime,{{sfn|Darwish|2018|p=90}} and Jacob Blumenfeld stating "ecofascism names a specific far-right ideology that rationalizes white supremacist violence by invoking imminent ecological collapse and scarce natural resources".{{sfn|Blumenfeld|2022|p=173}}

Borrowing from the "watermelon" analogy of eco-socialism, Berggruen Institute scholar Nils Gilman has coined the term "avocado politics" for eco-fascism, being "green on the outside but brown(shirt) at the core".{{sfn|Gilman|2020}}{{sfn|Sargent|2021}}{{sfn|Chalecki|2023|p=6}}

In his book "{{lang|es|Ecofascismo}}", the political scientist Carlos Taibo characterises the phenomenon as a response to crises brought about by climate change. The ecofascist solution is to "[P]reserve increasingly scarce resources for a select minority. And to marginalize – in the mildest version – and exterminate – in the harshest – what are seen as surplus populations, on a planet that has visibly exceeded its limits."{{sfn|Taibo|2022|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2024}} Crucially, Taibo argues that far from being circumscribed to the margins of right-wing extremism, which traditionally has mostly been associated with Climate change denial, ecofascist notions are likely to be pursued by "political forces we usually label as liberal and social-democratic", emerging within major centers of power in the west and among elites in the developing world.{{sfn|Taibo|2022|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2024}} From this perspective, the antecedents of ecofascism, extending beyond ecological currents in fascist movements of the past, would be ideologies typical of Western colonialism, returning in modernised forms.{{sfn|Taibo|2022|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2024}}

File:Title Page of the The Passing of the Great Race.jpg (1916)]]

Sometimes dubbed the "founding father" of ecofascism,{{sfn|Tucker|2019}}{{sfn|Darby|2019a}} Madison Grant was a pioneer of conservationism in America in the late 19th and early 20th century. Grant is credited as a founder of modern wildlife management. Grant built the Bronx River Parkway, was a co-founder of the American Bison Society, and helped create Glacier National Park, Olympic National Park, Everglades National Park and Denali National Park. As president of the New York Zoological Society, he founded the Bronx Zoo in 1899.{{sfn|Patin|2021}}

In addition to his conservationist work, Grant was a trenchant racist.{{sfn|U.S. National Park Service|2022}}{{harvnb|Purdy|2015}}; {{harvnb|Frazier|2019}}; {{harvnb|Alexander|1962}} In 1906, Grant supported the placement of Ota Benga, a member of the Mbuti people who was kidnapped, removed from his home in the Congo, and put on display in the Bronx Zoo as an exhibit in the Monkey House.{{sfn|Tucker|2019}}{{sfn|Darby|2019a}} In 1916, Grant wrote The Passing of the Great Race, a work of pseudoscientific literature which claimed to give an account of the anthropological history of Europe.{{sfn|Spiro|2009|pp=225–226}} The book divides Europeans into three races; Alpines, Mediterraneans and Nordics, and it also claims that the first two races are inferior to the superior Nordic race, which is the only race which is fit to rule the earth. Adolf Hitler would later describe Grant's book as "his bible" and Grant's "Nordic theory" became the bedrock of Nazi racial theories.{{harvnb|Patin|2021}}; {{harvnb|Weymouth|2021}}; {{harvnb|Sparrow|2019}}; {{harvnb|Hoff|2021}} Additionally, Grant was a eugenicist: He cofounded and was the director of the American Eugenics Society and he also advocated the culling of the unfit from the human population.{{sfn|Yakushko|De Francisco|2022|pp=467–469}}{{sfn|Hoff|2021}}{{sfn|Hussein|2022}} Grant concocted a 100-year plan to perfect the human race, a plan in which one ethnic group after another would be killed off until racial purity would be obtained.{{sfn|Tucker|2019}} Grant campaigned for the passage of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and he also campaigned for the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, which drastically reduced the number of immigrants from eastern Europe and Asia who were allowed to enter the United States.{{sfn|Sparrow|2019}}{{sfn|Hoff|2021}}

In the modern era, Grant's ideas have been cited by advocates of far-right politics such as Richard Spencer{{sfn|Patin|2021}} and Anders Breivik.{{sfn|Darby|2019a}}{{sfn|Adler-Bell|2019}}{{sfn|Knights|2020}}

The authors Janet Biehl and Peter Staudenmaier suggest that the synthesis of fascism and environmentalism began with Nazism, stating that 19th and 20th century Germany was an early center of ecofascist thought, finding its antecedents in many prominent natural scientists and environmentalists, including Ernst Moritz Arndt, Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl, and Ernst Haeckel.{{harvnb|Biehl|Staudenmaier|1996|pp=6–7}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|Gosink|2021|p=32}}: "[...] the origins of this philosophy were laid by individuals such as Ernst Moritz Arndt who bound his environmentalism with a xenophobic nationalism that espoused a message of the German peoples' well-being depending on the health of German ecosystems; Wilhelm Riehl, a student of Arndt's who virulently opposed industrial/urban tendencies while connecting the health of the German land to the robustness and integrity of the German ethnic identity; and Ernst Haeckel who was integral in establishing ecology as a scientific field, but infused his scientific studies with the philosophies of Social Darwinism."; {{harvnb|Macklin|2022|p=979}}: "Indeed, it was the German nationalist, zoologist, and naturalist, Ernest Haeckel, who coined the term {{lang|de|ökologie}} in 1866."; {{harvnb|Naustdalslid|2023|pp=49–52}}; {{harvnb|Tynan|2023|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Szenes|2023|p=3}}: "German zoologist and eugenicist Ernst Haeckel, who, by stressing the connection between the purity of nature and the purity of race, paved the way for German National Socialism." With the works and ideas of such individuals being later established as policies in the Nazi regime.{{sfn|Dyett|Thomas|2019|pp=217–219}} This is supported by other researchers who identify the Völkisch movement as an ideological originator of later ecofascism.{{harvnb|Ross|Bevensee|2020|pp=9–10}}; {{harvnb|Szenes|2023|p=3}}: "White supremacist environmentalism is not a new phenomenon but one with a long and troubled history, whose roots can be traced back to the 19th century German Völkisch movement, German Romanticism, and anti-Enlightenment nationalism."; {{harvnb|Darwish|2021|p=187}} In Biehl and Staudenmaier's book Ecofascism: Lessons from the German Experience, they note the Nazi Party's interest in ecology, and suggest their interest was "linked with traditional agrarian romanticism and hostility to urban civilization".{{sfn|Biehl|Staudenmaier|1996|p=12}}{{sfn|Smith K.|2011}}{{sfn|Olsen|1999|p=}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}} With Zimmerman pointing to the works of conservationist and Nazi Walther Schoenichen as having pertinence to later ecofascism and similarities to developments in deep ecological understanding.{{sfn|Zimmerman|2004}} During the Nazi rise to power, there was strong support for the Nazis among German environmentalists and conservationists.{{sfn|Brüggemeier|Cioc|Zeller|2005|p=2}} Richard Walther Darré, a leading Nazi ideologist and Reich Minister of Food and Agriculture who invented the term "Blood and Soil", developed a concept of the nation having a mystic connection with their homeland, and as such, the nation was dutybound to take care of the land.{{harvnb|Hughes|Jones|Amarasingam|2022|p=999}}; {{harvnb|Macklin|2022|p=982}}; {{harvnb|Molloy|2022|ps=: "Neo-völkisch-'ism', the revival of paganism and folklore traditions, aimed to denote a mystical connection between land and race, reinforcing the 'naturalness' of the in-group to the ecosystem"}}; {{harvnb|Dannemann|2023|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Szenes|2023|p=3}}: "The notorious Nazi slogan 'Blood and Soil', a symbol for the mystical-spiritual connection between race and nature, was coined by Walter Darré, the NSDAP's Minister for Food and Agriculture."; {{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2004|p=519}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=32–33}} This was supported by other Nazi theorists such as Alfred Rosenberg who wrote of how society's move from agricultural systems to industrialised systems broke their connection to nature and contributed to the death of the {{lang|de|Volk}}.{{sfn|Biehl|Staudenmaier|1996|p=12}} Similar sentiments are found in speeches from Fascist Italy's Minister of Agriculture Giuseppe Tassinari.{{sfn|Armiero|von Hardenberg|2013|p=292|ps=: "land and race are indissolubly bound; it is through the land that we make the history of our race; the race rules, develops, and fecundates the land"}} Because of this, modern ecofascists cite the Nazi Party as an origin point of ecofascism.{{harvnb|Wilson|2019}}: "Nazism and a twisted version of ecological thinking are joined in the minds of a share of rightwing extremists."{{sfn|Bennett|2019}}{{sfn|Toulouse|Zimmerman|2016|p=64}} Beyond Darré, Rudolf Hess and Fritz Todt are viewed as representatives of environmentalism within the Nazi party.{{sfn|Dahl|2006|pp=139–142}}{{sfn|Biehl|Staudenmaier|1996|pp=13–14}} Roger Griffin has also pointed to the glorification of wildlife in Nazi art and ruralism in the novels of the fascist sympathisers Knut Hamsun and Henry Williamson as examples.{{sfn|Griffin|2008}}

After the outlawing of the neo-nazi Socialist Reich Party, one of its members August Haußleiter moved towards organising within the environmental and anti-nuclear movements, going on to become a founding member of the German Green Party.{{sfn|Baut|2008|p=300}} When green activists later uncovered his past activities in the neo-nazi movement, Haußleiter was forced to step down as the party's chairman, although he continued to hold a central role in the party newspaper.{{sfn|Global Greens|2016}} As efforts to expel nationalist elements within the party continued, a conservative faction split off and founded the Ecological Democratic Party, which became noted for persistent holocaust denial, rejection of social justice and opposition to immigration.{{sfn|Lee|2000|pp=217–218}}

File:Savitri Devi, July 1945.jpg

The French-born Greek fascist Savitri Devi (born Maximiani Julia Portas) was a prominent proponent of Esoteric Nazism and deep ecology.{{sfn|Goodrick-Clarke|2003|pp=57, 88}} A fanatical supporter of Hitler and the Nazi Party from the 1930s onwards, she also supported animal rights activism and was a vegetarian from a young age. In her works, she espoused ecologist views, such as the Impeachment of Man (1959), in which she espoused her views on animal rights and nature.{{sfn|Greer|2003|pp=130–131}}{{sfn|Macklin|2022|pp=982–984}} In accordance with her ecologist views, human beings do not stand above the animals; instead, humans are a part of the ecosystem and as a result, they should respect all forms of life, including animals and the whole of nature. Because of her dual devotion to Nazism and deep ecology, she is considered an influential figure in ecofascist circles.{{sfn|BBC|2017}}{{harvnb|Manavis|2018}}: "The links between Devi’s views and eco-fascism are supported by the fact she’s enjoyed something of a renaissance amongst members of the alt-right in the last several years."

Malthusian ideas of overpopulation have been adopted by ecofascists,{{harvnb|Farrell-Molloy|Macklin|2022}}: "While most of what has been discussed about eco-fascism is centred on anti-immigration "green" nationalism or far-right neo-Malthusian arguments about overpopulation"; {{harvnb|Guenther|2023|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Earthworks|2022b}}: "These include the racist Malthusian idea that the human population will reach a carrying capacity that the earth can't sustain, which has been repeatedly debunked, […] we must be cognizant that the origin of national parks and protected areas lies in explicitly eugenicist and white supremacist ideology that violently displaced Indigenous peoples from the lands they stewarded since time immemorial."; {{harvnb|Tynan|2023|pp=101–102}}; {{harvnb|Kamel|Lamoureux|Makuch|2020}}; {{harvnb|Saltmarsh|2022|ps=: "his manifesto tied climate change to usual far-right thought, a Malthusian ecological politics intersecting with ideas around racial replacement that culminated in the use of deadly violence against the Muslim 'other'."}}; {{harvnb|Forchtner|Lubarda|2020}}: "Eco-fascism, mostly associated with the 'green wing' in historical National Socialism and neo-Malthusian authoritarians of the 1960s/70s, is an iridescent concept that signifies the preoccupation of extreme-right actors with environmentalist concerns."; {{harvnb|d'Allens|2022b}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=35–36}} using Malthusian rationale in anti-immigration arguments{{sfn|Lynch|2022|p=11}} and seeking to resolve the perceived global issue by enforcing population control measures on the global south and racial minorities in white majority countries.{{harvnb|Dyett|Thomas|2019|pp=210–216}}; {{harvnb|Wilkinson|2020}}; {{harvnb|Hughes|Jones|Amarasingam|2022|p=999}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=40–43}}; {{harvnb|Fernández|Hart|2023|pp=5–6}}; {{harvnb|Walsh|2022}}: "They are often radicalized online, as the latest alleged shooter claims to have been, and many believe that white people, along with the environment, are threatened by non-white overpopulation. They often call for a halt to immigration, or the eradication of non-white populations."; {{harvnb|Macklin|2022|pp=986–987}} Such Malthusian ideas are often paired with Social Darwinist and eugenicist views.{{sfn|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020|pp=4–6}}{{sfn|Hussein|2022}}{{harvnb|Earthworks|2022b}}: "These include the racist Malthusian idea that the human population will reach a carrying capacity that the earth can't sustain, which has been repeatedly debunked, […] we must be cognizant that the origin of national parks and protected areas lies in explicitly eugenicist and white supremacist ideology that violently displaced Indigenous peoples from the lands they stewarded since time immemorial."

File:Ted Kaczynski full mugshot.jpg

Ted Kaczynski, better known as "The Unabomber", is cited as a figure who was highly influential in the development of ecofascist thought, and features prominently in contemporary ecofascist propaganda.{{sfn|Molloy|2022|ps=: "Kaczynskian anti-technology radicalism represented an adoption and co-option of Unabomber Ted Kaczynski’s ideology and embodied the strongest point of cohesion across the subculture."}} Between 1978 and 1995 Kaczynski instigated a terrorist bombing campaign aimed at inciting a revolution against modern industrial society,{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=984}} in the name of returning humanity to a primitive state he suggested offered humanity more freedom while protecting the environment. In 1995 Kaczynski offered to end his bombing campaign if The Washington Post or The New York Times would publish his 35,000-word Unabomber Manifesto. Both newspapers agreed to those terms. The manifesto railed not only against modern industrial society but also against "modern leftists", whom Kaczynski defined as "mainly socialists, collectivists, 'politically correct' types, feminists, gay and disability activists, animal rights activists and the like".{{sfn|Didion|1998}}{{sfn|Macklin|2022|pp=984–985}}

Because of Kaczynski's intelligence and because of his ability to write in a high-level academic tone, his manifesto was given serious consideration upon its release and it became highly influential, even amongst those who severely disagreed with his use of violence. Kaczynski's staunchly radical pro-green, anti-left work was quickly absorbed into ecofascist thought.{{harvnb|Wilson|2019}}: "Contemporary eco-fascists are inspired by a number of key figures. One is "Unabomber" Ted Kaczynski, whose terrorist campaign against what he called "industrial society" combined violence, misanthropy and a self-dramatising manifesto."{{harvnb|Farrell-Molloy|Macklin|2022}}: "This view of leftism as inconsistent with wild nature is mirrored by the eco-fascists belief they must seize stewardship of the environment from the left"

Kaczynski also criticised right-wing activists who complained about the erosion of traditional social mores because they supported technological and economic progress, a view which he opposed. He stated that technology erodes traditional social mores that conservatives and right wingers want to protect, and he referred to conservatives as fools.{{sfn|Kaczynski|1997}}

Although Kaczynski and his manifesto have been embraced by ecofascists, he rejected "fascism",{{sfn|Hanrahan|2018}} including specifically "the 'ecofascists'", describing ecofascism itself as "an aberrant branch of leftism":{{sfn|Kaczynski|2020}}{{sfn|Skauge-Monsen|2022|pp=74–75}}

{{blockquote|The true anti-tech movement rejects every form of racism or ethnocentrism. This has nothing to do with "tolerance," "diversity," "pluralism," "multiculturalism," "equality," or "social justice." The rejection of racism and ethnocentrism is - purely and simply - a cardinal point of strategy.{{sfn|Kaczynski|2020}}}}

In his manifesto, Kaczynski wrote that he considered fascism a "kook ideology" and he also wrote that he considered Nazism "evil".{{sfn|Hanrahan|2018}} Kaczynski never tried to align himself with the far-right at any point before or after his arrest.{{sfn|Hanrahan|2018}}

In 2017, Netflix released a dramatisation of Kaczynski's life, titled Manhunt: Unabomber. Once again, the popularity of the show thrust Kaczynski and his manifesto into the public's mind and it also raised the profile of ecofascism.{{sfn|Wilson|2019}}{{sfn|Bennett|2019}}{{sfn|Hanrahan|2018}}

File:Pentti Linkola.jpg's advocacy of "Lifeboat Ethics" is cited by commentators as an example of ecofascism.]]

Two figures influential in ecofascism are Garrett Hardin{{sfn|Guenther|2023|p=16}} and Pentti Linkola,{{sfn|Oksa|2005|p=75}}{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=986}} both of whom were proponents of what they refer to as "Lifeboat Ethics".{{harvnb|Knights|2020}}; {{harvnb|Tilley|Ajl|2022|p=3|ps=: "Lifeboat Ethics advocates for the abandonment of the populous poor to save the rich few in a limited planetary 'lifeboat'."}}; {{harvnb|Allison|2020|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Protopapadakis|2016|pp=227–228}} Hardin was a professor of Human Ecology at the University of California often described as a white nationalist.{{cite web |url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/garrett-hardin |title=Garrett Hardin |website=Southern Poverty Law Center |language=en |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115125605/https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/garrett-hardin |archive-date=15 November 2021 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Tilley|Ajl|2022|p=2}}{{sfn|Biss|2022}} His work was focused on the ethics of overpopulation and population control and suggested different methods like "birth control, abortion, and sterilization". Not only did he have medical suggestions but also stood against immigration and the end of foreign aid.{{cite web |title=Guide to the Garrett Hardin Papers |url=https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt267nd7tr/dsc/#c02-1.3.10.6.4 |website=Online Archive of California |access-date=22 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707015431/https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt267nd7tr/dsc/ |archive-date=7 July 2022}} The work of Linkola and Hardin has been influential on ecofascist thought.{{sfn|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=35–36}}

Linkola was a Finnish ecologist and radical Malthusian{{sfn|Hughes|Jones|Amarasingam|2022|p=1005}} accused of being an active ecofascist{{sfn|Protopapadakis|2014|p=590}} who actively advocated ending democracy and replacing it with dictatorships that would use totalitarian and even genocidal tactics{{sfn|Macklin|2022|pp=986–987}} to end climate change.{{sfn|Adler-Bell|2019}}{{sfn|Anwar|2007}}{{sfn|Linkola|2011|pp=133–136}} Both men used versions of the following analogy to illustrate their viewpoint:

{{cquote|What to do, when a ship carrying a hundred passengers suddenly capsizes and there is only one lifeboat? When the lifeboat is full, those who hate life will try to load it with more people and sink the lot. Those who love and respect life will take the ship's axe and sever the extra hands that cling to the sides.{{sfn|Wilson|2019}}{{sfn|Bennett|2019}}|Pentti Linkola}}

Renaud Camus' conspiracy theory, the Great Replacement, has been influential on ecofascism, being referenced explicitly in multiple manifestos and had its ideas relayed in others.{{harvnb|Forchtner|2019|ps=: "The murder of 51 people in Christchurch, New Zealand, in March 2019 has led to, for example, a gun reform bill in New Zealand and renewed interest in the notion of 'the great replacement'. […] However, the idea of 'the great replacement' did play a role in this second shooting too which undoubtedly invites further scrutiny."}}; {{harvnb|O'Neill|2022|pp=39–40}}; {{harvnb|Achenbach|2019}}; {{harvnb|Rueda|2020}}; {{harvnb|Tilley|Ajl|2022|pp=202–203|ps=: "The manifesto's ideology is often traced back to a 2011 work of Renaud Camus, titled {{lang|fr|Le Grand Remplacement}}, and understood as a sibling of US white genocide conspiracies."}}; {{harvnb|Anantharaman|2022|ps=: "For instance, the Buffalo shooting suspect calls himself an eco-fascist acting against overpopulating "invaders" to save the environment. Similar discourses were invoked in the Christchurch mass shooting in New Zealand. In these circles, population is not at the margins but at the very center of (racial) anxieties. Nightly sermons about "the great replacement theory" are case in point."}}; {{harvnb|Rose|2022|ps=: "Replacement themes were also invoked by mass shooters in Utøya, Norway, in 2011, at the Tree of Life synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 2018 and in El Paso, Texas, in 2019. Yet each of these shooters – all white men – targeted a different group of people. The Buffalo shooter killed only Black Americans. The Christchurch shooter terrorised Muslims leaving Friday prayers."}} In the conspiracy theory, the "native" white populations of western countries are being replaced by non-white populations as a directed political effort.{{harvnb|Touré|2020}}: {{lang|fr|"L'écrivain distingue alors les remplacés (la civilisation européenne et sa culture), les remplaçants (les immigrés venus majoritairement d'Afrique du Nord et d'Afrique subsaharienne) et les remplacistes (le pouvoir qui ne cherche pas à inverser les flux migratoires afin de servir des intérêts politiques, de gauche notamment)."}} ["The writer then distinguishes between the replaced (European civilization and its culture), the replacements (the immigrants coming mainly from North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa) and the replacers (the power which does not seek to reverse migratory flows in order to erve political interests, particularly left-wing ones)."]{{sfn|Guidi|2022}}

Ecofascist violence has occurred since the 21st century,{{harvnb|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=34–36}}; {{harvnb|Tynan|2023|p=101}} with academics and researchers warning that as ecological crises worsen and remain unaddressed, support for ecofascism and violence in the name of ecofascism will increase.{{harvnb|Dyett|Thomas|2019|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020}}; {{harvnb|Hassan|2021|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Harris|2022a|p=452}}

In December 2020, the Swedish Defence Research Agency released a report on ecofascism. The paper argued that ecofascism is intimately tied to the ideology of accelerationism, and ecofascists nearly exclusively choose terror tactics over the political approach.{{sfn|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020}} Further, the SDRA argues not all ecofascist mass shooters have been recognised as such: Pekka-Eric Auvinen who shot eight people in Finland in 2007 before killing himself adhered to the ideology according to his manifesto titled "The Natural Selector's Manifesto".{{sfn|Svahn|2007}}{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=987}} He advocated "total war against humanity" due to the threat humanity posed to other species. He wrote that death and killing is not a tragedy, as it constantly happens in nature between all species. Auvinen also wrote that the modern society hinders "natural justice" and that all inferior "subhumans" should be killed and only the elite of humanity be spared. In one of his YouTube videos Auvinen paid tribute to the prominent deep ecologist Pentti Linkola.{{sfn|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020}}{{sfn|EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator|2024}} Auvinen also mentioned the racist bomber Franz Fuchs in his manifesto as an inspiration.{{sfn|Oksanen|2013|p=21}}

James Jay Lee, the eco-terrorist who took several hostages at the Discovery Communications headquarters on 1 September 2010, was described as an ecofascist by Mark Potok of the Southern Poverty Law Center.{{sfn|Potok|2010}}

Anders Breivik committed the 2011 Norway attacks on 22 July 2011, in which he killed eight people by detonating a van bomb at Regjeringskvartalet in Oslo, and then killed 69 participants of a Workers' Youth League (AUF) summer camp, in a mass shooting on the island of Utøya.{{harvnb|Lewis|Cowell|2012}}; {{harvnb|Pracon|2012}}; {{harvnb|Dearden|2016}}; {{harvnb|Richards|Brinn|Jones|2024|p=67}} While dismissive of climate change, Breivik's manifesto was concerned with the carrying capacity of the planet,{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=981}} taking inspiration from Kaczynski{{harvnb|Shifflett|2021|pp=75–76}}; {{harvnb|van Gerven Oei|2012|pp=88–94}}; {{harvnb|Macklin|2022|pp=984–985}}; {{harvnb|Pearse|2015|pp=460–462}} and Grant’s The Passing of the Great Race.{{sfn|Knights|2020}} Breivik’s solution to this perceived problem was to cap the global population at 2.5 billion people, with the reduction in the global population being forced upon the global south.{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=981}} Through his actions he sought to inspire other terrorist attacks,{{sfn|Shifflett|2021|pp=76–79}} and was an inspiration for later ecofascist terrorists.{{harvnb|Hafez|2019}}; {{harvnb|Macklin|Bjørgo|2021|pp=16–20}}; {{harvnb|Macklin|2022|p=981}}; {{harvnb|Shifflett|2021|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Richards|Brinn|Jones|2024|pp=67–68}}

William H. Stoetzer, a member of the Atomwaffen Division, an organisation responsible for at least eight murders, was active in the Earth Liberation Front as late as 2008 and joined Atomwaffen in 2016.{{sfn|Thayer|2019}}

Brenton Tarrant, the Australian-born perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings in New Zealand described himself as an ecofascist,{{harvnb|Koziol|2019}}; {{harvnb|Achenbach|2019}}; {{harvnb|d'Allens|2022a}}: {{lang|fr|"Quelques minutes auparavant, il diffusait un manifeste de soixante-quatorze pages dans lequel il détaillait son parcours idéologique et se revendiquait ouvertement « écofasciste »."}} ["A few minutes earlier, he had published a seventy-four-page manifesto in which he detailed his ideological background and openly claimed to be an "eco-fascist"."]; {{harvnb|Richards|Jones|Brinn|2022}} ethno-nationalist, and racist{{sfn|Fisher|Achenbach|2019}}{{sfn|Ross|Bevensee|2020|p=1}} in his manifesto The Great Replacement, named after a far-right conspiracy theory{{sfn|Darby|2019b}} originating in France. In the manifesto Tarrant specifically mentions Breivik as an ideological and operational influence.{{sfn|Macklin|Bjørgo|2021|pp=16–20}}{{sfn|Richards|Brinn|Jones|2024|pp=7–8}} Researchers point to Tarrant's terrorist attack as the moment when discussion of ecofascism moved from academic and specialist circles into the mainstream.{{sfn|Campion|2021|pp=926–927}}{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=990}} Jordan Weissmann, writing for Slate, describes the perpetrator's version of ecofascism as "an established, if somewhat obscure, brand of neo-Nazi"{{sfn|Weissmann|2019}} and quotes Sarah Manavis of New Statesman as saying, "[Eco-fascists] believe that living in the original regions a race is meant to have originated in and shunning multiculturalism is the only way to save the planet they prioritise above all else".{{sfn|Weissmann|2019}}{{sfn|Manavis|2018}} Similarly, Luke Darby clarifies it as: "eco-fascism is not the fringe hippie movement usually associated with ecoterrorism. It's a belief that the only way to deal with climate change is through eugenics and the brutal suppression of migrants."{{sfn|Darby|2019a}}

Patrick Crusius, the perpetrator of the 2019 El Paso shooting wrote a similar manifesto, professing support for Tarrant.{{harvnb|Noack|2019|ps=: "The author was the latest in a succession of extremists to refer to Christchurch as a touchstone event for more hate."}}; {{harvnb|d'Allens|2022a}}; {{harvnb|Forchtner|Lubarda|2020}}; {{harvnb|Richards|Jones|Brinn|2022}} Posted to the online message board 8chan,{{sfn|Arango|Bogel-Burroughs|Benner|2019}} it blames immigration to the United States for environmental destruction,{{sfn|Owen|2019}}{{sfn|Arvin|2021}} saying that American lifestyles were "destroying the environment",{{sfn|Lennard|2019}}{{sfn|Thomas|Gosink|2021|p=35}} invoking an ecological burden to be borne by future generations,{{sfn|Achenbach|2019}}{{sfn|Darby|2019a}} and concluding that the solution was to "decrease the number of people in America using resources".{{sfn|Lennard|2019}} Crusius outlined how he took inspiration from Tarrant and Breivik in his manifesto.{{harvnb|Hafez|2019}}; {{harvnb|Üzeltüzenci|2020}}; {{harvnb|Darian-Smith|2022|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Richards|Brinn|Jones|2024|pp=7–8}} Crusius and Tarrant also inspired Philip Manshaus who attacked a mosque in Norway in 2019.{{sfn|Ross|Bevensee|2020|p=3}}{{sfn|Burke|2019}}

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| footer = Eco-fascists have been noted as using the Algiz rune and pine tree emojis to identity each other online on social media platforms{{sfn|Shajkovci|2020}}{{harvnb|Manavis|2018}}: "Tree, earth, or mountain emojis are parked next to almost every eco-fascist’s Twitter name, often accompanied by a Norse/Proto-Germanic rune – most commonly Algiz, "ᛉ" or "ᛦ", known as the "life" rune."; {{harvnb|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020|pp=12–13}}; {{harvnb|Molloy|2022|ps=: "Far-right co-opted symbols, like the algiz rune or sonnenrad, accompanied depictions of nature, establishing a distinct eco-fascist brand which travelled easily across far-right networks."}}

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The Swedish self-identified ecofascist Green Brigade is an eco-terrorist group linked to The Base that is responsible for multiple mass murder plots.{{sfn|Smith|2021|pp=100–102}}{{harvnb|Farrell-Molloy|Macklin|2022}}: "One group to have emerged from this milieu is the short-lived 'Green Brigade' describing themselves as "accelerationist eco-extremists," the group acted as the eco-fascist wing for the neo-Nazi 'The Base,' and were responsible for an arson attack against a Swedish mink farm in 2020."{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=990}} The Green Brigade has been responsible for arson attacks against targets deemed to be enemies of nature,{{sfn|Kamel|Lamoureux|Makuch|2020}}{{sfn|Fine|Love-Nichols|2021|p=308}} like an attack on a mink farm that caused multi-million-dollar damages.{{sfn|Macklin|2022|p=991}} Two members were arrested by Swedish police, allegedly planning assassinating judges and bombings.{{sfn|Lamoureux|2020a}}{{sfn|Lamoureux|2020b}}

While serving his sentence for arson attacks against companies that sold animal products, Walter Bond {{aka}} "ALF Lone Wolf" befriended Atomwaffen founder Brandon Russell. After his release Bond drifted to ecofascism, associating with Atomwaffen and sharing "Third Reich–era vegan propaganda", which alienated some of his supporters within ALF.{{sfn|Winston|2025}}

In June 2021, the Telegram-based Terrorgram collective published an online guide with incitements for attacks on infrastructure and violence against minorities, police, public figures, journalists, and other perceived enemies. In December 2021, they published a second document containing ideological sections on accelerationism, white supremacy, and ecofascism.{{Cite news |url=https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/Tesat_Report_2022.pdf |work=Europol |title=EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2022 |date=23 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713151351/https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/Tesat_Report_2022.pdf |archive-date=13 July 2022}}{{sfn|Carless|2022}}{{harvnb|Farrell-Molloy|Macklin|2022}}: "Across the "Terrorgram" community on Telegram, which provided a digital home to Siege-culture following the removal of neo-Nazi forums Iron March and Fascist Forge, Kaczynski's writings are frequently referenced and he is venerated as one of their 'holy trinity' alongside Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh and Norway far-right terrorist Anders Breivik."

During 2021, several neo-Nazi groups and individuals who espoused ecofascist rhetoric were arrested and charged by French authorities for planning terrorist attacks.{{sfn|d'Allens|2022a}} These include the group {{lang|fr|Recolonisons la France}}, and two "accelerationists" in Occitania.{{sfn|d'Allens|2022a}}{{sfn|Libération|2021}}

In an interview with a blog {{lang|es|Maldición Eco-Extremista}} a leader of the eco-extremist group Individualists Tending to the Wild (ITS) claimed to have taken organisational influence from the fascist accelerationist terrorist group Order of Nine Angles.{{harvnb|Maldición Eco-extremista|2021}}: "ITS never recognized that, although it is true we have taken some organizational experiences of these groups without caring much about their political orientation, not because we write or quote the TOB we are right-wing Satanists, at some point we have also taken experiences from the Paraguayan People's Army, or from the Mapuche, and that does not mean that we are leftist or indigenists, the same thing happens when we quote the First Capital Command of Brazil, or the Magliana Band of Italy, not because we mention them we are part of those mafias, NO. ITS takes the best of each criminal group and puts it into practice, we also see their mistakes so that we do not commit them, this is how ITS is nurtured and takes experience from that inherited empirical knowledge." The Foundation for Defense of Democracies and European Union Counter-Terrorism Coordinator characterised ITS as ecofascist.{{sfn|EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator|2024}}{{harvnb|Gartenstein-Ross|Chace-Donahu|Plant|2023}}: "A purported leader of the transnational militant group Individuals Tending Toward the Wild (ITS) — a group whose literature features anarchist and eco-fascist themes — claimed in an interview posted on the anarchist website Maldición Eco-Extremista that the group has "taken some organizational experiences" from O9A and Tempel ov Blood."

Payton S. Gendron, the instigator of the 2022 Buffalo shooting, also wrote a manifesto self-describing as "an ethno-nationalist eco-fascist national socialist" within it and also professing support for far-right shooters from Tarrant{{sfn|Richards|Jones|Brinn|2022}} and Dylann Roof to Breivik and Robert Bowers.{{sfn|Starr|2022}}{{sfn|Thompson|Collins|2022}}{{sfn|Richards|Brinn|Jones|2024|pp=67–68}} Later in 2022, the Terrorgram collective released another publication, with analysts believing it would likely inspire further "Buffalo shootings".{{sfn|The Counterterrorism Group, Inc.|2022}}

In Finland on 15 March 2024, the anniversary of Christchurch mosque shooting, a Finnish army Non-commissioned officer was arrested for allegedly planning a mass shooting in a university in Vaasa that day. As her motivation she said the world needed "a mass culling" to put an end to "selfish individualism", "human degeneration", global warming and conspicuous consumption.{{sfn|Karvinen|2024}}{{sfn|Harju|2024}} The Finnish police described her as ecofascist and that she had read books by Nietzsche, Linkola and Kaczynski. Additionally she had praised Pekka-Eric Auvinen in internet conversations and had visited Jokela school where he perpetrated the mass shooting.{{sfn|Hämäläinen|2024}}

On 12 August 2024 at least five people were wounded in a mass stabbing attack in Eskisehir, Turkey. The perpetrator had called for "Total Human Death" and voiced support for Ted Kaczynski, Auvinen and Accelerationism on the Internet.{{sfn|Bradley|2024}}{{sfn|Institute for Strategic Dialogue|2025}}

Natalie Rupnow, the perpetrator of the 16 December 2024 Abundant Life Christian School shooting called Auvinen "one true ideal of the so-called future" and included photos of him in her manifesto.{{sfn|Sirkin|2025}}

On 24 April 2025, a mass stabbing occurred at Our Lady of All Helps High School in Nantes, France, a teenage student was killed and three others were wounded. A 15-year-old male suspect was arrested at the scene and wrote a manifesto titled Immune Action. The document was sent to students via email and advocated environmentalism, anti-industrialism and anti-globalism and contained strong antisemitism.{{sfn|Heller|2025}}{{sfn|Chrisafis|2025}} The suspect followed neo-Nazi groups on social media, "loved Hitler" and he "wanted to bring back the Nazi ideas of Hitler" according to his classmates.{{sfn|Mahe|2025}}{{sfn|Samuel|2025}}

The deep ecologic activist and "left biocentrism" advocate David Orton stated in 2000 that the term is pejorative in nature and it has "social ecology roots, against the deep ecology movement and its supporters plus, more generally, the environmental movement. Thus, 'ecofascist' and 'ecofascism', are used not to enlighten but to smear." Orton argued that "it is a strange term/concept to really have any conceptual validity" as there has not "yet been a country that has had an "eco-fascist" government or, to my knowledge, a political organisation which has declared itself publicly as organised on an ecofascist basis."{{sfn|Orton|2000}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Since 2000, multiple individuals and groups have self described as ecofascists, including:

• Pekka-Eric Auvinen{{sfn|Kaati|Cohen|Sarnecki|Fernquist|2020}}
• Brenton Tarrant{{sfn|Koziol|2019}}{{sfn|Smith|2021|pp=29–30}}
• Patrick Crusius{{sfn|Lennard|2019}}{{sfn|Smith|2021|pp=29–30}}
• Green Brigade{{sfn|Kamel|Lamoureux|Makuch|2020}}{{sfn|Smith|2021|pp=100–102}}
• Payton S. Gendron{{sfn|Starr|2022}}

}}

Accusations of ecofascism have often been made but are usually strenuously denied.{{sfn|Orton|2000}}{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2003}} Left wing critiques view ecofascism as an assault on human rights, as in social ecologist Murray Bookchin's use of the term.{{sfn|Bookchin|1987|pp=12–13}}

{{main|Deep ecology}}

Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that promotes the inherent worth of all living beings regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs. It has long been linked to fascist ideologies, both by critics and fascist proponents.{{sfn|Zimmerman|2004}}{{sfn|Huq|Mochida|2018|p=5}}{{sfn|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=33–34}} Luc Ferry, in his anti-environmentalist book {{ill|Le Nouvel Ordre écologique|fr}} published in 1992, particularly incriminated deep ecology as being an anti-humanist ideology bordering on Nazism.{{sfn|Flipo|2018|pp=77–89}}{{sfn|Taylor|Zimmerman|2008|p=458}} Modern ecofascism has been described as a deep ecological philosophy combined with antihumanism and an accelerationist stance.{{sfn|Karlsson|2021}}

Murray Bookchin criticises the political position of deep ecologists{{sfn|Oksa|2005|p=85}} such as David Foreman:

{{Blockquote|

There are barely disguised racists, survivalists, macho Daniel Boones, and outright social reactionaries who use the word ecology to express their views, just as there are deeply concerned naturalists, communitarians, social radicals, and feminists who use the word ecology to express theirs... It was out of this former kind of crude eco-brutalism that Hitler, in the name of "population control," with a racial orientation, fashioned theories of blood and soil...

The same eco-brutalism now reappears a half-century later among self-professed deep ecologists who believe that Third World peoples should be permitted to starve to death and that desperate Indian immigrants from Latin America should be excluded by the border cops from the United States lest they burden "our" ecological resources.{{sfn|Bookchin|1987|pp=4–5}}

}}

Such observations among the left are not exclusive to Bookchin. In his review of Anna Bramwell's biography of Richard Walther Darré, political writer J. Sakai and author of Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat, observes the fascist ideological undertones of natural purity.{{sfn|Sakai|2003|p=29}} Prior to the Russian Revolution, the tsarist intelligentsia was divided on the one hand between liberal "utilitarian naturalists", who were "taken with the idea of creating a paradise on earth through scientific mastery of nature" and influenced by nihilism as well as Russian zoologists such as Anatoli Petrovich Bogdanov; and, on the other, "cultural-aesthetic" conservationists such as Ivan Parfenevich Borodin, who were influenced in turn by German Romantic and idealist concepts such as {{lang|de|Landschaftspflege}} and {{lang|de|Naturdenkmal}}.{{sfn|Weiner|2000|p=11}}

Political scientist Balša Lubarda has criticised the use of the term "ecofascism" as not sufficiently covering and describing the wider network of ideologies and systems that feed into ecofascist action, suggesting the term "far-right ecologism" (FRE) instead.{{sfn|Lubarda|2020|pp=725–727}}{{harvnb|Farrell-Molloy|Macklin|2022}}: "It should be stated that eco-fascism itself is a fringe phenomenon and has not significantly impacted mainstream or radical right politics. This is why the term far-right ecologism has been proposed as an alternative label, to prevent 'eco-fascism,' with its more narrow definition outlined above, from dominating our understanding of the broader radical right's nature politics."{{sfn|Forchtner|Lubarda|2023}} Lubarda is supported by researcher Bernhard Forchtner who emphasises ecofascism's existence as a fringe ideology that has had little impact on the wider far-right's interaction with environmentalism.{{harvnb|Forchtner|Lubarda|2020}}: "Given this, it seems that eco-fascism should not dominate our understanding of the wider radical right’s relationship with nature. Indeed, this relationship is multifaceted due to the array of radical-right actors who engage in it, from anti-liberal actors to outright anti-democratic ones."{{sfn|Moore|Roberts|2022a|pp=8–9, 12–13}}

As ecofascism has become more prevalent various environmental groups and organisations have publicly disavowed the ideology and those who subscribe to it.{{harvnb|Achenbach|2019}}; {{harvnb|Earthworks|2022a}}; {{harvnb|Guidi|2022}}; {{harvnb|Walsh|2022}}: "The mainstream environmentalist movement, which has largely embraced social justice, has repeatedly rejected eco-fascists, saying the ideology greenwashes hate and is more focused on white supremacy than environmental protection."; {{harvnb|Shapiro|Ozug|Morell|2022}}; {{harvnb|Earthworks|2022b}}: "Eco-fascism presents a tangible, present danger to almost every person on Earth, especially the communities most impacted by the climate crisis. Organizations active in the environmental and climate justice movements, like Earthworks, must do our part in acknowledging and raising awareness of these issues, rooting out eco-fascists among our circles and preventing any more from joining, and working in solidarity with those who strongly oppose ecofascism." These have included the Sierra Club,{{sfn|Guidi|2022}} Earthworks,{{sfn|Earthworks|2022a}} and the radical environmentalist group Earth First!.{{sfn|Thomas|Gosink|2021|p=34}}

In recent years there has been a greater proliferation in ecofascist groups globally in line with the proliferation of ecofascist rhetoric,{{sfn|Yakushko|De Francisco|2022|pp=471–472}}{{sfn|Fernández|Hart|2023}} and a more general increase in far-right and fascist political thought and sentiment.{{sfn|Thomas|Gosink|2021|pp=34–35}}

Australia has seen an increasing prominence of ecofascism among its far-right groups in recent years.{{harvnb|O'Neill|2022}}; {{harvnb|Campion|Phillips|2023}}; {{harvnb|Mitchell|2022}}; {{harvnb|Richards|Brinn|Jones|2024|pp=1–2}} Scholars have highlighted that Australia is particularly primed for such an increase due to being acutely affected by global warming, having a history of highly restrictive immigration policies, and its geopolitical situation in Oceania in relation to Asia.{{sfn|Richards|Brinn|Jones|2024|p=67}}

{{ill|The Greens of Austria|de|Die Grünen Österreichs|display=1}} (DGÖ) had been founded in 1982 by the former NDP official Alfred Bayer to use the popularity of the green movement at the time for the purposes of the NDP. The party managed to win a number of municipal seats in the mid-1980s but in 1988 the Constitutional Court banned the party on grounds of Neo-Nazism alongside a parallel ban on the NDP.{{sfn|Kriebernegg|2014|p=}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}}

The National Socialist Movement of Denmark took part in the 1988 elections in Denmark with the campaign "A Green Denmark for White People", focusing on environmental issues.{{sfn|Christensen|2024|pp=186–187}} The party's magazine {{lang|da|Fædrelandet}} championed organic farming and condemned synthetic fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, hormones, pesticides, and genetic modification.{{sfn|Christensen|2024|pp=185, 188}} A paper by Claus Bundgård Christensen of the University of Roskilde states "there is no doubt that Ecofascist ideological values play a prominent role amongst contemporary Danish National Socialists."{{sfn|Christensen|2024|pp=188–189}} Nordic Resistance Movement that is active in Denmark supports green causes and frequently refers to the Danish Nazi leader Povl Riis-Knudsen who promoted ecofascism and Savitri Devi's works.{{sfn|Christensen|2024|pp=185–186}}

The neo-fascist Blue-and-Black Movement includes ecofascist policy goals, stating that they aim to protect the nature and biodiversity of Finland, and to live in harmony with nature, ending ritual slaughter, fur-farming and animal testing.{{sfn|Blue-and-Black Movement|2021}} According to the Finnish Broadcasting Company, the Movement can be described as ecofascist, and the group draws considerable support from traditional Green Party voters.{{sfn|Koskela|2025}}

Finnish ecofascist and the author of the book "National Socialism - Ideology of Nature Conservation" Werner Toivonen has been a featured speaker in significant Finnish extreme right events, such as 612 march and "Awakening" conference.{{sfn|Kansalainen|2024}}{{sfn|MEMRI|2025a}}

The European {{lang|fr|Nouvelle Droite}} movement, developed by Alain de Benoist and other individuals involved with the GRECE think tank, have also combined various left-wing ideas, including green politics, with right-wing ideas such as European ethnonationalism.{{sfn|Griffin|2008}}{{sfn|d'Allens|2022a}}{{sfn|Griffin|2000|pp=43–44, 47–48}} Various other far-right figures have taken the lead from de Benoist, providing an appeal to nature in their politics, including: Guillaume Faye, Renaud Camus, and Hervé Juvin.{{sfn|d'Allens|2022a}}

In 2020, following articles from self-described ecofascist {{ill|Piero San Giorgio|fr}}, a spokesperson for {{lang|fr|Génération identitaire}}, Clément Martin, advocated for {{lang|fr|zones identitaires à défendre}}, ethnically homogenous zones to be violently defended in order to protect the environment.{{sfn|d'Allens|2022a}}

==== National Rally ====

Marine Le Pen, president of the far-right National Rally ({{lang|fr|Rassemblement National}}, or RN) in the French National Assembly, has shown an ecofascist approach towards climate change issue and has incorporated environmental issues into her platform, although her policies regarding the climate often reflect a nationalist and protectionist stance to address it.{{harvnb|Saltmarsh|2022}}; {{harvnb|Walsh|2022}}; {{harvnb|Szenes|2021|pp=179–180}}{{sfn|Aronoff|2022}} Le Pen has stated that concern for the climate is inherently nationalist, and that immigrants "do not care about the environment".{{sfn|Szenes|2023|p=2}}{{sfn|Aronoff|2022}} Jordan Bardella, president of National Rally, embraces similar beliefs and has stated "Borders are the environment’s greatest ally; it is through them we will save the planet."{{sfn|Aronoff|2022}}

Solutions for climate change proposed for Le Pen also align with right-wing conservative economics. She has disregarded liberal free trade economics, under her belief that it "kills the planet" and creates "suffering for animals". Rather than supporting mass production of international commerce, she designed a localist project for "economic patriotism" to boost French products.{{sfn|Garric|2022}}

Climate change was not in the RN's party platform until around 2019, when the issue began to be capitalised electorally by both leftist and center parties alike. In response to this rising awareness regarding environmental issues, Le Pen designed an energy plan focused on fossil fuels, opposing wind and solar energy,{{sfn|Saltmarsh|2022}} and emphasising expanding nuclear power wherein she delineated a party policy where 70% of France's electricity was to come from nuclear energy by 2050. Additionally, Le Pen supports maintaining oil heating systems and reducing taxes on fossil fuels, which contradicts climate experts' recommendations, and could increase France's dependence on fossil fuels.{{sfn|Goldberg|2022}}

Staudenmaier points to how from the post-war period in Germany an ecofascist section has always been present in the German far-right, though as a minor peripheral section,{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2001|pp=4–6}}{{sfn|Walsh|2022|ps=: "Elements of the far-right scene in Germany and across Europe still champion environmental causes, and things like organic farming. In Germany, environmental groups risk being infiltrated by far-right extremists."}} with others pointing out a long history of right-wing individuals and groups being present in the environmental and green movement in Germany.{{sfn|Ditfurth|1992|pp=278–287}}

File:2017-01-21_-_Frank_Franz_-_0935.jpg, the leader of the NPD from 2014 to 2024, photographed in 2017.]]

Die Heimat (The Homeland), previously known as the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), a German Nationalist far-right party, has long sought to utilise the green movement.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2004|pp=519–520}} This is one of many strategies the party has used to try to gain supporters.{{sfn|Connolly|2012}}

The German far-right has published the magazine {{lang|de|{{ill|Umwelt & Aktiv|de}}}}, that masquerades as a garden and nature publication but intertwines garden tips with extremist political ideology.{{sfn|Naujoks|2008}}{{sfn|Staud|Heise|2012}}{{sfn|Fuchs|2010}} This is known as a "camouflage publication" in which the NPD has spread its mission and ideologies through a discrete source and made its way into homes they otherwise wouldn't.{{sfn|Connolly|2012}} Right-wing environmentalists are settling in the northern regions of rural Germany and are forming nationalistic and authoritarian communities which produce honey, fresh produce, baked goods, and other such farm goods for profit. Their ideology is centered around "blood and soil" ruralism in which they humanely raise produce and animals for profit and sustenance. Through their support of this operation, and the backing of many others, it's reported that the NPD is trying to wrestle the green movement, which has been dominated by the left since the 1980s, back from the left through these avenues.{{sfn|Oltermann|2020}}

It's difficult to know if when one is buying local produce or farm fresh eggs from a farmer at their stand, they're supporting a right-wing agenda. Various efforts are being made to halt or slow the infiltration of right-wing ecologists into the community of organic farmers such as brochures about their communities and common practices. However, as the organic cultivation organisation, Biopark, demonstrates with their vetting process, it's difficult to keep people out of communities because of their ideologies. Biopark specifies that they vet based on cultivation habits, not opinions or doctrines, especially when they're not explicitly stated.{{sfn|Connolly|2012}}

Prominent {{lang|de|Alternative für Deutschland}} (Alternative for Germany) politician, Björn Höcke, has stated his desire to "reclaim" natural conservation from the left.{{sfn|Oltermann|2020}} Höcke believes that nature conservation is not correctly executed under climate justice politics, and is quoted stating that the AfD has "to take the issue of nature conservation back from the Greens"{{sfn|Holly|2024}} However, Höcke recognises that a socially conservative position that strongly values environmental protection is not the majority position of the AfD. Regardless, Höcke sees the work of far-right ecological magazine, {{lang|de|Die Kehre}}, as laying a theoretical standpoint for the AfD to later draw from.{{sfn|Holly|2024}}

{{excerpt|Collegium Humanum}}

The term is also used to a limited extent within the {{lang|de|Neue Rechte}}.{{sfn|Benninger|1996|pp=191–195}}

The neo-Artamans have been identified as ecofascists in their attempts to revive the agrarian and völkisch traditions of the Artaman League in communes that they have built up since the 1990s.{{sfn|Dannemann|2023|p=6}}{{sfn|Connolly|2012}}

Greek neo-Nazi Golden Dawn has a Green Wing that defines its difference from the liberal environmental movement: "Our love for nature is different than theirs [the left]: The environment is the cradle of our Race, it mirrors our culture and civilization, making it our duty to protect it." The Green Wing worked as volunteer firemen during the 2018 Attica wildfires and took part in the reforestation projects.{{sfn|Moore|Roberts|2022a|pp=74–75}}

File:A Mi Hazánk Mozgalom naggyűlése a Corvin közben.jpg, leader of the Our Homeland Movement party, speaking at {{ill|Corvin köz|hu}}.]]

Following the fall of Communism in Hungary at the end of the 1980s, one of the new political parties that emerged in the country was the Green Party of Hungary. Initially having a moderate centre-right green outlook, after 1993 the party adopted a radical anti-liberal, anti-communist, anti-Semitic and pro-fascist stance, paired with the creation of a paramilitary wing.{{sfn|Vida|2011|pp=430–432}} This ideological swing resulted in many members breaking off from the party to form new green parties, first with Green Alternative in 1993 and secondly with Hungarian Social Green Party in 1995. Each green party remained on the political fringe of Hungarian politics and petered out over time.{{sfn|Nohlen|Stöver|2010|p=899}} It was not until the formation of LMP – Hungary's Green Party in the 2010s that green politics in Hungary consolidated around a single green party.

The far-right Hungarian political party Our Homeland Movement has adopted some elements of environmentalism, and commonly refers to itself as the only true green party;{{harvnb|Szenes|2023|p=2}}: "The Hungarian Our Homeland Movement, a far right opposition party, refers to itself as the only 'green party' in the country that truly cares about protecting the environment." for example, the party has called on Hungarians to show patriotism by supporting the removal of pollution from the Tisza River while simultaneously placing the blame on the pollution on Romania and Ukraine.{{sfn|Margulies|2021|pp=22–29}}{{sfn|Szenes|2021|pp=179–180}} Similarly, elements of the far-right Sixty-Four Counties Youth Movement proscribe themselves to the "Eco-Nationalist" label, with one member stating "no real nationalist is a climate denialist".{{sfn|Lubarda|2021}}

File:Narendra Modi addressing at the inauguration of the India Pavilion, at COP21 Summit, in Paris, France. The Minister of State for Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Independent Charge).jpg]]

Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi's leadership of India with the Bharatiya Janata Party seeks to install a complete system of Hindutva,{{sfn|Bhatty|Sundar|2020|pp=634–637}} with repression of racial and religious minorities and caste discrimination.{{harvnb|Krishna|Noorani|2003|p=4}}: "the archival evidence presented by Marzia Casolari conclusively shows how much the proponents of Hindutva admired European fascism; liberally borrowed from it and this influence continues even today"; {{harvnb|Leidig|2020|pp=215–237}}; {{harvnb|Brown|McLean|McMillan|2018|p=381}}; {{harvnb|Jaffrelot|1999|pp=25–30}}; {{harvnb|Drèze|2020|pp=229–236}}; {{harvnb|Malik|Singh|1992|pp=318–336}}; {{harvnb|Seshia|1998|pp=1036–1050}}; {{harvnb|Gillan|2002|pp=73–95}}; {{harvnb|Kanji|2023}}; {{harvnb|Moore|Roberts|2022a|pp=61–64}} Since 2018 Modi has been increasingly viewed as an environmental champion and used rhetoric about protecting the environment to greenwash his image and the image of his party.{{sfn|Kanji|2023}}{{sfn|Moore|Roberts|2022b}}{{sfn|Moore|Roberts|2022a|pp=61–64}} The Modi governments have been accused of using environmental justifications to target minority communities in India for oppressive measures and displacement.{{sfn|Kanji|2023}}{{sfn|Moore|Roberts|2022a|pp=61–64}}{{sfn|Maerhofer|2021}}

In 2022, BJP leader & Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma accused the Muslim minority of 'flood jihad' i.e orchestrating man-made floods in the lowlying Hindu-majority areas of the Brahmaputra Valley by deliberately accelerating deforestation and environmental degradation in the surrounding mountains of Meghalaya.{{sfn|Arora|Silva|2022}}{{sfn|PTI|2024a}}{{sfn|PTI|2024b}} Researchers have also highlighted an increasing securitisation of borders in India in response to climate change.{{sfn|Thomas|Gosink|2021|p=45}}

Greenline Front is an international network of ecofascists which originated in Eastern Europe, with chapters in a variety of countries such as Argentina, Belarus, Chile, Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Spain and Switzerland.{{sfn|Forchtner|Lubarda|2020}}

Tsagaan Khas ({{langx|mn|Цагаан Хас|lit=white swastika}}) is a Mongolian neo-Nazi organisation. In 2013, the group tried to shift its focus to fighting pollution resulting from mining in Mongolia.{{sfn|Barria|2013}} Its members have appeared at mining operations, demanding to see paperwork and sometimes sabotaging the operations if they deemed it mismanaged. The group has demanded soil samples from the mining operations, in order to check for soil contamination. According to the founder of the group, the group wants to fulfill a role which the local authorities have supposedly failed at concerning foreign mining companies.{{sfn|Blanc|2013}}{{sfn|The Korea Herald|2013}}

Initially a "patriotic environmental group", Mestnye was ran in part by multiple neo-Nazi leaders who eventually took it over. A leader of the violent neo-Nazi United Brigade-88 Sergei Nikulkin is a Mestnye leader. Leonid Simunin, a Mestnye functionary was a supervisor of Russki Obraz, another violent neo-Nazi group. In 2006 groups of Mestnye activists attacked 20 marketplaces in Moscow and detained 73 illegal immigrants, Mestnye leader Sergei Fateev bragging that the neo-nazi "[­Movement Against Illegal Immigration] is all talk, but we act." Mestnye is also connected to the neo-Nazi "88th Brigade" Espanola, which fights in Ukraine, through the Brigade's founder, who is a member. Furthermore, the green movement provides funding to the brigade.{{sfn|MEMRI|2025}}{{sfn|Horvath|2021|pp=43, 87–88, 184, 196}}

Leviathan Movement promotes ecology and protects animals from cruelty by, among other things, saving them from abusers. Leviathan has been reported as an ideologically neo-fascist{{sfn|Eror|2022}} and neo-nazi group.{{sfn|Mulhall|Khan-Ruf|Bego|2021|p=108}} They used to share an office with the Serbian Right, a far-right political party, and Leviathan's leader, Pavle Bihali, is seen in pictures on his social media accounts posing with neo-Nazis.{{sfn|Djukanovic|Djureinovic|Momcilovic|2020}}

The Nordic Resistance Movement, a pan-Nordic{{harvnb|Askanius|2021b|p=1765}}: "...the Nordic Resistance Movement—a pan-Nordic organisation with chapters in Finland, Denmark, Norway and Iceland."; {{harvnb|Fontaine|2016}}: "...the NRM, which seeks to form a pan-Nordic state..."; {{harvnb|Darwish|2021|p=183}} neo-Nazi{{harvnb|Darwish|2018|pp=27–30}}; {{harvnb|Askanius|2021a|pp=147–165|ps=: "...the neo-Nazi organization the Nordic Resistance Movement in Sweden..."}}; {{harvnb|Reuters Staff|2017|ps=: "A Finnish court banned neo-Nazi group the Nordic Resistance Movement (PVL) on Thursday..."}}; {{harvnb|Harkov|Joffre|2020|ps=: "The Nordic Resistance Movement, a neo-Nazi group, targeted Jews in Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Iceland with antisemitic harassment during the week before Yom Kippur."}}; {{harvnb|Szenes|2023|p=6|ps=: "the NRM, the largest, most active, and most violent militant neo-Nazi group that operates across the Nordic countries"}} movement in the Nordic countries and a political party in Sweden has been continually described as ecofascist,{{sfn|Dalsbro|2020}}{{sfn|Szenes|2021|p=148}} and have declared themselves as the "new green party" of the Nordics.{{sfn|Darwish|2019}} In their English-language literature they continually link immigration to environmental degradation,{{sfn|Szenes|2021|p=161}} as well as linking both to liberalism and the cultural Marxism conspiracy theory.{{sfn|Szenes|2021|pp=179–180}}

In Switzerland, the initiators of the Ecopop initiative were accused of eco-fascism by FDFA State Secretary {{ill|Yves Rossier|de}} at a Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland event on 11 January 2013.{{sfn|Tages-Anzeiger|2013}} However, after threatening to sue, Rossier apologised for the allegation.{{sfn|Häfliger|2013}}

File:Question time nick griffin protest 2.jpg

There is also a historic tradition between the far-right and environmentalism in the UK.{{sfn|Pepper|1996|pp=226–230}}{{sfn|Smyth|2019}} Throughout its history, the far-right British National Party has flirted on and off with environmentalism. During the 1970s the party's first leader John Bean expressed support for the emerging environmentalist movement in the pages of the party's newspaper and suggested the primary cause of pollution as overpopulation, and therefore immigration into Britain must be halted.{{sfn|Jones|2020}}{{sfn|Knights|2020}} During the 2000s the BNP sought to position itself as the "only 'true' green party in the United Kingdom, dedicating a significant portion of their manifestos to green issues. During an appearance on BBC One's Question Time in October 2009, then-leader Nick Griffin proclaimed:

{{Blockquote

|text=Unlike the fake "Greens" who are merely a front for the far left of the Labour regime, the BNP is the only party to recognise that overpopulation – whose primary driver is immigration, as revealed by the government's own figures – is the cause of the destruction of our environment. Furthermore, the BNP's manifesto states that a BNP government will make it a priority to stop building on green land. New housing should wherever possible be built on derelict "brown land".{{sfn|Hickman|2009a}}}}

The Guardian criticised Griffin's claims that himself and the BNP were truly environmentalists at heart, suggesting it was merely a smokescreen for anti-immigrant rhetoric and pointed to previous statements by Griffin in which he suggested that climate change was a hoax.{{sfn|Hickman|2009a}} These suspicions seemed to be proven correct when in December 2009 the BNP released a 40-page document denying that global warming is a "man-made" phenomenon.{{sfn|Hickman|2009b}} The party reiterated this stance in 2011, as well as making claims that wind farms were causing the deaths of "thousands of Scottish pensioners from hypothermia".{{harvnb|Ward|2011}}: "The BNP Scottish manifesto uses the tactic of linking opposition to wind farms with climate change denial, alleging in its section on 'Global Warming' that "huge expenditures on inefficient wind farms, to the detriment of essential winter services, have cost lives on Scottish roads, and caused the death of thousands of Scottish pensioners from hypothermia"."

John Bean a far-right activist and politician, the first leader of the BNP and latterly a leader within the National Front, wrote regularly in the National Front’s magazine about the problems of pollution and environmental degradation tying them to ideas of overpopulation and immigration.{{sfn|Jones|2020}}

In 2024 it was reported by Searchlight that the fascist groups Patriotic Alternative and Homeland party has also started to make claims that the countryside was being destroyed by immigration.{{sfn|Searchlight Team|2024}}

In Scotland, former UKIP candidate and activist Alistair McConnachie, who has questioned the Holocaust, founded the Independent Green Voice in 2003,{{sfn|Duffy|2021}} and multiple ex-BNP members and activists have stood as candidates for the party.{{sfn|Briggs|2021}}

During the 1990s a highly militant environmentalist subculture called Hardline emerged from the straight edge hardcore punk music scene and established itself in a number of cities across the US.{{sfn|Parkes|2014|p=65|ps=: "Buechner formed his band, Earth Crisis, in 1989 with both straight edge and veganism as primary focuses for lyrical content, endorsing direct action from such groups as the Animal Liberation Front and Earth Liberation Front. The ideas expressed by bands such as Earth Crisis would ultimately form a distinct social circle in hardcore known for militancy: hardline. Hardline and its strict vegan message developed a national following in the mid-1990s."}} Adherents to the Hardline lifestyle combined the straight edge belief in no alcohol, no drugs, no tobacco with militant veganism and advocacy for animal rights. Hardline touted a biocentric worldview that claimed to value all life, and therefore opposed abortion, contraceptives, and sex for any purpose other than procreation. On this same line, Hardline opposed homosexuality as "unnatural" and "deviant".{{harvnb|Staudenmaier|2005}}: "The "Hardline faction grew out of the Straight Edge movement in punk culture, and combines uncompromising veganism with purportedly "pro-life" politics. Hardliners believe in self-purification from various forms of 'pollution': animal products, tobacco, alcohol, drugs, and "deviant" sexual behavior, including abortion, homosexuality, and indeed any sex for pleasure rather than procreation. Their version of animal liberation professes absolute authority based on the "laws of nature"." Hardline groups were highly militant; in 1999 Salt Lake City grouped Hardliners as a criminal gang and suggested they were behind dozens of assaults in the metro area.{{sfn|Smith G.|2011|pp=635, 643}} That same year CBS News reported that Hardliners were behind the firebombing of fast food outlets and clothing stores selling leather items, and attributed 30 attacks to Hardliners.{{sfn|CBS News|2015}} The Hardline subculture dissolved after the 1990s.{{sfn|Hughes|2018|pp=78, 103–104}}

White supremacist John Tanton and the network of organisations he created, dubbed the Tanton network, have been described as ecofascist.{{sfn|Cox|2023}}{{sfn|Beirich|Potok|2010}} Tanton and his organisations spent decades linking immigration to environmental concerns.{{harvnb|Beirich|2009|pp=5–6}}; {{harvnb|Bentley Historical Library|2013}}; {{harvnb|Tolerance.org|2002}}{{harvnb|Tigue|2022}}: "Once relegated to the fringes of society, ecofascism has found its way into mainstream discourse in recent years. Its origins, in many ways, trace back to the Tanton network, a collection of more than a dozen anti-immigration groups founded or funded by John Tanton"

Political researchers Blair Taylor and Eszter Szenes have identified multiple threads in alt-right discourse and ideology that align with far-right ecologism and ecofascism.{{sfn|Taylor|2020|pp=278–280}}{{sfn|Szenes|2023|pp=3–4|ps=: "The conflation of nature, 'the land of opportunity' for the white race and white supremacy; the myth of 'the frontier' and settler colonialist fascination with an empty 'wilderness' (as if Indigenous peoples had never existed); and a (neo)Malthusian 'fixation' with overpopulation in the developing world15 have all been identified as precursors to the 'modern' ecofascist ideas of the American alt-right."}}

The Green Party of the United States has also long been the target of various far-right figures, such as anti-Semitic conspiracy theorists, who have tried to shift the party drastically to the far-right.{{sfn|Phelan|2018}}

In 1994, so-called "Takings" bills{{efn|Such as the Comprehensive Wetlands Conservation and Management Act of 1994}} were introduced by the U.S. Congress to financially compensate wetlands owners who were unable to develop their land for profit due to environmental protection policies. These bills were met with resistance by "anthropocentric market liberals", who oppose any sort of market regulation or intervention of the state into private ownership. Hence, these "takings" bills were deemed ecofascist and proponents of the bills were "disparaged" and viewed as "'nature-loving' romantics for having reactionary tendencies that may be consistent with fascism". The journal Social Theory and Practice uses this instance to exemplify how growing public frustration with complex federal environmental regulations leads to rapidly polarising opinions on environmental regulations in the United States: one is either a citizen who supports people, private property, and the U.S. Constitution, or a radical environmentalist who supports nature, communal ownership, and ecofascism.{{sfn|Zimmerman|1995|pp=207–208}}

Detractors on the political right tend to use the term "ecofascism" as a hyperbolic general pejorative against all environmental activists,{{harvnb|Forchtner|Lubarda|2020}}: "As such, it is also a highly loaded term, used both academically and as a slur."{{sfn|d'Allens|2020}} including more mainstream groups such as Greenpeace, prominent activists such as Greta Thunberg, and government agencies tasked with protecting environmental resources.{{sfn|Staudenmaier|2003}}{{harvnb|Huq|Mochida|2018|p=9}}; {{harvnb|Richards|Jones|Brinn|2022}}; {{harvnb|Fine|Love-Nichols|2021|p=308}}; {{harvnb|Knights|2020}} Such detractors include Rush Limbaugh and other conservative and wise use movement commentators.{{cite web |url=https://blogs.wellesley.edu/es39901/2021/05/10/ecofascism-what-it-is-and-what-it-isnt/ |title=Ecofascism: What It Is and What It Isn't |first=Paloma |last=Quiroga |date=10 May 2021 |website=Environmental Synthesis and Communication |publisher=Wellesley College |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515001901/https://blogs.wellesley.edu/es39901/2021/05/10/ecofascism-what-it-is-and-what-it-isnt/ |archive-date=15 May 2021}}{{sfn|Huq|Mochida|2018|pp=7–9}} The term as a pejorative has been used in multiple countries.{{cite web |first=Pierre |last=Madelin |date=26 June 2020 |url=https://www.terrestres.org/2020/06/26/la-tentation-eco-fasciste-migrations-et-ecologie/ |title=La tentation écofasciste : migrations et écologie |language=fr |trans-title=The ecofascist temptation: migrations and ecology |website=terrestrials.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601082450/https://www.terrestres.org/2020/06/26/la-tentation-eco-fasciste-migrations-et-ecologie/ |archive-date=1 June 2024}}

{{colbegin|colwidth=20em}}

• Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism
• Animal welfare in Nazi Germany
• ATWA
• Conspirituality
• Definitions of fascism
• Ecoauthoritarianism
• Ecocapitalism
• Eco-nationalism
• Eco-socialism
• Eco-terrorism
• Environmental movement
• Environmental racism
• Green Imperialism
• Hardline (subculture)
• Neo-Luddism
• Pastel QAnon
• Radical environmentalism
• Red-green-brown alliance

{{colend}}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}

• {{cite news |last=Achenbach |first=Joel |author-link=Joel Achenbach |date=18 August 2019 |title=Two mass killings a world apart share a common theme: 'ecofascism': Environmental groups denounce racists who cloak themselves in green |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/two-mass-murders-a-world-apart-share-a-common-theme-ecofascism/2019/08/18/0079a676-bec4-11e9-b873-63ace636af08_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504184310/https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/two-mass-murders-a-world-apart-share-a-common-theme-ecofascism/2019/08/18/0079a676-bec4-11e9-b873-63ace636af08_story.html |archive-date=4 May 2022}}
• {{cite magazine |last=Adler-Bell |first=Sam |date=24 September 2019 |title=Why White Supremacists Are Hooked on Green Living |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/154971/rise-ecofascism-history-white-nationalism-environmental-preservation-immigration |magazine=The New Republic |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114162308/https://newrepublic.com/article/154971/rise-ecofascism-history-white-nationalism-environmental-preservation-immigration |archive-date=14 November 2019}}<
• {{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=Charles C. |date=1962 |title=Prophet of American Racism: Madison Grant and the Nordic Myth |journal=Phylon |volume=23 |number=1 |pages=73–90 |publisher=Clark Atlanta University |doi=10.2307/274146 |jstor=274146}}
• {{cite web |last=d'Allens |first=Gaspard |date=23 July 2020 |title=Tir groupé contre l'écologie : la victoire des Verts provoque la rage des conservateurs |language=fr |trans-title=Grouped attack on ecology: the Greens' victory provokes the rage of conservatives |url=https://reporterre.net/Tir-groupe-contre-l-ecologie-la-victoire-des-Verts-provoque-la-rage-des-conservateurs |website={{ill|Reporterre|fr}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310175445/https://reporterre.net/Tir-groupe-contre-l-ecologie-la-victoire-des-Verts-provoque-la-rage-des-conservateurs |archive-date=10 March 2024}}
• {{cite web |last=d'Allens |first=Gaspard |author-mask=3 |date=1 February 2022 |title=Enquête sur l'écofascisme: comment l'extrême droite veut récupérer l'écologie |language=fr |trans-title=Investigating ecofascism: how the far right wants to recover ecology |url=https://reporterre.net/Enquete-sur-l-ecofascisme-comment-l-extreme-droite-veut-recuperer-l-ecologie |website={{ill|Reporterre|fr}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416072858/https://reporterre.net/Enquete-sur-l-ecofascisme-comment-l-extreme-droite-veut-recuperer-l-ecologie |archive-date=16 April 2022 |ref={{sfnref|d'Allens|2022a}} }}
• {{cite web |last=d'Allens |first=Gaspard |author-mask=3 |date=2 February 2022 |title=Du XIXe siècle à Zemmour, l'écofascisme contamine le débat politique |language=fr |trans-title=From the 19th century to Zemmour, ecofascism contaminates the political debate |url=https://reporterre.net/Du-XIXe-siecle-a-Zemmour-l-ecofascisme-contamine-le-debat-politique |website={{ill|Reporterre|fr}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213221351/https://reporterre.net/Du-XIXe-siecle-a-Zemmour-l-ecofascisme-contamine-le-debat-politique |archive-date=13 February 2022 |ref={{sfnref|d'Allens|2022b}} }}
• {{cite journal |last=Allison |first=Marcia |date=June 2020 |title='So long, and thanks for all the fish!': Urban dolphins as ecofascist fake news during COVID-19 |journal=Journal of Environmental Media |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=4.1–4.8 |doi=10.1386/jem_00025_1 |issn=2632-2471 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite journal |last=Amend |first=Alex |date=9 July 2020 |title=Blood and Vanishing Topsoil: American Ecofascism Past, Present, and in the Coming Climate Crisis |url=https://politicalresearch.org/2020/07/09/blood-and-vanishing-topsoil |journal=Political Research Associates |access-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003013348/https://politicalresearch.org/2020/07/09/blood-and-vanishing-topsoil |archive-date=3 October 2020}}
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• {{cite journal |last=Drèze |first=Jean |date=14 February 2020 |title=The Revolt of the Upper Castes |url=https://journals.library.brandeis.edu/index.php/caste/article/view/44 |journal=Caste: A Global Journal on Social Exclusion |language=en |publisher=Brandeis University |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=229–236 |doi=10.26812/caste.v1i1.44 |issn=2639-4928 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite news |last=Duffy |first=Judith |date=23 May 2021 |url=https://www.thenational.scot/news/19322533.independent-green-voice-founder-barred-ukip/ |title=The Independent Green Voice founder who was barred from UKIP |website=The National |access-date=26 August 2021 |archive-date=26 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826213337/https://www.thenational.scot/news/19322533.independent-green-voice-founder-barred-ukip/ |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Dyett |first1=Jordan |last2=Thomas |first2=Cassidy |date=2019 |title=Overpopulation Discourse: Patriarchy, Racism, and the Specter of Ecofascism |journal=Perspectives on Global Development and Technology |volume=18 |number=1–2 |pages=205–224 |doi=10.1163/15691497-12341514 |s2cid=159217740}}

• {{cite web |author=Earthworks |date=25 July 2022a |title=Earthworks Disavows Eco-fascism |url=https://earthworks.org/blog/earthworks-disavows-ecofascism/ |website=Earthworks |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623013513/https://earthworks.org/blog/earthworks-disavows-ecofascism/ |archive-date=23 June 2023}}
• {{cite web |author=Earthworks |author-mask=3 |date=28 October 2022b |title=Eco-fascism: a tangible & present danger |url=https://earthworks.org/blog/eco-fascism-a-tangible-present-danger/ |website=Earthworks |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623013606/https://earthworks.org/blog/eco-fascism-a-tangible-present-danger/ |archive-date=23 June 2023}}
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• {{cite report |date=1 November 2024 |url=https://www.statewatch.org/media/4188/eu-ctc-violent-environmental-extremism-twp-paper-5982-24.pdf |work=EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator |title=The role of climate change and environmental concerns in violent extremist and terrorist radicalisation in the EU |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240530134951/http://www.statewatch.org/media/4188/eu-ctc-violent-environmental-extremism-twp-paper-5982-24.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2024 |ref={{harvid|EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator|2024}} }}

• {{cite web |last1=Farrell-Molloy |first1=Joshua |last2=Macklin |first2=Graham |date=15 June 2022 |title=Ted Kaczynski, Anti-Technology Radicalism and Eco-Fascism |url=https://www.icct.nl/publication/ted-kaczynski-anti-technology-radicalism-and-eco-fascism/ |website=icct.nl |publisher=International Centre for Counter-Terrorism |access-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616081838/https://www.icct.nl/publication/ted-kaczynski-anti-technology-radicalism-and-eco-fascism/ |archive-date=16 June 2022}}
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• {{cite web |last1=Forchtner |first1=Bernhard |date=21 August 2019 |title=Eco-Fascism Encountered: The Natural Environment in Justifications of Terrorist Violence in the Christchurch Mosque Shooting and the El Paso Shooting |url=https://www.radicalrightanalysis.com/2019/08/21/eco-fascism-encountered-t-resurgence-the-natural-environment-in-justifications-of-terrorist-violence-in-the-christchurch-mosque-shooting-and-the-el-paso-shooting/ |publisher=Centre for Analysis of the Radical Right |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823233514/https://www.radicalrightanalysis.com/2019/08/21/eco-fascism-encountered-t-resurgence-the-natural-environment-in-justifications-of-terrorist-violence-in-the-christchurch-mosque-shooting-and-the-el-paso-shooting/ |archive-date=23 August 2019}}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Forchtner |first1=Bernhard |author1-mask=3 |last2=Lubarda |first2=Balša |author2-mask=3 |date=2023 |title=Scepticisms and beyond? A comprehensive portrait of climate change communication by the far right in the European Parliament |journal=Environmental Politics |volume=32 |number=1 |doi=10.1080/09644016.2022.2048556 |pages=43–68 |s2cid=247718730 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023EnvPo..32...43F}}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Guenther |first1=Genevieve |author1-link=Genevieve Guenther |date=10 March 2023 |title=The Epic of Survival: The Climate Crisis and Heroic Form |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-drama-review/article/abs/epic-of-survival/7CE68B8841DC130A50D3EEA26B973BCD |journal=TDR |volume=67 |number=1 |pages=16–20 |doi=10.1017/S1054204322000764 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |s2cid=257430519 |url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite web |last=Guidi |first=Ruxandra |date=27 December 2022 |title=Eco-Fascism, Uncovered |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/4-november-december/feature/eco-fascism-uncovered-el-paso-texas |website=Sierra Club |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503092103/https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/4-november-december/feature/eco-fascism-uncovered-el-paso-texas |archive-date=3 May 2023}}

• {{cite web |last=Hafez |first=Farid |date=26 August 2019 |title=The Manifesto of the El Paso Terrorist |url=https://bridge.georgetown.edu/research/the-manifesto-of-the-el-paso-terrorist/ |website=Bridge |publisher=Georgetown University |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926105918/https://bridge.georgetown.edu/research/the-manifesto-of-the-el-paso-terrorist/ |archive-date=26 September 2023}}
• {{cite news |last=Häfliger |first=Markus |date=22 January 2013 |title=Staatssekretär entschuldigt sich für Faschismus-Vergleich |language=de |trans-title=Secretary of State apologizes for fascism comparison |url=https://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/staatssekretaer-entschuldigt-sich-fuer-faschismus-vergleich-ld.622687?reduced=true |work=Neue Zürcher Zeitung |access-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220082113/https://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/staatssekretaer-entschuldigt-sich-fuer-faschismus-vergleich-ld.622687?reduced=true |archive-date=20 February 2023}}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Brian |last2=Jones |first2=Dave |last3=Amarasingam |first3=Amarnath |author3-link=Amarnath Amarasingam |date=2022 |title=Ecofascism: An Examination of the Far-Right/Ecology Nexus in the Online Space |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2022.2069932 |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=34 |number=5 |pages=997–1023 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2022.2069932 |s2cid=249694409 |url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Huq |first1=Efadul |last2=Mochida |first2=Henry |date=30 March 2018 |title=The Rise of Environmental Fascism and the Securitization of Climate Change |journal=Projections |publisher=MIT Press - Journals |doi=10.21428/6cb11bd5 |s2cid=149901653 |doi-access=free}}
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• {{cite web |last=Jones |first=Daniel |date=21 April 2020 |url=https://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/greenshirts-the-misuse-of-environmentalism-by-the-extreme-right/ |title=Greenshirts – The (Mis)use of Environmentalism by the Extreme Right |website=historyworkshop.org.uk |publisher= |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430114318/https://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/greenshirts-the-misuse-of-environmentalism-by-the-extreme-right/ |archive-date=30 April 2020}}

• {{cite web |last1=Kaati |first1=Lisa |last2=Cohen |first2=Katie |last3=Sarnecki |first3=Hannah |last4=Fernquist |first4=Johan |last5=Pelzer |first5=Björn |date=21 December 2020 |title=Ekofascism. En studie av propaganda i digitala miljöer |language=sv |trans-title=Ecofascism. A study of propaganda in digital environments |url=https://www.foi.se/rapportsammanfattning?reportNo=FOI%20Memo%207441 |access-date=26 December 2020 |publisher=Swedish Defence Research Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131194456/https://www.foi.se/rapportsammanfattning?reportNo=FOI%20Memo%207441 |archive-date=31 January 2021}}
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• {{Cite web |last=Kaczynski |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Kaczynski |author-mask=3 |date=29 September 2020 |title=Ecofascism: An Aberrant Branch of Leftism |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/ted-kaczynski-ecofascism-an-aberrant-branch-of-leftism |access-date=21 February 2022 |website=The Anarchist Library |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221192854/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/ted-kaczynski-ecofascism-an-aberrant-branch-of-leftism |archive-date=21 February 2022 |language=en}}
• {{cite news |last1=Kamel |first1=Zachary |last2=Lamoureux |first2=Mack |last3=Makuch |first3=Ben |date=20 January 2020 |title='Eco-fascist' Arm of Neo-Nazi Terror Group, The Base, Linked to Swedish Arson |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/eco-fascist-arm-of-neo-nazi-terror-group-the-base-linked-to-swedish-arson/ |work=Vice |access-date=22 December 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110073846/https://www.vice.com/en/article/qjdvzx/eco-fascist-arm-of-neo-nazi-terror-group-the-base-linked-to-swedish-arson |archive-date=10 November 2020}}
• {{cite news |last=Kanji |first=Azeezah |date=2 June 2023 |title=Ecofascism Is a Rising Threat. We Should Take Modi's Ascendance as a Warning. |url=https://truthout.org/articles/ecofascism-is-a-rising-threat-we-should-take-modis-ascendance-as-a-warning/ |work=truthout |access-date=11 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602144022/https://truthout.org/articles/ecofascism-is-a-rising-threat-we-should-take-modis-ascendance-as-a-warning/ |archive-date=2 June 2023}}
• {{cite web|url=https://www.kansalainen.fi/werner-toivosen-puhe-suomi-heraa-tapahtumassa-6-12-2024/|work=Kansalainen|title=Werner Toivosen puhe Suomi Herää-tapahtumassa 6.12.2024|date=6 December 2024|ref={{harvid|Kansalainen|2024}}}}
• {{cite magazine |last=Karlsson |first=Kristin |date=9 March 2021 |title=Ekofascism med rötter i djupekologin |trans-title=Ecofascism with roots in deep ecology |language=sv |url=https://landetsfria.nu/2021/nummer-204/ekofascism-med-rotter-i-djupekologin/ |magazine=Landets Fria |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311102825/https://landetsfria.nu/2021/nummer-204/ekofascism-med-rotter-i-djupekologin/ |archive-date=11 March 2021}}
• {{cite news |last=Karvinen |first=Eevi |date=18 March 2024 |url=https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/165a348b-3b5a-4bfb-abc5-c458c1ed4a01 |work=Iltalehti |title=23-vuotias nainen julkaisi hälyttävää materiaalia verkossa – Puolustus: "Ei aikomusta vahingoittaa" |language=fi |trans-title=23-year-old woman published alarming material online - Defense: "No intent to harm" |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318135924/https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/165a348b-3b5a-4bfb-abc5-c458c1ed4a01 |archive-date=18 March 2024}}
• {{cite journal |last=Kitch |first=Sally L. |date=2023 |title=Reproductive Rights and Ecofeminism |journal=Humanities |volume=12 |number=2 |page=34 |doi=10.3390/h12020034 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite magazine |last=Knights |first=Sam |date=16 November 2020 |title=The Climate Movement Must Be Ready To Challenge Rising Right-Wing Environmentalism |magazine=Jacobin |url=https://jacobin.com/2020/11/climate-change-right-wing-environmentalism-alt-right-eco-fascism |access-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504215607/https://jacobin.com/2020/11/climate-change-right-wing-environmentalism-alt-right-eco-fascism/ |archive-date=4 May 2023}}
• {{Cite news |date=16 October 2013 |title=Mongolia's 'eco-Nazis' target foreign miners |work=The Korea Herald |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20131016000983 |access-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613070108/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20131016000983 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |ref={{harvid|The Korea Herald|2013}} }}
• {{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/a/74-20160879|work=Yle|title=Ympäristöihmiset kirjoittivat Sinimustan liikkeen kannatuskortteja protestiksi, kertoo nimiä kerännyt jäsen|date=20 May 2025|last=Koskela|first=Miika}}
• {{cite news |last1=Koziol |first1=Michael |date=15 March 2019 |title=Christchurch shooter's manifesto reveals |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/oceania/christchurch-shooter-s-manifesto-reveals-an-obsession-with-white-supremacy-over-muslims-20190315-p514ko.html |publisher=Sydney Morning Herald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028102613/https://www.smh.com.au/world/oceania/christchurch-shooter-s-manifesto-reveals-an-obsession-with-white-supremacy-over-muslims-20190315-p514ko.html |archive-date=28 October 2021 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite thesis |last=Kriebernegg |first=David |date=2014 |url=https://unipub.uni-graz.at/obvugrhs/download/pdf/333623?originalFilename=true |title=Braune Flecken der Grünen Bewegung: Eine Untersuchung zu den völkisch-antimodernistischen Traditionslinien der Ökologiebewegung und zum Einfluss der extremen Rechten auf die Herausbildung grüner Parteien in Österreich und in der BRD |language=de |trans-title=Brown spots of the Green Movement: An investigation into the völkisch-antimodernist traditions of the ecology movement and the influence of the extreme right on the development of green parties in Austria and the Federal Republic of Germany |type=Master's |publisher=University of Graz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802114835/https://unipub.uni-graz.at/obvugrhs/download/pdf/333623?originalFilename=true |archive-date=2 August 2021}}
• {{cite book |last1=Krishna |first1=Chaitanya |last2=Noorani |first2=A. G. |author2-link=A. G. Noorani |year=2003 |title=Fascism in India: Faces, Fangs, and Facts |publisher=Manak Publications |isbn=978-81-7827-067-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnEMAQAAMAAJ |quote=the archival evidence presented by Marzia Casolari conclusively shows how much the proponents of Hindutva admired European fascism; liberally borrowed from it and this influence continues even today. |page=4}}

• {{cite news |last=Lamoureux |first=Mack |date=25 December 2020a |title=Neo-Nazis Are Using Eco-Fascism to Recruit Young People |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/neo-nazis-eco-fascism-climate-change-recruit-young-people/ |work=Vice News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101054145/https://www.vice.com/en/article/wxqmey/neo-nazis-eco-fascism-climate-change-recruit-young-people |archive-date=1 November 2020}}
• {{cite news |last=Lamoureux |first=Mack |author-mask=3 |date=25 December 2020b |title=Alleged Eco-Terrorists Discussed Abortion Clinic Bombing, Assassinating Judge: Court Documents |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/alleged-eco-terrorists-discussed-abortion-clinic-bombing-assassinating-judge-court-documents/ |work=Vice News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108013656/https://www.vice.com/en/article/g5bjqm/alleged-eco-terrorists-discussed-abortion-clinic-bombing-assassinating-judge-court-documents |archive-date=8 January 2021}}
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• {{cite web |last=Lennard |first=Natasha |date=5 August 2019 |title=The El Paso Shooter Embraced Eco-Fascism. We Can't Let the Far Right Co-Opt the Environmental Struggle. |url=https://theintercept.com/2019/08/05/el-paso-shooting-eco-fascism-migration/ |website=The Intercept |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129042203/https://theintercept.com/2019/08/05/el-paso-shooting-eco-fascism-migration/ |archive-date=29 November 2019}}
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• {{cite journal |last=Lubarda |first=Balša |date=December 2020 |title=Beyond Ecofascism? Far-Right Ecologism (FRE) as a Framework for Future Inquiries |journal=Environmental Values |volume=29 |number=6 |pages=713–732 |publisher={{ill|White Horse Press|de}} |doi=10.3197/096327120X15752810323922 |bibcode=2020EnvV...29..713L |s2cid=214075497}}
• {{cite news |last=Lubarda |first=Balša |author-mask=3 |date=9 February 2021 |title=When Ecologism Turns (Far) Right: the Hungarian Laboratory |url=https://www.resetdoc.org/story/when-ecologism-turns-far-right-the-hungarian-laboratory/ |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511173719/https://www.resetdoc.org/story/when-ecologism-turns-far-right-the-hungarian-laboratory/ |archive-date=11 May 2021}}
• {{cite thesis |last=Lynch |first=Breana |date=2022 |title=Feminist Critiques of Ecofascist, Nativist Appropriations of Indigeneity since 2016 |url=https://scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu/wgss-masters-finalprojects/1/ |type=M.A.}}

• {{cite journal |last=Macklin |first=Graham |date=1 June 2022 |title=The Extreme Right, Climate Change and Terrorism |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=34 |number=5 |pages=979–996 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2022.2069928 |doi-access=free |hdl=10852/100988 |hdl-access=free}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Macklin |first1=Graham |last2=Bjørgo |first2=Tore |date=2021 |title=Breivik's Long Shadow? The Impact of the July 22, 2011 Attacks on the Modus Operandi of Extreme-right Lone Actor Terrorists |journal=Perspectives on Terrorism |volume=15 |number=3 |pages=14–36 |url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2021/issue-3/macklin-and-bjorgo.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907051824/https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/customsites/perspectives-on-terrorism/2021/issue-3/macklin-and-bjorgo.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2021}}
• {{cite magazine |last=Maerhofer |first=John |date=17 February 2021 |title=Ecological multiplicity against capitalist hegemony in India |url=https://roarmag.org/essays/india-farmers-protest-biopiracy-land-commoning/ |magazine=ROAR Magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204222149/https://roarmag.org/essays/india-farmers-protest-biopiracy-land-commoning/ |archive-date=4 December 2024 |url-status=dead}}
• {{cite web |title=9 ITS Interview |date=12 March 2021 |url=http://maldicionecoextremista.altervista.org/9-interview/ |website=Maldición Eco-extremista |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102005303/http://maldicionecoextremista.altervista.org/9-interview/ |archive-date=2 November 2021 |url-status=unfit |ref={{harvid|Maldición Eco-extremista|2021}} }}
• {{Cite news |last=Mahe |first=Stephane |date=24 April 2025 |title=Student kills one, wounds three in French high school stabbing |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/french-high-school-student-kills-one-injures-three-nantes-stabbing-attack-2025-04-24/ |access-date=25 April 2025 |work=Reuters |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250424194210/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/french-high-school-student-kills-one-injures-three-nantes-stabbing-attack-2025-04-24/ |archive-date=24 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Yogendra K. |last2=Singh |first2=V.B. |date=April 1992 |title=Bharatiya Janata Party: An Alternative to the Congress (I)? |journal=Asian Survey |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=318–336 |jstor=2645149 |doi=10.2307/2645149}}
• {{cite news |last=Manavis |first=Sarah |date=21 September 2018 |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/science-tech/social-media/2018/09/eco-fascism-ideology-marrying-environmentalism-and-white-supremacy |title=Eco-fascism: The ideology marrying environmentalism and white supremacy thriving online |work=New Statesman |access-date=19 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105185039/https://www.newstatesman.com/science-tech/2018/09/eco-fascism-ideology-marrying-environmentalism-and-white-supremacy |archive-date=5 November 2021}}
• {{cite journal |last=Margulies |first=Morgan |date=2021 |title=Eco-Nationalism: A Historical Evaluation of Nationalist Praxes in Environmentalist and Ecologist Movements |url=https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/consilience/article/view/6226 |journal=Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development |issue=23 |pages=22–29 |doi=10.7916/consilience.vi23.6226 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206024413/https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/consilience/article/view/6226 |archive-date=6 February 2021}}
• {{cite web |date=15 May 2025 |title=Neo-Nazi Espanola Brigade Raise Funds For Drones And Other Equipment Through Charitable Foundation Linked To Russian 'Green Alternative' Party |url=https://www.memri.org/dttm/neo-nazi-espanola-brigade-raise-funds-drones-and-other-equipment-through-charitable-foundation |work=MEMRI |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250209235240/https://www.memri.org/dttm/neo-nazi-espanola-brigade-raise-funds-drones-and-other-equipment-through-charitable-foundation |archive-date=9 February 2025 |ref={{harvid|MEMRI|2025}} }}
• {{cite web|url=https://www.memri.org/dttm/annual-finnish-fascist-conference-hosts-speakers-u-s-finland-uk-croatia-and-sweden-discuss|work=MEMRI|title=Annual Finnish Fascist Conference Hosts Speakers From U. S., Finland, U.K., Croatia, And Sweden To Discuss Fascist Use Of AI, Demographic Replacement, Fertility Rates, Multiculturalism|date=3 June 2025|ref={{harvid|MEMRI|2025a}}}}
• {{cite news |last1=Mitchell |first1=Natasha |date=29 July 2022 |title=Ecofascism – are far-right extremists the new environmentalists? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/sciencefriction/ecofascism-extremism-far-right-enviromentalism-climate-crisis/13993080 |work=ABC Listen |access-date=16 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108153933/https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/sciencefriction/ecofascism-extremism-far-right-enviromentalism-climate-crisis/13993080 |archive-date=8 November 2023}}
• {{cite web |last=Molloy |first=Joshua |date=2 November 2022 |title=Understanding Eco-Fascism: A Thematic Analysis of the Eco-Fascist Subculture on Telegram |url=https://gnet-research.org/2022/11/02/understanding-eco-fascism-a-thematic-analysis-of-the-eco-fascist-subculture-on-telegram/ |website=Global Network on Extremism & Technology |access-date=26 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610075413/https://gnet-research.org/2022/11/02/understanding-eco-fascism-a-thematic-analysis-of-the-eco-fascist-subculture-on-telegram/ |archive-date=10 June 2023}}
• {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Sam |last2=Roberts |first2=Alex |date=2022a |title=The Rise of Ecofascism: Climate Change and the Far Right |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-1-5095-4537-7}}
• {{cite news |last1=Moore |first1=Sam |author1-mask=3 |last2=Roberts |first2=Alex |author2-mask=3 |date=7 February 2022b |title=Ecofascism and Indian nationalism |url=https://theecologist.org/2022/feb/07/ecofascism-and-indian-nationalism |work=The Ecologist |access-date=11 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321120517/https://theecologist.org/2022/feb/07/ecofascism-and-indian-nationalism |archive-date=21 March 2023}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Mulhall |first1=Joe |last2=Khan-Ruf |first2=Safya |last3=Bego |first3=Fabio |year=2021 |title=State of Hate: Far-Right Extremism in Europe |publisher=Hope Not Hate; Amadeu Antonio Foundation; EXPO Foundation |location=London |chapter=Spotlight on the Western Balkans: Far-right trends in the region}}

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• {{cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Carolyn |last2=Collins |first2=Dave |date=15 May 2022 |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/at-least-eight-dead-in-daylight-mass-shooting-at-us-supermarket-20220515-p5alee.html |title=Racially motivated shooter pointed to Christchurch attacks in 'manifesto' |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601050202/https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/at-least-eight-dead-in-daylight-mass-shooting-at-us-supermarket-20220515-p5alee.html |archive-date=1 June 2022}}
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• {{cite news |last=Touré |first=Marie-Amaëlle |date=9 July 2020 |title=Le "Grand Remplacement", cauchemar de l'extrême droite |language=fr |trans-title=The "Great Replacement", a nightmare of the far right |work=Le Temps |url=https://www.letemps.ch/societe/grand-remplacement-cauchemar-lextreme-droite |issn=1423-3967 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921153519/https://www.letemps.ch/societe/sciences-humaines/grand-remplacement-cauchemar-lextreme-droite |archive-date=21 September 2023}}
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• {{cite web |last=Üzeltüzenci |first=Pinar |date=29 April 2020 |title=Humans are not the Virus: Why Ecofascism is Bad for You |url=https://www.mangalmedia.net/english/humans-are-not-the-virus-why-ecofascism-is-bad-for-you |website=Mangal Media |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226215442/https://www.mangalmedia.net/english/humans-are-not-the-virus-why-ecofascism-is-bad-for-you |archive-date=26 February 2023}}

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• {{cite web |last=Ward |first=Bob |date=11 May 2011 |url=https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/news/british-election-results-show-climate-change-denial-is-not-a-vote-winner/ |title=British election results show climate change denial is not a vote winner |publisher=London School of Economics |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214105501/https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/news/british-election-results-show-climate-change-denial-is-not-a-vote-winner/ |archive-date=14 February 2023}}
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• {{cite web |last=Weymouth |first=Adam |date=21 April 2021 |title=Ecofascism: The dark side of environmentalism |url=https://lacuna.org.uk/environment/ecofascism-the-dark-side-of-environmentalism/ |access-date=22 December 2021 |quote=Madison Grant, the prominent US conservationist, who was instrumental in the creation of the first national parks, wrote a book called The Passing of the Great Race which Hitler described as his "bible." |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729155642/https://lacuna.org.uk/environment/ecofascism-the-dark-side-of-environmentalism/ |archive-date=29 July 2021}}
• {{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Jason |date=19 March 2019 |title=Eco-fascism is undergoing a revival in the fetid culture of the extreme right |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/commentisfree/2019/mar/20/eco-fascism-is-undergoing-a-revival-in-the-fetid-culture-of-the-extreme-right |work=The Guardian |access-date=19 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602031257/https://www.theguardian.com/world/commentisfree/2019/mar/20/eco-fascism-is-undergoing-a-revival-in-the-fetid-culture-of-the-extreme-right |archive-date=2 June 2019}}
• {{cite web |last=Wilkinson |first=Ruth |date=6 April 2020 |title=Humanity isn't a disease – but ecofascism is |url=https://www.globaljustice.org.uk/blog/2020/04/humanity-isnt-disease-ecofascism/ |website=Global Justice Now |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526164933/https://www.globaljustice.org.uk/blog/2020/04/humanity-isnt-disease-ecofascism/ |archive-date=26 May 2022}}
• {{cite magazine |last=Winston |first=Ali |date=12 April 2025 |title=On Donald Trump's Coattails, America's Neo-Nazi Youth Is Flowering in Active Clubs and the Prison System |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/story/american-neo-nazi-prisons |magazine=Vanity Fair |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250211201404/https://www.vanityfair.com/news/story/american-neo-nazi-prisons |archive-date=11 February 2025}}

• {{cite book |last1=Yakushko |first1=Oksana |last2=De Francisco |first2=Alysia |date=2022 |chapter=The (Re) Emergence of Eco-Fascism: A History of White-Nationalism And Xenophobic Scapegoating |title=Handbook of Racism, Xenophobia, and Populism: All Forms of Discrimination in the United States and Around the Globe |editor-last=Akande |editor-first=Adebowale |publisher=Springer |pages=457–480 |isbn=978-3-031-13559-0 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-13559-0 |s2cid=254485853}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Zimmerman |first1=Michael E. |author-link=Michael E. Zimmerman |date=Summer 1995 |title=The Threat of Ecofascism |journal=Social Theory and Practice |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=207–238 |doi=10.5840/soctheorpract199521210 |jstor=23557116 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23557116 |access-date=6 July 2024 |url-access=subscription}}
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• {{cite book |last=Zimmerman |first=Michael E. |author-link=Michael E. Zimmerman |author-mask=3 |date=2008 |chapter=Ecofascism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4mvAwAAQBAJ&q=ecofascism |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature |volume=1 |editor-last=Taylor |editor-first=Bron R. |editor-link=Bron Taylor |publisher=Continuum |location=London, UK |isbn=978-1-44-112278-0 |pages=531–532 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420152716/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4mvAwAAQBAJ&q=ecofascism |archive-date=20 April 2021 |via=Google Books}}

{{refend}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Anson |first1=April |last2=Banerjee |first2=Anindita |date=1 February 2023 |title=Green Walls: Everyday Ecofascism and the Politics of Proximity |journal=Boundary 2 |volume=50 |number=1 |pages=137–164 |doi=10.1215/01903659-10192145 |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/boundary-2/article-abstract/50/1/137/343943/Green-Walls-Everyday-Ecofascism-and-the-Politics |url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=Jesse Callahan |last2=Farrell |first2=Justin |date=2024 |title=Conservatism, the Far Right, and the Environment |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=50 |pages=273–296 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-083023-035225 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Jerry |date=2022b |title=Our Future: Ecosocialism or Ecofascism |journal=International Journal of Interdisciplinary Global Studies |volume=17 |number=2 |pages=35–47 |doi=10.18848/2324-755X/CGP/v17i02/35-47}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Jerry |date=2023 |title=The Dangers of Ecofascism |journal=Perspectives on Global Development and Technology |volume=21 |number=5–6 |pages=451–465 |doi=10.1163/15691497-12341642}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Henderson |first1=Jane |last2=Seraphin |first2=Bruno |last3=Anson |first3=April |last4=Menrisky |first4=Alex |last5=Hall |first5=Shane |last6=Galentine |first6=Cassie |date=2025 |title=How Ecofascism Creeps. |journal=American Quarterly |volume=77 |number=1 |pages=181–188 |doi=10.1353/aq.2025.a953027}}
• {{cite journal |last=Hernandez Aguilar |first=Luis M. |date=2024 |title=Memeing a conspiracy theory: On the biopolitical compression of the great replacement conspiracy theories |journal=Ethnography |volume=25 |number=1 |pages=76–97 |doi=10.1177/14661381221146983 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite magazine |last1=Lawton |first1=Graham |date=2019 |title=The rise of real eco-fascism |magazine=New Scientist |volume=243 |number=3243 |page=24 |issn=0262-4079 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(19)31529-5}}
• {{cite book |last1=Lubarda |first1=Balša |last2=Bori |first2=Péter J. |date=2025 |chapter=21: Far-right ecologism: revisiting ecofascism and violence |title=Handbook of Environmental Political Theory in the Anthropocene |pages=196–205 |location=Cheltenham, UK |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |doi=10.4337/9781802208955.00027}}
• {{cite journal |last=Önnerfors |first=Andreas |date=2017 |title=Between Breivik and PEGIDA: the absence of ideologues and leaders on the contemporary European far right |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=51 |number=2 |pages=159–175 |doi=10.1080/0031322X.2017.1302642}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Sid |last2=Cheever |first2=Kate |date=2025 |title=It Was Always Blood and Soil: Ecofascism and the Racial Capitalocene |journal=Antipode |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1111/anti.13134}}

• {{cite web |last=Krzeminski |first=Jessica |date=10 October 2019 |title=Whose Utopia? American Ecofascism Since the 1880s |url=https://edgeeffects.net/ecofascism/ |website=Edge Effects |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203061951/https://edgeeffects.net/ecofascism/ |archive-date=3 December 2023}}
• {{cite web |last=Wall |first=Derek |url=http://www.redpepper.org.uk/darker-shades-of-green/ |title=Darker shades of Green |website=Red Pepper |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130032401/https://www.redpepper.org.uk/darker-shades-of-green/ |archive-date=30 November 2012}}
• {{cite news |last=White |first=Micah |date=16 September 2010 |title=An alternative to the new wave of ecofascism |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cif-green/2010/sep/16/authoritarianism-ecofascism-alternative |work=The Guardian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031031027/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cif-green/2010/sep/16/authoritarianism-ecofascism-alternative |archive-date=31 October 2016}}

{{Green politics}}

{{Population}}

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