Environmental protection#Australia

In industrial countries, voluntary environmental agreements often provide a platform for companies to be recognized for moving beyond the minimum regulatory standards and thus support the development of the best environmental practice. For instance, in India, Environment Improvement Trust (EIT) has been working for environmental and forest protection since 1998.Karamanos, P., Voluntary Environmental Agreements: Evolution and Definition of a New Environmental Policy Approach. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2001. 44(1): p. 67-67-84. In developing countries, such as Latin America, these agreements are more commonly used to remedy significant levels of non-compliance with mandatory regulation.

An ecosystems approach to resource management and environmental protection aims to consider the complex interrelationships of an entire ecosystem in decision-making rather than simply responding to specific issues and challenges.{{cite web|title=An ecosystem approach to natural resource conservation in California|url=http://www.interenvironment.org/cipa/ecosystemapproach.htm|work=CIPA Publication No. 106|publisher=InterEnvironment Institute|access-date=10 July 2012|author=The California Institute of Public Affairs (CIPA)|date=August 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402223955/http://www.interenvironment.org/cipa/ecosystemapproach.htm|archive-date=2 April 2012|url-status=dead}} Ideally, the decision-making processes under such an approach would be a collaborative approach to planning and decision-making that involves a broad range of stakeholders across all relevant governmental departments, as well as industry representatives, environmental groups, and community. This approach ideally supports a better exchange of information, development of conflict-resolution strategies and improved regional conservation. Religions also play an important role in the conservation of the environment:{{cn|date=May 2024|reason=the CIPS source cited does not mention religion}} for example, the Catholic Church's Compendium on its social teaching states that "environmental protection cannot be assured solely on the basis of financial calculations of costs and benefits. The environment is one of those goods that cannot be adequately safeguarded or promoted by market forces."Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, [https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/justpeace/documents/rc_pc_justpeace_doc_20060526_compendio-dott-soc_en.html Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church], paragraph 470, published 29 June 2004, accessed 4 May 2024

Underrepresented Environmental Justice Movements：

Expand on environmental justice claims outside North America and Europe.

Environmental justice movements and environmental preservation initiatives frequently collide, especially in areas where underprivileged groups suffer disproportionate environmental harm. Grassroots movements have arisen in the Global South to protest widespread pollution, land dispossession, and resource extraction. Stricter environmental laws and increased involvement in decision-making have been demanded by indigenous groups.

Expanding the Global Perspective：

The Environmental Protection page focuses largely on policies in developed countries. You could add information on environmental protections in the Global South, including legal battles over land rights and pollution in countries like India, the Philippines, or Brazil.

Global environmental justice movements are still motivated by his legacy. These incidents demonstrate the crucial role that frontline communities play in protecting the environment, frequently at considerable personal danger. Even though there are legislative frameworks to address environmental inequalities, enforcement is still lacking, particularly in cases when governmental and corporate interests coincide. Stronger environmental regulations and the rights of impacted communities are now largely dependent on increased global awareness and solidarity.

File:Kyoto Protocol Commitment map 2010.png

Many of the earth's resources are especially vulnerable because they are influenced by human impacts across different countries. As a result of this, many attempts are made by countries to develop agreements that are signed by multiple governments to prevent damage or manage the impacts of human activity on natural resources. This can include agreements that impact factors such as climate, oceans, rivers and air pollution. These international environmental agreements are sometimes legally binding documents that have legal implications when they are not followed and, at other times, are more agreements in principle or are for use as codes of conduct. These agreements have a long history with some multinational agreements being in place from as early as 1910 in Europe, America and Africa.Mitchell, R.B., International Environmental Agreements: A Survey of Their Features, Formation, and Effects. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 2003. 28(1543-5938, 1543-5938): p. 429-429-461.

Many of the international technical agencies formed after 1945 addressed environmental themes. By the late 1960s, a growing environmental movement called for coordinated and institutionalized international cooperation. The landmark United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm in 1972, establishing the concept of a right to a healthy environment. It was followed by the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme later that year.Iriss Borowy, "Before UNEP: who was in charge of the global environment? The struggle for institutional responsibility 1968–72." Journal of Global History 14.1 (2019): 87–106. Some of the most well-known international agreements include the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the Paris Agreement of 2015.

On 8 October 2021, the UN Human Rights Council passed a resolution recognizing access to a healthy and sustainable environment as a universal right. In the resolution 48/13, the Council called on States around the world to work together, and with other partners, to implement the newly recognized right.{{Cite web|title=The right to a clean and healthy environment: 6 things you need to know|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1103082|website=UN News|date=15 October 2021|access-date=15 October 2021}}

On 28 July 2022, the United Nations General Assembly voted to declare the ability to live in "a clean, healthy and sustainable environment" a universal human right.{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2022 |title=Bachelet Calls For Urgent Action To Realize Human Right To Healthy Environment Following Recognition By UNGA |url=https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO2207/S00234/bachelet-calls-for-urgent-action-to-realize-human-right-to-healthy-environment-following-recognition-by-unga.htm |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=www.scoop.co.nz}}{{Cite web |title=Bachelet calls for urgent action to realize human right to healthy environment following recognition by UN General Assembly |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/07/bachelet-calls-urgent-action-realize-human-right-healthy-environment |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=OHCHR |language=en |via=Press Release}}

File:Top 5 Countries by biological diversity.jpg

Discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of government, legislation, and law enforcement. However, in its broadest sense, environmental protection may be seen to be the responsibility of all the people and not simply that of government. Decisions that impact the environment will ideally involve a broad range of stakeholders including industry, indigenous groups, environmental group and community representatives. Gradually, environmental decision-making processes are evolving to reflect this broad base of stakeholders and are becoming more collaborative in many countries.Harding, R., Ecologically sustainable development: origins, implementation and challenges. Desalination, 2006. 187(1-3): p. 229–239

Many constitutions acknowledge Tanzania as having some of the greatest biodiversity of any African country. Almost 40% of the land has been established into a network of protected areas, including several national parks.{{cite web|title=Biodiversity and Protected Areas-- Tanzania|url=http://www.vub.ac.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/tanzania_bd.pdf|work=Earth Trends Country Profiles|publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Earth Trends|year=2003|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503021844/https://www.vub.ac.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/tanzania_bd.pdf|url-status=dead}} The concerns for the natural environment include damage to ecosystems and loss of habitat resulting from population growth, expansion of subsistence agriculture, pollution, timber extraction and significant use of timber as fuel.{{cite web|title=Tanzania – Environmental Policy Brief|url=http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/uploads/media/SIDA_env_pol_brief.pdf|publisher=Development Partners Group Tanzania|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Jessica Andersson|author2=Daniel Slunge|date=16 June 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710183811/http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/uploads/media/SIDA_env_pol_brief.pdf|archive-date=10 July 2012|url-status=dead}}

Environmental protection in Tanzania began during the German occupation of East Africa (1884–1919)—colonial conservation laws for the protection of game and forests were enacted, whereby restrictions were placed upon traditional indigenous activities such as hunting, firewood collecting, and cattle grazing.Goldstein, G., Legal System and Wildlife Conservation: History and the Law's Effect on Indigenous People and Community Conservation in Tanzania, The. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 2005. Georgetown University Law Center (Spring). In 1948, Serengeti has officially established the first national park for wild cats in East Africa. Since 1983, there has been a more broad-reaching effort to manage environmental issues at a national level, through the establishment of the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) and the development of an environmental act.Pallangyo, D.M. (2007). "Environmental Law in Tanzania; How Far Have We Gone?".LEAD: Law, Environment & Development Journal 3 (1).

File:Zebras, Serengeti savana plains, Tanzania.jpg savana plains in northern part of Tanzania]]

Division of the biosphere is the main government body that oversees protection. It does this through the formulation of policy, coordinating and monitoring environmental issues, environmental planning and policy-oriented environmental research. The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) is an institution that was initiated when the National Environment Management Act was first introduced in year 1983. This council has the role to advise governments and the international community on a range of environmental issues. The NEMC the following purposes: provide technical advice; coordinate technical activities; develop enforcement guidelines and procedures; assess, monitor and evaluate activities that impact the environment; promote and assist environmental information and communication; and seek advancement of scientific knowledge.Tanzania Government. "Environment Tanzania". Tanzania Government. Retrieved 20 September 2011.

The National Environment Policy of 1997 acts as a framework for environmental decision making in Tanzania. The policy objectives are to achieve the following:

• Ensure sustainable and equitable use of resources without degrading the environment or risking health or safety.
• Prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation and air.
• Conserve and enhance natural and man-made heritage, including biological diversity of unique ecosystems.
• Improve condition and productivity of degraded areas.
• Raise awareness and understanding of the link between environment and development.
• Promote individual and community participation.
• Promote international cooperation.
• Use ecofriendly resources.

Tanzania is a signatory to a significant number of international conventions including the Rio Declaration on Development and Environment 1992 and the Convention on Biological Diversity 1996. The Environmental Management Act, 2004, is the first comprehensive legal and institutional framework to guide environmental-management decisions. The policy tools that are parts of the act include the use of environmental-impact assessments, strategics environmental assessments, and taxation on pollution for specific industries and products. The effectiveness of shifting of this act will only become clear over time as concerns regarding its implementation become apparent based on the fact that, historically, there has been a lack of capacity to enforce environmental laws and a lack of working tools to bring environmental-protection objectives into practice.

File:Longwanqun national forest park creek 2011 07 25.jpg is a nationally protected nature area in Huinan County, Jilin, China.]]

Formal environmental protection in China House was first stimulated by the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden. Following this, they began establishing environmental protection agencies and putting controls on some of its industrial waste. China was one of the first developing countries to implement a sustainable development strategy. In 1983 the State Council announced that environmental protection would be one of China's basic national policies and in 1984 the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) was established. Following severe flooding of the Yangtze River basin in 1998, NEPA was upgraded to the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) meaning that environmental protection was now being implemented at a ministerial level. In 2008, SEPA became known by its current name of Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China (MEP).{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Kunmin|last2=Wen|first2=Peng|title=Review on environmental policies in China: Evolvement, features, and evaluation|journal=Environ. Sci. Engin. China|year=2008|volume=2|issue=2|pages=129–141|doi=10.1007/s11783-008-0044-6}}

Environmental pollution and ecological degradation has resulted in economic losses for China. In 2005, economic losses (mainly from air pollution) were calculated at 7.7% of China's GDP. This grew to 10.3% by 2002 and the economic loss from water pollution (6.1%) began to exceed that caused by air pollution.{{cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Kun-min|author2=Wen, Zong-guo.|title=Review and challenges of policies of environmental protection and sustainable development in China|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|year=2008|volume=88|issue=4|pages=1249–1261|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.06.019|pmid=17767999|bibcode=2008JEnvM..88.1249Z }} China has been one of the top performing countries in terms of GDP growth (9.64% in the past ten years). However, the high economic growth has put immense pressure on its environment and the environmental challenges that China faces are greater than most countries. In 2021 it was noted that China was the world's largest greenhouse gas emitter, while also facing additional environmental challenges which included illegal logging, wildlife trafficking, plastic waste, ocean pollution, environmental-related mismanagement, unregulated fishing, and the consequences associated with being the world's largest mercury polluter.{{cite web |title=China's Environmental Abuses - United States Department of State |url=http://2017-2021.state.gov/chinas-environmental-abuses/ |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=13 October 2023}} All these factors contribute to climate change and habitat loss. In 2022 China was ranked 160th out of 180 countries on the Environmental Performance Index due to poor air quality and high GHG emissions.

Ecological and environmental degradation in China have health related impacts; for example, if current pollution levels continue, Chinese citizens will lose 3.6 billion total life years.{{cite web |title=China |url=http://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/country-spotlight/china/ |website=AQLI |publisher=Air Quality Life Index |access-date=13 October 2023}} Another issue is that non-transmittable diseases among Chinese, which cause at least 80% of 10.3 million annual deaths, are worsened by air pollution.{{cite web |title=Report Recommends Deeper Healthcare Reforms in China |url=http://www.who.int/hongkongchina/news/detail/22-07-2016-report-recommends-deeper-healthcare-reforms-in-china |website=WHO |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=13 October 2023}}

China has taken initiatives to increase its protection of the environment and combat environmental degradation:

• China's investment in renewable energy grew 18% in 2007 to $15.6 billion, accounting for ~10% of the global investment in this area;{{cite journal|last=Chunmei|first=Wang|author2=Zhaolan, Lin.|title=Environmental Policies in China over the Past 10 Years: Progress, Problems and Prospects|journal=Procedia Environmental Sciences|year=2010|volume=2|pages=1701–1712|doi=10.1016/j.proenv.2010.10.181|doi-access=free|bibcode=2010PrEnS...2.1701C }}
• In 2008, spending on the environment was 1.49% of GDP, up 3.4 times from 2000;
• The discharge of CO (carbon monoxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) decreased by 6.61% and 8.95% in 2008 compared with that in 2005;
• China's protected nature reserves have increased substantially. In 1978 there were only 34 compared with 2,538 in 2010. The protected nature reserve system now occupies 15.5% of the country; this is higher than the world average.

Rapid growth in GDP has been China's main goal during the past three decades with a dominant development model of inefficient resource use and high pollution to achieve high GDP. For China to develop sustainably, environmental protection should be treated as an integral part of its economic policies.{{cite journal|author1-link=Jianguo Liu|author2-link=Jared Diamond|last=Liu|first=Jianguo|author2=Diamond, Jared.|title=Revolutionizing China's Environmental Protection|journal=Science|year=2008|volume=319|issue=5859|doi=10.1126/science.1150416|pages=37–38|pmid=18174421|s2cid=2903206}}

Quote from Shengxian Zhou, head of MEP (2009): "Good economic policy is good environmental policy and the nature of environmental problem is the economic structure, production form and develop model."

Since around 2010 China appears to be placing a greater emphasis on environmental and ecological protection. For example, former General Secretary Hu Jintao's report at the 2012 Party Congress added a section focusing on party policy on ecological issues.{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Alice |title=How to Read Xi Jinping's 19th Party Congress Political Report |url=http://www.hoover.org/research/how-read-xi-jinpings-19th-party-congress-political-report |date=May 25, 2017 |website=Hoover Institution |access-date=13 October 2023}}{{cite web |last1=Jintao |first1=Hu |title=Nature Photo Prints Kwayzeeduds |url=https://kwayzeeduds.com/collections/canvas-1/products/poster-12x8-4 |access-date=13 October 2023 |website=People's Daily Online}}

Xi Jinping's report at the 19th CPC National Congress in 2017 noted recent progress in ecological and environmental conservation and restoration, the importance of ecologically sustainable development and global ecological security, and the need to provide ecological goods to meet people's growing demands.{{cite web |last1=Jinping |first1=Xi |title=Full Text of Xi Jinping's Report at 19th CPC National Congress |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/special/2017-11/03/c_136725942.htm |date=October 18, 2017 |website=Xinhua |access-date=13 October 2023}} Most importantly, Xi Jinping has suggested clearly identifiable methods to meet the ecological demands of the country. Some of the solutions he notes are the need for the development and facilitation of: ecological corridors, biodiversity protection networks, redlines for protecting ecosystems, market-based mechanisms for ecological compensation in addition to afforestation, greater crop rotation, recycling, waste reduction, stricter pollution standards, and greener production and technology. The report at the 19th CPC National Congress isn't simply the personal thoughts from Xi Jinping, it's a product of a long process of compromise and negotiation among competing party officials and leaders.

Additionally, the Third Plenum of the CCP in 2013 included a manifesto that placed extreme emphasis on reforming management of the environment, promising to create greater transparency of those polluting, and placing environmental criteria above GDP growth for local official evaluations.{{cite web |last1=Rosen |first1=Daniel |title=Executive Summary Avoiding the Blind Alley - Asia Society |url=http://asiasociety.org/files/pdf/AvoidingtheBlindAlley_ES.pdf |website=AsiaSociety |access-date=13 October 2023}}

Reform has not come cheap for China. In 2016, it was noted that in response to pollution and oversupply, China laid off around six million workers in state-owned enterprises and spent $23 billion to cover layoffs specifically for coal and steel companies between 2016 and 2019.{{cite web |last1=Lim |first1=Kang |title=Reuters |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-economy-layoffs-exclusive-idUSKCN0W33DS |website=Exclusive: China to Lay off Five to Six Million Workers, Earmarks at Least $23 Billion |access-date=13 October 2023}} While expensive, other benefits of environmental protection have been noticed beyond impacting citizens' health. For example, in the long run, environmental protection has been found to generally improve job quality of migrant workers by reducing their work intensity, while increasing social security and job quality.{{cite journal |last1=Zhi |first1=Huang |title=Environmental Regulation and Rural Migrant Workers' Job Quality: Evidence from China Migrants Dynamic Surveys |journal=Economic Analysis and Policy |date=2023 |volume=78 |pages=845–858|doi=10.1016/j.eap.2023.04.034 |s2cid=258469218 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0313592623000838 |access-date=13 October 2023}}

Different local governments in China implement different approaches to solving the issue of ecological protection, sometimes with negative consequences for the citizens. For example, a prefecture in the Shanxi province imposed bans, and potential legal detentions or steep fines for violations, on coal-burning by villagers.{{cite web |last1=Wang |first1=Yaqiu |title=Beijing's Green Fist |url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/29/beijings-green-fist |website=Human Rights Watch |date=29 March 2022 |access-date=13 October 2023}} Although the government provided free gas-heaters often the villagers were unable to afford to run them. In Wuhan, automated surveillance technology and video is used to catch illegal fishing, and in some cities not recycling results in negative social credit points. It is unclear in some of these instances if citizens have any potential routes for recourse.

News in 2023 has found that the Chinese Communist Party's recent war on pollution has already brought substantial and measurable impacts, including China's particulate pollution levels dropping 42% from 2013 levels and increasing the average lifespan expectancy of citizens by an estimated 2.2 years.{{cite web |title=Aqli Policy Impacts-China: National Air Quality Action Plan (2014) |url=http://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/policy-impacts/china-national-air-quality-action-plan-2014/# |website=AQLI |access-date=13 October 2023}}{{cite web |last1=Yeung |first1=Jessie |title=Chinese People Are Living Two Years Longer Thanks to 'war on Pollution,' Report Says |url=http://news.yahoo.com/chinese-people-living-two-years-052416834.html?fr=sycsrp_catchall |website=CNN |date=30 August 2023 |access-date=13 October 2023}}

The Constitution of India has a number of provisions demarcating the responsibility of the Central and State governments towards Environmental Protection. The state's responsibility with regard to environmental protection has been laid down under article 48-A of the constitution which stated that "The states shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country".{{Cite wikisource

| title = Constitution of India/Part IV

| last = The Government of India

}}

Environmental protection has been made a fundamental duty of every citizen of India under Article 51-A (g) of the constitution which says "It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures".{{Cite Wikisource

| title = Constitution of India/Part IVA

| last = The Government of India

}}

Article 21 of the constitution is a fundamental right, which states that "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law".{{Cite wikisource

| title = Constitution of India/Part III

| last = The Government of India}}

The Middle Eastern countries become part of the joint Islamic environmental action, which was initiated in 2002 in Jeddah. Under the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, the member states join the Islamic Environment Ministers Conference in every two years, focusing on the importance of environment protection and sustainable development. The Arab countries are also awarded the title of best environment management in the Islamic world.{{cite web|url=https://www.isesco.org.ma/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/final-report-7icem.pdf|title=7th Islamic Conference of Environment Ministers|access-date=25 October 2017|publisher=ISESCO|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828131348/https://www.isesco.org.ma/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/final-report-7icem.pdf|url-status=dead}}

In August 2019, the Sultanate of Oman won the award for 2018–19 in Saudi Arabia, citing its project "Verifying the Age and Growth of Spotted Small Spots in the Northwest Coast of the Sea of Oman".{{cite news|url=https://muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Oman-wins-award-for-environment-management-in-Islamic-world-5fgg|title=Oman wins award for environment management in Islamic world|access-date=26 August 2019|newspaper=Muscat Daily|archive-date=14 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914113543/https://muscatdaily.com/Archive/Oman/Oman-wins-award-for-environment-management-in-Islamic-world-5fgg|url-status=dead}}

In Russia, environmental protection is considered an integral part of national safety. The Federal Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology is the authorized state body tasked with managing environmental protection. However, there are a lot of environmental issues in Russia.

Environmental protection has become an important task for the institutions of the European Community after the Maastricht Treaty for the European Union ratification by all of its member states. The EU is active in the field of environmental policy, issuing directives such as those on environmental impact assessment and on access to environmental information for citizens in the member states.

The Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland (EPA) has a wide range of functions to protect the environment, with its primary responsibilities including:{{cite web |title=What We Are Responsible For |url=https://www.epa.ie/about/roles/ |website=Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}

• Environmental licensing
• Enforcement of environmental law
• Environmental planning, education, and guidance
• Monitoring, analyzing and reporting on the environment
• Regulating Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions
• Environmental research development
• Strategic environmental assessment
• Waste management
• Radiological protection

{{excerpt|Environmental protection in Switzerland}}

The environmental protection in Switzerland is mainly based on the measures to be taken against global warming. The pollution in Switzerland is mainly the pollution caused by vehicles and the litteration by tourists.{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified 17 megadiverse countries. The list includes six Latin American countries: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela. Mexico and Brazil stand out among the rest because they have the largest area, population and number of species. These countries represent a major concern for environmental protection because they have high rates of deforestation, ecosystems loss, pollution, and population growth.

File:Foz de Iguaçu 27 Panorama Nov 2005.jpg in Brazil]]

Brazil has the largest amount of the world's tropical forests, 4,105,401 km² (48.1% of Brazil), concentrated in the Amazon region.Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA) Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas (2002), ' Biodiversidade Brasileira', http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/arquivos/BiodiversidadeBrasileira_MMA.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416165953/http://www.biodiversidade.rs.gov.br/arquivos/BiodiversidadeBrasileira_MMA.pdf |date=2015-04-16 }}, retrieved September 2011 Brazil is home to vast biological diversity, first among the megadiverse countries of the world, having between 15% and 20% of the 1.5 million globally described species.Lewinsohn, T. M.; Prado, P. I. (2004) 'Biodiversidade Brasileira: Síntese do Estado Atual do Conhecimento', Contexto Academico

The organization in charge of environment protection is the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (in Portuguese: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, MMA).{{cite web|title=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|url=http://www.mma.gov.br/sitio/|publisher=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Ministério do Meio Ambiente|language=Portuguese|year=2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302154545/http://www.mma.gov.br/sitio/|archive-date=2 March 2012|url-status=dead}} It was first created in the year 1973 with the name Special Secretariat for the Environment (Secretaria Especial de Meio Ambiente), changing names several times, and adopting the final name in the year 1999. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:

• A national policy for the environment and for water resources;
• A policy for the preservation, conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems, biodiversity, and forests;
• Proposing strategies, mechanisms, economic and social instruments for improving environmental quality, and sustainable use of natural resources;
• Policies for integrating production and the [https://jornaldafronteira.com.br/o-impacto-do-amor-pela-natureza-em-acoes-ambientais-comunitarias environment];
• Environmental policies and programs for the Legal Amazon;
• Ecological and economic territorial zoning.

In 2011, protected areas of the Amazon covered 2,197,485 km² (an area larger than Greenland), with conservation units, like national parks, accounting for just over half (50.6%) and indigenous territories representing the remaining 49.4%.Veríssimo, A., Rolla, A., Vedoveto, M. & de Furtada, S.M. (2011) Áreas Protegidas na Amazônia Brasileira: avanços e desafios, Imazon/ISA

File:Axolote.jpg is an endemic species from the central part of Mexico.]]

With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home to 10–12% of the world's biodiversity, ranking first in reptile biodiversity and second in mammalsMittermeier, R. y C. Goettsch (1992) 'La importancia de la diversidad biológica de México', Conabio, México—one estimate indicates that over 50% of all animal and plant species live in Mexico.{{cite web|title=Principal ecosystems in Mexico|url=http://www.vivanatura.org/Maps%20Mexican%20ecosystems.html|work=Viva Natura|access-date=10 July 2012|author=Viva Natura}}

The history of environmental policy in Mexico started in the 1940s with the enactment of the Law of Conservation of Soil and Water (in Spanish: Ley de Conservación de Suelo y Agua). Three decades later, at the beginning of the 1970s, the Law to Prevent and Control Environmental Pollution was created (Ley para Prevenir y Controlar la Contaminación Ambiental).

In the year 1972 was the first direct response from the federal government to address eminent health effects from environmental issues. It established the administrative organization of the Secretariat for the Improvement of the Environment (Subsecretaría para el Mejoramiento del Ambiente) in the Department of Health and Welfare.

The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, SEMARNATOfficial site: http://www.semarnat.gob.mx/) is Mexico's environment ministry. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:

• Promote the protection, restoration, and conservation of ecosystems, natural resources, goods, and environmental services and facilitate their use and sustainable development.
• Develop and implement a national policy on natural resources
• Promote environmental management within the national territory, in coordination with all levels of government and the private sector.
• Evaluate and provide determination to the environmental impact statements for development projects and prevention of ecological damage
• Implement national policies on climate change and protection of the ozone layer.
• Direct work and studies on national meteorological, climatological, hydrological, and geohydrological systems, and participate in international conventions on these subjects.
• Regulate and monitor the conservation of waterways

In November 2000 there were 127 protected areas; currently there are 174, covering an area of 25,384,818 hectares, increasing federally protected areas from 8.6% to 12.85% of its land area.Official site: http://www.conanp.gob.mx/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404000441/http://www.conanp.gob.mx/ |date=2015-04-04 }}

File:GreatBarrierReef-EO.JPG in Australia is the largest barrier reef in the world.]]

In 2008, there was 98,487,116 ha of terrestrial protected area, covering 12.8% of the land area of Australia.{{cite web|title=Collaborative Australian Protected Areas Database 2008|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/capad/2008/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}} The 2002 figures of 10.1% of terrestrial area and 64,615,554 ha of protected marine area{{cite web|title=Collaborative Aus tralian Protected Areas Database 2002|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/capad/2002/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}} were found to poorly represent about half of Australia's 85 bioregions.{{cite web|title=Australian Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment 2002|url=http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/vegetation/pubs/biodiversity/bio_assess_contents.html|work=National Land and Water Resources Audit|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011|author=Paul Sattler and Colin Creighton|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911163908/http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/vegetation/pubs/biodiversity/bio_assess_contents.html|archive-date=11 September 2011|url-status=dead}}

Environmental protection in Australia could be seen as starting with the formation of the first national park, Royal National Park, in 1879.{{cite web|title=Royal National Park|url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/NationalParks/parkHome.aspx?id=N0030|publisher=NSW Office of Environment and Heritage|access-date=21 September 2011}} More progressive environmental protection had it start in the 1960s and 1970s with major international programs such as the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, the Environment Committee of the OECD in 1970, and the United Nations Environment Programme of 1972.{{cite book|title=Australian achievements in environment protection and nature conservation 1972-1982|year=1982|publisher=Australian Environment Council and Council of Nature Conservation Ministers|location=Canberra|isbn=0-642-88655-5|pages=1–2}} These events laid the foundations by increasing public awareness and support for regulation. State environmental legislation was irregular and deficient until the Australian Environment Council (AEC) and Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM) were established in 1972 and 1974, creating a forum to assist in coordinating environmental and conservation policies between states and neighbouring countries.{{cite web|title=Background to the Councils|url=http://www.mincos.gov.au/background|publisher=Australian Government Primary Industries Ministerial Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822171721/http://www.mincos.gov.au/background|archive-date=22 August 2011|url-status=dead}} These councils have since been replaced by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) in 1991 and finally the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) in 2001.{{cite web|title=ANZECC|url=http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/81|publisher=Environment Protection and Heritage Council|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927155500/http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/81|archive-date=27 September 2011|url-status=dead}}

At a national level, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the primary environmental protection legislation for the Commonwealth of Australia. It concerns matters of national and international environmental significance regarding flora, fauna, ecological communities and cultural heritage.{{cite web|title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}} It also has jurisdiction over any activity conducted by the Commonwealth, or affecting it, that has significant environmental impact.{{cite web|title=About the EPBC Act

|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/index.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}

The act covers eight main areas:{{cite web|title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) fact sheet|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/publications/epbc-act-fact-sheet.html|publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|access-date=21 September 2011}}

• National Heritage Sites
• World Heritage Sites
• Ramsar wetlands
• Nationally endangered or threatened species and ecological communities
• Nuclear activities and actions
• Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
• Migratory species
• Commonwealth marine areas

There are several Commonwealth protected lands due to partnerships with traditional native owners, such as Kakadu National Park, extraordinary biodiversity such as Christmas Island National Park, or managed cooperatively due to cross-state location, such as the Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves.{{cite web|title=Protected areas|url=http://australia.gov.au/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/environmental-protection/protected-areas|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-date=27 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227110324/http://australia.gov.au/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/environmental-protection/protected-areas|url-status=dead}}

At a state level, the bulk of environmental protection issues are left to the responsibility of the state or territory. Each state in Australia has its own environmental protection legislation and corresponding agencies. Their jurisdiction is similar and covers point source pollution, such as from industry or commercial activities, land/water use, and waste management. Most protected lands are managed by states and territories with state legislative acts creating different degrees and definitions of protected areas such as wilderness, national land and marine parks, state forests, and conservation areas. States also create regulation to limit and provide general protection from air, water, and sound pollution.

At a local level, each city or regional council has responsibility over issues not covered by state or national legislation. This includes non-point source, or diffuse pollution, such as sediment pollution from construction sites.

Australia ranks second place on the UN 2010 Human Development Index{{cite web|title=Human Development Index (HDI) - 2010 Rankings|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Lets-Talk-HD-HDI_2010.pdf |publisher=Human Development Report Office; United Nations Development Programme|access-date=24 September 2011}} and one of the lowest debt to GDP ratios of the developed economies.{{cite web|title=Overview of the Australian Government's Balance Sheet|url=http://www.budget.gov.au/2011-12/content/bp1/html/bp1_bst7-01.htm|work=Budget Strategy and Outlook 2011-12|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=24 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406155019/http://budget.gov.au/2011%2D12/content/bp1/html/bp1_bst7-01.htm|archive-date=6 April 2015|url-status=dead}} This could be seen as coming at the cost of the environment, with Australia being the world leader in coal exportation{{cite web|title=The Australian Coal Industry - Coal Exports |url=http://www.australiancoal.com.au/the-australian-coal-industry_coal-exports.aspx |publisher=Australian Coal Association |access-date=25 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002194553/http://www.australiancoal.com.au/the-australian-coal-industry_coal-exports.aspx |archivedate=2 October 2011}} and species extinctions.{{cite journal|first1=Jeff |last1=Short |first2=Andrew |last2=Smith|title=Mammal Decline and Recovery in Australia|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|year=1994|volume=75|issue=2|pages=288–297|doi=10.2307/1382547|jstor=1382547}}{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Chris|title=Australia's Mammal Extinctions|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Melbourne|isbn=0-521-84918-7|pages=vii}} Some have been motivated to proclaim it is Australia's responsibility to set the example of environmental reform for the rest of the world to follow.{{cite web|last=Murphy|first=Cameron|title=Australia as International Citizen - From past failure to future Distinction|url=http://lionelmurphy.anu.edu.au/22%20lecture%20by%20Cameron%20Murphy.doc|work=22nd Lionel Murphy Memorial Lecture|publisher=The Lionel Murphy Foundation|access-date=26 September 2011}}{{cite web|title=Climate Change and Energy|url=http://greens.org.au/policies/climate-change-and-energy/climate-change-and-energy|publisher=The Australian Greens|access-date=26 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916205616/http://greens.org.au/policies/climate-change-and-energy/climate-change-and-energy|archive-date=16 September 2011|url-status=dead}}

At a national level, the Ministry for the Environment is responsible for environmental policy and the Department of Conservation addresses conservation issues. At a regional level the regional councils administer the legislation and address regional environmental issues.

File:YosemitePark2 amk.jpg in California, one of the first protected areas in the United States]]

Since 1970, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been working to protect the environment and human health.[http://www.epa.gov/epahome/aboutepa.htm The United States Environmental Protection Agency.] Retrieved on (23 August 2008). "About Us (section)". U.S. EPA.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters.

All US states have their own state-level departments of environmental protection,[http://www.epa.gov/epahome/state.htm "State Environmental Agencies"]. [http://www.epa.gov United States Environmental Protection Agency]. Accessed May 2010. which may issue regulations more stringent than the federal ones.

In January 2010, EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson published via the official EPA blog her "Seven Priorities for EPA's Future", which were (in the order originally listed):[http://blog.epa.gov/administrator/2010/01/12/seven-priorities-for-epas-future/ "Seven Priorities for EPA's Future"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818135203/http://blog.epa.gov/administrator/2010/01/12/seven-priorities-for-epas-future/ |date=18 August 2012}}. [http://www.epa.gov United States Environmental Protection Agency]. Accessed May 2010.

• Taking action on climate change
• Improving air quality
• Assuring the safety of chemicals
• Cleaning up [US] communities
• Protecting America's waters
• Expanding the conversation on environmentalism and working for environmental justice
• Building strong state and tribal partnerships

{{As of|2019|post=,}} it is unclear whether these still represent the agency's active priorities, as Jackson departed in February 2013, and the page has not been updated in the interim.

There are numerous works of literature that contain the themes of environmental protection but some have been fundamental to its evolution. Several pieces such as A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold, "Tragedy of the commons" by Garrett Hardin, and Silent Spring by Rachel Carson have become classics due to their far reaching influences.{{cite book |title=Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practices |date=4 March 2019 |publisher=Bankston Cotton |isbn=9781839474088 |page=310 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuTEDwAAQBAJ&q=pieces+such+as+A+Sand+County+Almanac+by+Aldo+Leopold,+%22Tragedy+of+the+commons%22+by+Garrett+Hardin,+and+Silent+Spring+by+Rachel+Carson+have+become+classics+due+to+their+far+reaching+influences&pg=PA310}} The conservationist and Nobel laureate Wangari Muta Maathai devoted her 2010 book Replenishing the Earth to the Green Belt Movement and the vital importance of trees in protecting the environment.

The subject of environmental protection is present in fiction as well as non-fictional literature. Books such as Antarctica and Blockade have environmental protection as subjects whereas The Lorax has become a popular metaphor for environmental protection. "The Limits of Trooghaft"{{cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Desmond|title=The Limits of Trooghaft|journal=Encounter|date=February 1972|volume=38|issue=2|pages=3–7|url=http://www.animal-rights-library.com/texts-m/stewart01.htm|access-date=24 September 2011|location=London}} by Desmond Stewart is a short story that provides insight into human attitudes towards animals. Another book called The Martian Chronicles by Ray Bradbury investigates issues such as bombs, wars, government control, and what effects these can have on the environment.

{{Portal|Animals|Climate change|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Trees|Water}}

{{Div col|colwidth=15em}}

• Anti-consumerism
• Anti-environmentalism
• Biocentrism (ethics)
• Biodiversity
• Carbon offset
• Circular economy
• Citizen Science, cleanup projects that people can take part in.
• Climate change mitigation
• Conservation biology
• Conservation movement
• Earth Day
• Environmental education
• Environmental globalization
• Environmental governance
• Environmental law
• Environmental movement
• Environmental organizations
• Environmental personhood
• Environmental racism
• Environmentalism
• Green economy
• Green politics
• Green solutions
• Greening
• List of environmental issues
• List of environmental organizations
• List of environmental topics
• List of international environmental agreements
• Natural capital
• Natural resource management
• Nature conservation
• Proforestation
• Sustainability
• Tree planting
• World Environment Day

{{div col end}}

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• {{Commons category-inline|Environmental protection}}

{{Conservation of species}}{{Environmentalism}}{{Social democracy}}

{{Christian Democracy}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental Protection}}

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