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European enclaves in North Africa before 1830

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File:GRAHAM(1887) p275 TABARCA CASTLE (cropped).jpg fort, built in the Middle Ages]]

The European enclaves in North Africa (technically 'semi-enclaves') were towns, fortifications and trading posts on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of western North Africa (sometimes called also "Maghreb"), obtained by various European powers in the period before they had the military capacity to occupy the interior (i.e. before the French conquest of Algeria in 1830). The earliest medieval enclaves were established in the 11th century CE by the Italian Kingdom of Sicily and Maritime republics; Spain and Portugal were the main European powers involved; both France and, briefly, England also had a presence. Most of these enclaves had been evacuated by the late 18th century, and today only the Spanish possessions of Ceuta, Melilla, and the Plazas de soberanía remain.

Italian and Sicilian possessions

File:Regnonormanno1160.jpg

File:Tarbarka 17th century.jpg island of Tabarka in the 18th century]]

Around the year 1000, small colonies of merchants began to appear in North Africa from the Republic of Amalfi and the Republic of Pisa. In 1133, Pisa negotiated a commercial treaty with the Almoravids, as did Genoa some five years later.{{cite book|author1=William Chester Jordan|author2=Bruce McNab|author3=Teofilo F. Ruiz|title=Order and Innovation in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of Joseph R. Strayer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=en99BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA145|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6967-1|pages=145–}} As Almoravid power weakened, the Maritime Republics grew bolder and Pisa attempted to seize the Balearic Islands in 1114Silvia Orvietani Busch (2001), Medieval Mediterranean Ports: The Catalan and Tuscan Coasts, 1100 to 1235 (BRILL, {{ISBN|90-04-12069-6}}), pp.207–211 In 1134, just one year after signing a commercial treaty with Bejaia, Genoa attacked the city before sending a combined fleet with Pisa to seize Annaba in 1136. The Pisans themselves raided Tabarka in 1140. These Italian initiatives were particularly focused on gaining control of the lucrative coral trade. There are records of the coastal area of Marsacares (today El Kala){{cite journal| url =https://www.persee.fr/doc/mefr_0223-5110_1986_num_98_2_2875

| title =Émigrer au XVe siècle: la communauté ligure des pêcheurs de corail de Marsacares. I. Étude de la population et des modalités de départ

| last =Gourdin

| first =Philippe

| date =1986

| journal =Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome. Moyen-Âge, Temps Modernes

| volume =98

| issue =2

| pages =543–605

| publisher =Mélanges de l'école française de Rome

| doi =10.3406/mefr.1986.2875

| access-date =15 April 2018}} being under the jurisdiction, at various times, of Pisa{{cite book|author1=C. Mileto|author2=F. Vegas|author3=L. García Soriano|author4=V. Cristini|title=Vernacular Architecture: Towards a Sustainable Future|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zEbRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA387|date=11 September 2014|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-315-73690-7|pages=387–}} and later, Genoa.{{cite book|author=Giovanna Petti Balbi|title=Governare la città: pratiche sociali e linguaggi politici a Genova in età medievale|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VJqol8tQcwC&pg=PA205|year=2007|publisher=Firenze University Press|isbn=978-88-8453-604-4|pages=205–}}

The arrival of the Normans in Italy led to the Christian reconquest of Sicily (1061–1091).{{cite book|author1=Jeremy Johns|title=Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan|url=https://archive.org/details/arabicadministra00john|url-access=limited|date=7 Oct 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139440196|page=[https://archive.org/details/arabicadministra00john/page/n50 31]}} Roger II of Sicily expanded his domains by taking Djerba in 1135.{{cite book|author=Joshua C. Birk|title=Norman Kings of Sicily and the Rise of the Anti-Islamic Critique: Baptized Sultans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxbjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA143|date=11 January 2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-47042-9|pages=143–}} There followed the seizure of a number of Tunisian coastal cities, leading to the formation of a short-lived entity that is sometimes known as the Norman Kingdom of Africa.{{cite book |last=Dalli |first=Charles |date=2008 |title=Bridging the gaps: sources, methodology and approaches to religion in History / edited by Joaquim Carvalho, Pisa 2008. |url=https://www.academia.edu/243360 |location=Pisa |publisher=Pisa University Press |pages=77–93 |isbn=978-88-8492-554-1 }}

After the evacuation of Mahdia in 1160, the Normans ceased to control any places on the North African coast. In 1284 the new Aragonese ruler of Sicily, Frederick III, invaded Djerba once again and held it until 1333.{{cite book|author=Maribel Fierro|title=The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2, The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNiaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT187|date=4 November 2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-18433-2|pages=187}}{{cite book|author1=Daniel Jacobs|author2=Peter Morris|title=The Rough Guide to Tunisia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k2By-NdV93AC&pg=PR225|year=2001|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-85828-748-5|pages=225}} It was retaken for Sicily by Manfredi Chiaramonte, who became lord of the island, and also seized the Kerkennah Islands.{{cite book|author=Georges Jehel|title=L'Italie et le Maghreb au Moyen Age.: Conflits et échanges du VIIème au XVème siècle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QlzAAAAMAAJ|year=2001|publisher=Presses Universitaires de France – PUF|isbn=978-2-13-052263-8}} The Sicilian garrison abandoned the island in 1392, the year after Chiaramonte died.{{cite book|author=Ernest Mercier|title=Histoire de l'Afrique septentrionale (Berbérie) depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'a la conquête français (1830)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkY4AQAAIAAJ|year=1888|publisher=Leroux}}

After this, the only Italian possessions in North Africa belonged to Genoa, which held Jijel (Algeria) as well as Tabarka (Tunisia), retaining the latter from 1540 to 1742.{{cite book|author=Teofilo F. Ruiz|title=The Western Mediterranean and the World: 400 CE to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eks1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA269|date=2 October 2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-8817-3|pages=269–}}

From West to East:

Portuguese possessions

File:Algarve de Além-Mar.svg

The Portuguese presence in North Africa dates from the reign of King João I who led the conquest of Ceuta in 1415.{{cite book|author=Bailey Wallys Diffie|title=Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hBTqPX4G9Y4C&pg=PA55|year=1977|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-0782-2|pages=55}} and continued until El Jadida was abandoned in 1769. The enclaves, mostly along the Atlantic coast of Morocco, were known in Portugal as "the Berber Algarve"{{Sfn|Iglesias Rodríguez|2013|p=21}} or as "the Algarve on the other side" ('Algarve de Além').{{Sfn|Coates|2001|p=57}}

The taking of Ceuta was recognised by Pope Martin V as a crusade.{{cite book|author=Pius Onyemechi Adiele|title=The Popes, the Catholic Church and the Transatlantic Enslavement of Black Africans 1418–1839|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YN9DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA265|year=2017|publisher=Georg Olms Verlag AG|isbn=978-3-487-42216-9|pages=265}} Possession of the city brought no economic benefits to Portugal however, as trade simply moved to other cities in the region. Accordingly, João's successor King Duarte tried to take Tangier as well in 1437, but was unable to do so.{{cite book|author=James Maxwell Anderson|title=The History of Portugal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UoryGn9o4x0C&pg=PA42|year=2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-31106-2|pages=42–44}} It was not until the reign of Duarte's son Afonso V that Portugal was able to expand its possessions in North Africa, taking Ksar es-Seghir in 1458{{Sfn|Coates|2001|p=57}} and Arcila in 1471. He also retook Tangier, but could not hold it.{{Sfnm|Elbl|2013|1p=10|Coates|2001|2p=57}} Afonso was known as o Africano (the African) because of his conquests, and he was the first Portuguese ruler to take the title 'King of Portugal and of the Algarves on this side and beyond the sea in Africa'.{{cite book|title=a history of portugal|year = 1662|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHI3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA205|publisher=CUP Archive|pages=205|id=GGKEY:XWSD821GE8S}} In 1486 his successor Joao II seized and fortified El Jadida (Mazagan) as the Portuguese continued their drive south towards Guinea.{{cite book|author1=Jorge Nascimento Rodrigues|author2=Tessaleno C. Devezas|title=Pioneers of Globalization: Why the Portuguese Surprised the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CXeOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA229|date=1 December 2007|publisher=Centro Atlantico|isbn=978-989-615-056-3|pages=229}} Two years later he accepted the submission of the governor of Safi.{{cite book|author=Weston F. Cook|title=The Hundred Years War for Morocco: Gunpowder and the Military Revolution in the Early Modern Muslim World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VldyAAAAMAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-1435-8}}{{cite book|title=a history of portugal|year = 1662|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHI3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA205|publisher=CUP Archive|pages=205–|id=GGKEY:XWSD821GE8S}}

The remaining Portuguese conquests in Morocco were secured by king Manuel I – Agadir,{{Sfnm|Bunes Ibarra|1989|1p=19|Coates|2001|2p=58}} Essaouira {{Sfn|Coates|2001|p=58}} and Azemmour.{{cite book|author=Comer Plummer III|title=Roads to Ruin: The War for Morocco in the Sixteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jeiJCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|date=19 August 2015|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-1-4834-3677-7|pages=103}} El Jadida was retaken after an earlier loss,{{Sfn|Sarmento|2011|p=117}} and in 1508 direct rule was established over Safi.{{Sfn|Levtzion|1977|p=398}} Mehdya was taken in 1515, though it was lost soon after in 1541.{{Sfn|Elbl|2000|p=352}} The old pirate base at Anfa, which the Portuguese had destroyed in 1468, before reoccupying and fortifying it in 1515, came to be known as "Casa Branca", hence, eventually, Casablanca.{{Sfn|Park|Boum|2005|p=81}}{{Sfn|Ciment|2003|p=104}}

By the time of Joao III, the Portuguese empire had expanded around the globe. In this context, retaining or perhaps expanding the possessions in Morocco held no economic attraction and seemed increasingly unsustainable in military terms.{{cite book|author=University of Minnesota. Center for Early Modern History|title=City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7dUv-1Ql2oC&pg=PA356|date=25 September 2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-65221-6|pages=356}} In 1541 Agadir fell to the Saadi prince Moulay Muhammad,{{Sfn|Bunes Ibarra|1989|p=19}} and in the same year, Portugal also lost Safi and Azamor.{{Sfn|White|2004–2005|p=65}} In 1550, they went on to lose Ksar es-Seghir and Arcila.{{Sfnm|Coates|2001|1p=57|White|2004–2005|2p=65}}

In 1577 Sebastian I of Portugal was able to reconquer Arcila, though it was taken by the Saadi ruler Almanzor in 1589.{{Sfn|Devezas|Modelski|2008|p=56}} However Sebastian's disastrous crusade in Morocco cost him his life and brought an end to the age of Portuguese expansion. Indeed, it led to the extinction of the independent Portuguese state between 1580 and 1640.{{cite book|author=Jon Cowans|title=Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ksf_tz5x5FwC&pg=PA112|date=12 May 2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-1845-0|pages=112–}}

In 1640 Portugal regained its independence, but Ceuta opted to remain with Spain,{{Sfn|Rodríguez Hernández|2015|pp=80-81}} a situation that was officially acknowledged in the Treaty of Lisbon (1668). After this Portugal retained only three enclaves in North Africa – Tangier, Casablanca and El Jadida. Tangier was ceded to England in 1661 under the Marriage Treaty as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza,{{Sfn|Martínez Ruiz|2005|p=1044}} and Casablanca was abandoned after the Lisbon earthquake of 1755.{{Sfn|Ciment|2003|p=104}} Under siege by Muhammad III, El Jadida was evacuated on 10 March 1769, bringing an end to the Portuguese presence in North Africa.{{Cite encyclopaedia|encyclopaedia=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936|title=Mazagan|volume=5. L-Moriscos|location=Leiden, New York and Cologne |year=1993|publisher=E.J. Brill|isbn=90-04-09791-0|pages=423–424}}

From West to East:

Spanish possessions

Having taken Granada in 1492, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain wanted to extend the Reconquista across the Straits of Gibraltar.{{Cite book|last=Fernández|first=Lilia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERRQDwAAQBAJ&dq=.&pg=PA21|title=50 Events that Shaped Latino History: An Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic [2 volumes]|date=2018-03-22|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3763-0|pages=21|language=en|quote=The last Muslim kingdom in Spain, Granada, fell to forces led by the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabel, on January 2, 1492.}}

File:Spanish mediterranean 1519.jpg

After having secured the Canary Islands off the coast of Morocco in 1496, they took a number of bridgeheads on the African mainland, first Melilla (1497), then Cazaza and Mers El Kébir (1505). The between 1508 and 1510 they extended the areas under their control widely, taking in Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508), and then major coastal cities – Oran (1509), Algiers (1510), Bejaia (1510) as well as Tripoli (1510) and surroundings in coastal Libya.{{cite book |last=Riley-Smith |first=Jonathan |date=1990 |title=The Atlas of the Crusades |location=London |publisher=Times Books |page=162 |isbn=0-7230-0361-0}} Spain however lacked the military means to extend its area of rule further. This limited success prompted the local Muslim rulers in North Africa to encourage Oruç Reis to attack Spanish positions and stage raids on Andalucia, Valencia and Alicante. In 1516, the year King Ferdinand died, Oruç took Algiers and expelled the Spanish.{{cite book|author=William S. Maltby|title=The Reign of Charles V|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNIcBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|date=25 March 2002|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education|isbn=978-0-230-62908-0|pages=48}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

Ferdinand's successor Emperor Charles V intended to regain Algiers and end the threat of piracy posed by Oruç. Charles landed at Oran, and Oruç was killed by Spanish forces at Tlemcen in 1518.{{cite book|author1=William Robertson|author2=Dugald Stewart|title=The history of the reign of the emperor Charles V, book 2–7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezlAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295|year=1840|publisher=T. Cadell|pages=295}} However Charles was not able to retain control of the areas he had taken, and Oruç's brother Hayreddin Barbarossa secured the protection of the Ottoman Empire by making Algiers its vassal.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1jfzkJTAZgC&pg=PA117 |title=North Africa: a history from antiquity to the present |last=Naylorp |first=Phillip Chiviges |page=117 |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2009 |access-date=24 October 2010 |isbn=978-0-292-71922-4}}

By the time Philip II of Spain assumed the throne of Portugal in 1580 as well as of Spain, all of the Spanish possessions on the North African coast had already been lost, with the exceptions of Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, and Oran-Mers El Kébir (Mazalquivir){{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOV8qNnYvDwC&q=%22El+martes+santo,+16+de+abril+de+1669,+por+la+ma%C3%B1ana%22|title=La presencia española en Orán (1509–1792)|isbn=9788460076148|last1=Doncel|first1=Gregorio Sánchez|year=1991}} while only Ceuta, Tangier, Arcila and El Jadida remained of the Portuguese territories. Although Philip III of Spain gained Larache (1610) and La Mámora (1614) in Morocco, the rise of the Alaouite dynasty meant the loss of many former possessions to Muslim rule. By the death of Moulay Ismaíl (1672–1727), the only territories remaining to Spain were Ceuta (acquired from Portugal in 1640), Melilla, the Alhucemas Islands (occupied in 1673) and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera.

File:Melilla 1909.jpg

File:Mapa del sur de España neutral.png in North Africa.]]

Spain's first Bourbon ruler Philip V wished to re-establish Spanish supremacy on the Algerian coast, and in 1732 sent an expedition which retook Oran and Mers El Kebir. The cities remained under Spanish rule until they were all but destroyed by an earthquake in 1790.{{cite book|author1=Sachar Paulus|author2=Norbert Pohlmann|author3=Helmut Reimer|title=Securing Electronic Business Processes: Highlights Of The Information Security Solutions Europe 2003 Conference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JdmxipXHxE8C&pg=PA610|date=29 January 2004|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-528-05887-6|pages=610–}} The Spanish evacuated it in early 1792 and it came under Ottoman rule once again.{{cite web |url=http://blogs.ua.es/oranesado/historia/|title=Oranesado}}{{cite book|author=Ethel Davies|title=North Africa: The Roman Coast|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QeOGV_zl4C&pg=PA177|year=2009|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-287-3|pages=177–}}

From West to East:

French possessions

{{Main|Bastion de France}}

File:Bastion de france barbarie.jpg

The Franco-Ottoman alliance of 1536 set the scene for the earliest French possessions on the North African coast. In 1550 the Dey of Algiers, Turgut Reis, granted the right to fish coral on the Massacares coast, near Annaba, to Tomasino Lenche (c.1510–1568), a merchant of Marseilles. The following year, Henri II of France granted him an identical monopoly (renewed in 1560 by Charles IX). Sultan Selim II granted France a trading concession over the ports of Malfacarel, la Calla (El Kala), Collo, Cap Rose (Cap Rosa) and Bone (Annaba). In 1552 Lenche was given permission to build the first permanent French presence on the coast, the fortress known as the 'Bastion de France'.{{cite book|author=Léon Galibert|title=L' Algérie ancienne et moderne depuis les premiers établissements des Carthaginois jusqu'à la prise de la Smalah d'Abd-el-Kader: par Léon Galibert. Vignettes par Raffet et Rouargue frères|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ddtQAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA217|year=1844|publisher=Furne et Cie.|pages=217}}{{cite wikisource |title=Revue des Deux Mondes |wslanguage=fr |wslink=Alger_-_Système_d'établissement_à_suivre |last=Baude |first=Jean-Jacques |author-link=:s:fr:Auteur:Jean-Jacques_Baude |year=1832 |publisher=Revue des Deux Mondes |location=Paris |page=148}}

Tomasino Lenche completed the building of the Bastion de France in 1560 and founded the Magnificent Coral Company (la Magnifique Compagnie du Corail) for the commercial exploitation of the coast's resources.{{cite book|author=Roland Courtinat|title=La piraterie barbaresque en Méditerranée: XVI-XIXe siècle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcLOZOCHf4YC&pg=PA73|year=2003|publisher=SERRE EDITEUR|isbn=978-2-906431-65-2|pages=73–}} From this base, it was not long before Tomasino had diversified into selling artillery, powder and other weapons to the Dey. The wealth of the Lenches attracted the envy of Algiers, however, which seized the Bastion in 1564. Lenche was able to re-establish himself there after a period, but in June 1604, the Bastion de France was torn down by soldiers from Annaba supported by galleys from Algiers sent by raïs Mourad.{{cite book|author1=P. M. Holt|author2=Peter Malcolm Holt|author3=Ann K. S. Lambton|author4=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA257|year=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29137-8|pages=257–}} The fortress was eventually returned to the Lenches after diplomatic intervention by Henry IV of France. Another Algerian attack was staged in 1615, but the following year captain Jacques Vinciguerra reasserted Lenche control. Eventually, in 1619, Tomaso II Lenche sold his rights to the bastion to Charles, Duke of Guise.{{cite book|author=Institut Royal de France. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres|title=Mémoires de l'Institut Royal de France: Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUpUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA559|year=1833|publisher=Imprimerie Royale|pages=559–}}File:Vue de la colonie la calle 1788.jpg (La Calle), 1788. At this time the Bastion had come under the control of the French Royal Africa Company and was no longer run as a private concession]]

After nearly a decade, on 19 September 1628, {{ill|Sanson Napollon|it}}, heir to the Lenche fortunes, signed a commercial treaty with Algiers and revived the trading posts at Annaba, La Calle and the Bastion de France. As well as harvesting coral, he also opened a trading post dealing in wheat at Cap Rosa. In 1631 Louis XIII named Napollon governor of the Bastion, making it thereafter a property of the crown rather than of the Duke of Guise.{{cite book|title=Algeria: Tableau de la situation des établissements français dans l'Algérie en 1837–54. Journal des opérations de l'artillerie pendant l'expedition de Constantine, Oct. 1837. Tableau de la situation des établissements français dans l'Algérie précédé de l'exposé des motifs et du projet de loi, portant demande de crédits extraordinaires au titre de l'exercice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K9FBAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA420|year=1842|pages=420–}} However Napollon was killed during a Genoese attack in 1633, and in 1637 an Algerian fleet under Ali Bitchin seized and destroyed all the French and trading posts along the coast.{{cite book|author=Peter N. Miller|title=Peiresc's Mediterranean World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BNroCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA208|year=2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-74406-6|pages=208–}}

In 1664, Louis XIV mounted an expedition (known as the Djidjelli expedition) to take the city of Jijel and use it as a base against piracy. The city was taken, but after holding it for just three months, the French retreated, abandoning it.{{cite book|title=A handbook for travellers in Algeria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBYIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA40|year=1873|pages=40–|publisher = John Murray}} In 1682 and again in 1683 Admiral Duquesne bombarded Algiers as part of France's campaigns against piracy,{{cite book|author=John A. Lynn|title=The Wars of Louis XIV 1667–1714|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yy9mAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA173|date=19 December 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-89951-8|pages=173–}} and in 1684 the Dey of Algiers signed a new treaty with de Tourville. French possession of the Bastion de France was confirmed for 100 years, and previous rights in La Calle, Cap Rose, Annaba, and Bejaia were restored.

The 1684 treaty also transferred these rights from Napollon to M. Denis Dussault, before, under another treaty signed in 1690, all rights in these concessions were assigned to the French Africa Company.{{cite book|author=Charles Henry Alexandrowicz|author-link=Charles Henry Alexandrowicz|title=Studies in the History of the Law of Nations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PiHOIxUpX8C&pg=PA258|date=7 January 1972|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-247-1331-5|pages=258–}} The French Africa Company promptly abandoned the Bastion and based its trade in la Calle, where it continued to operate until it was wound up in 1799. In 1807 the Dey of Algiers ceded all former French rights for trading posts and bases to the United Kingdom, and they were not restored to France until the Congress of Vienna. During the diplomatic crisis of 1827 between Algiers and France, the French abandoned la Calle, and the Algerians promptly destroyed it. These events were the prelude to the French conquest of Algeria in 1830.{{cite book|author=Royal Statistical Society (Great Britain)|title=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQbxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA115|year=1839|publisher=Statistical Society of London|pages=115–}}

English possessions

{{Main|English Tangier|Battle of Tangier (1664)}}

File:Wenceslas Hollar - Tangier from the S.W..jpg]]

Tangier (1661–1684) was ceded to England by Portugal as part of the dowry for Catherine of Braganza when she married Charles II of England. However the enclave was expensive to defend and fortify against the attacks by Moulay Ismail and offered neither commercial nor military advantage to England. In February 1684 the English troops were transported home, the walls were torn down, and the mole in the harbour destroyed.{{cite book|author=Sharon La Boda|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA667|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-03-9|pages=667–}}{{cite book|author=Iain Finlayson|title=Tangier: City of the Dream|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|date=13 January 2015|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-78076-926-4|pages=27–}}

Gallery

File:Agadir, Morocco (5398038116) (2).jpg|Fortifications of Agadir

File:Essaouira citadel.JPG|Portuguese fort of Essaouira

File:Souira Qdima fort 01.jpg|Fort of Souira Guedima

File:Safi1 (js).jpg|Sea walls of Safi

File:Forteresse Jadida 03 (cropped).JPG|Citadel of El Jadida

File:Azzemour,wall.jpg|Walls of Azemmour

File:Muralha de Arzila 1.jpg|Sea walls of Asilah

File:Muralla, Tánger, Marruecos, 2015-12-11, DD 69-71 HDR.JPG|City walls of Tangier

File:Ceuta Spain crop.jpg|Royal Walls of Ceuta

File:Velez de la Gomera.jpg|Peñón de Vélez

File:Melilla un día de regatas.jpg|Melilla

File:Spanish fortress mers El kebir.jpg|Mers El Kébir

File:Bordj Moussa.jpeg|Spanish fort (Bordj Moussa) in Béjaïa

File:El Kala Port.jpg|El Kala or La Calle, formerly Bastion de France

File:Tabarka, décembre 2014 (14).jpg|Genoese fort of Tabarka

File:LA GOULETTE 1.JPG|La Goulette

File:Chikly avec le Djebel Zaghouan en arrière-plan.jpg|Spanish fort of Chikly Island on the Lake of Tunis

File:Borj Ghazi Mustapha, 2018-2.jpg|Borj El Kebir in Djerba

File:Red Castle Of Tripoli.jpg|Red Castle of Tripoli

See also

References

{{Reflist}}

Bibliography

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Category:Spanish North Africa

Category:Portuguese Empire

Category:French colonial empire

Category:British colonisation in Africa

Category:Barbary Coast

Category:Enclaves and exclaves

Category:Former enclaves

Category:Reconquista

Category:History of North Africa

Category:Plazas de soberanía

Category:European colonisation of Africa