Feodosia#Kaffa (Genoese colony)

{{Moresources | section|date=February 2024}}

File:Greek colonies of the Northern Euxine Sea (Black Sea).svg

The city was founded as Theodosia (Θεοδοσία) by Greek colonists from Miletos in the 6th century BC. Noted for its rich agricultural lands, on which its trade depended, the city was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD.

Theodosia remained a minor village for much of the next nine hundred years. It was at times part of the sphere of influence of the Khazars (excavations have revealed Khazar artifacts dating back to the 9th century) and of the Byzantine Empire.

Like the rest of Crimea, this place (village) fell under the domination of the Kipchaks and was conquered by the Mongols in the 1230s.

A settlement named Kaphâs (alternate romanized spelling Cafâs, {{langx|el|Καφᾶς}}) existed surrounding Theodosia prior to the penetration of Genoese into the Black Sea. The archaeological evidence indicates that during the Middle Ages the population about Theodosia never decreased to zero; several medieval churches are found in the area dating from the times of Late Antiquity/Early Middle Ages. However, the population had become completely agrarian. A small local Greek population must have existed in situ and in the neighboring settlements. Likely, from the 9th century there were Cumans and Goths living alongside the Greeks, and by 1270s, perhaps some Tatars and Armenians as well.Khvalkov, Ievgen Alexandrovitch, The Colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea Region: Evolution and Transformation, European University Institute, Department of History and Civilization, Florence, vol. 1, pg. 83, September 2015,

File:Satellite picture of Crimea, Terra-MODIS, 05-16-2015.jpg

In the late 13th century, traders from the Republic of Genoa arrived and purchased the city from the ruling Golden Horde.[https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/40744/2015_AlexandrovitchKhvalkov_Vol_I.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=n Khvalkov, I.E., The Colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea Region: Evolution and Transformation,European University Institute], Department of History and Civilization,Florence, 8 September 2015

They established a flourishing trading settlement called Kaffa (also recorded as Caffa), which virtually monopolized trade in the Black Sea region and served as a major port and administrative center for the Genoese settlements around the Sea. The city thrived despite the tenuous politics of the region and Genoa's series of wars with the Mongol successor states.{{Cite journal |last=Slater |first=Eric |date=2006 |title=Caffa: Early Western Expansion in the Late Medieval World, 1261-1475 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40241665 |journal=Review (Fernand Braudel Center) |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=271–283 |jstor=40241665 |issn=0147-9032}}

It came to house one of Europe's biggest slave markets of the Black Sea slave trade, and served as a terminus for the Silk Road. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia also adds that the city of Caffa was established during the times when the area was ruled by the Khan of the Golden Horde Mengu-Timur.[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article075451.html Mengu-Timur (Менгу-Тимур)]. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Accessed 26 February 2024.

Ibn Battuta visited the city, noting it was a "great city along the sea coast inhabited by Christians, most of them Genoese." He further stated, "We went down to its port, where we saw a wonderful harbor with about two hundred vessels in it, both ships of war and trading vessels, small and large, for it is one of the world's celebrated ports."{{cite book |last1=Battutah |first1=Ibn |title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah |date=2002 |publisher=Picador |location=London |isbn=9780330418799 |pages=120–121}}

In early 1318, Pope John XXII established a Latin Church diocese of Kaffa, as a suffragan of Genoa. The papal bull of appointment of the first bishop attributed to him a vast territory: "a villa de Varna in Bulgaria usque Sarey inclusive in longitudinem et a mari Pontico usque ad terram Ruthenorum in latitudinem" ("from the city of Varna in Bulgaria to Sarey inclusive in longitude, and from the Black Sea to the land of the Ruthenians in latitude"). The first bishop was Fra' Gerolamo, who had already been consecrated seven years before as a missionary bishop ad partes Tartarorum. The diocese ended as a residential bishopric with the capture of the city by the Ottomans in 1475.Pius Bonifacius Gams, [http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=65154&dirids=1 Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae], Leipzig 1931, pg. 432Konrad Eubel, Hierarchia Catholica Medii Aevi, [http://sul-derivatives.stanford.edu/derivative?CSNID=00002716&mediaType=application/pdf vol. 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709140633/http://sul-derivatives.stanford.edu/derivative?CSNID=00002716&mediaType=application%2Fpdf |date=9 July 2019 }}, pp. 154–155; [http://sul-derivatives.stanford.edu/derivative?CSNID=00002717&mediaType=application/pdf vol. 2] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004040657/http://sul-derivatives.stanford.edu/derivative?CSNID=00002717&mediaType=application%2Fpdf |date=2018-10-04 }}, pp. XVIII e 117; [http://sul-derivatives.stanford.edu/derivative?CSNID=00002718&mediaType=application/pdf vol. 3] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321112249/http://sul-derivatives.stanford.edu/derivative?CSNID=00002718&mediaType=application%2Fpdf |date=21 March 2019 }}, pg. 145; [https://archive.org/stream/hierarchiacathol05eubeuoft#page/134/mode/1up vol. 5], p. 134Gasparo Luigi Oderico, [https://archive.org/details/lettereligustic00massgoog Lettere ligustiche ossia Osservazioni critiche sullo stato geografico della Liguria fino ai Tempi di Ottone il Grande, con le Memorie storiche di Caffa ed altri luoghi della Crimea posseduti un tempo da' Genovesi], Bassano 1792 (especially p. 166 ff.) Accordingly, Kaffa is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013; {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), p. 855 The new diocese effectively broke up the diocese of Khanbaliq, which functioned as one diocese for all Mongol territory from the Balkans to China.{{Cite book |last=Khvalkov |first=Evgeny |title=The colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea region : evolution and transformation |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-62306-3 |location=New York |page=69 |oclc=994262849}}

It is believed that the devastating pandemic of the Black Death entered Europe for the first time via Kaffa in 1347. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army under Janibeg was reportedly withering from the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants, in one of the first cases of biological warfare. Fleeing inhabitants may have carried the disease back to Italy, causing its spread across Europe. However, the plague appears to have spread in a stepwise fashion, taking over a year to reach Europe from Crimea. Also, there were a number of Crimean ports under Mongol control, so it is unlikely that Kaffa was the only source of plague-infested ships heading to Europe. Additionally, there were overland caravan routes from the East that would have been carrying the disease into Europe as well.{{cite journal |last=Wheelis |first=Mark |date=September 2002 |title=Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Kaffa |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=971–75 |doi=10.3201/eid0809.010536 |pmid=12194776 |pmc=2732530}}{{Cite book |title=The Silk Roads |last=Frankopan |first=Peter |pages=183 |quote=A Mongol army laying siege to the Genoese trading post of Caffa following a dispute about trade terms was annihilated by illness that killed 'thousands and thousands every day,' according to one commentator. Before withdrawing, however, 'they ordered corpses to be placed in catapults and lobbed into the city in the hope that the intolerable stench would kill everyone inside.' Rather than being overwhelmed by the smell, it was the highly contagious disease that caught hold. Unknowingly, the Mongols had turned to biological warfare to defeat their enemy. The trading routes that connected Europe to the rest of the world now became lethal highways for the transmission of the Black Death. In 1347, the disease reached Constantinople and then Genoa, Venice and the Mediterranean, brought by traders and merchants fleeing home.}}

Kaffa eventually recovered. The thriving, culturally diverse city and its thronged slave market have been described by the Spanish traveler Pedro Tafur, who was there in the 1430s.[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/tafur.html#ch16 Tafur, Andanças e viajes] The port was also visited by German traveler Johann Schiltberger in the 15th century. In 1462, Caffa placed itself under the protection of King Casimir IV of Poland.D. Kołodziejczyk, The Crimean Khanate and Poland-Lithuania. International Diplomacy on the European Periphery (15th–18th Century) A Study of Peace Treaties Followed by Annotated Documents, Leiden - Boston 2011, p. 62; ISSN 1380-6076 / {{ISBN|978 90 04 19190 7}} However, Poland did not offer significant help due to reinforcements sent being massacred in Bar fortress (modern day Ukraine) by Duke Czartoryski after a quarrel with locals.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

File:Caffa and Theodoro 2.svg

File:Ukrainian cossacks conquer Feodosia.png in "chaika" boats, destroying the Turkish fleet and capturing Caffa]]

Following the fall of Constantinople, Amasra, and lastly Trebizond, the position of Caffa had become untenable and attracted the attention of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. He was at no loss for a pretext to extinguish this last Genoese colony on the Black Sea. In 1473, the tudun (or governor) of the Crimean Khanate died and a fight developed over the appointment of his successor. The Genoese involved themselves in the dispute, and the Tatar notables who favored the losing candidate finally asked Mehmed to settle the dispute.

Mehmed dispatched a fleet under the Ottoman commander Gedik Ahmet Pasha, which left Constantinople 19 May 1475. It anchored before the walls of the city on 1 June, started the bombardment the next day, and on 6 June the inhabitants capitulated. Over the next few days the Ottomans proceeded to extract the wealth of the inhabitants, and abduct 1,500 youths for service in the Sultan's palace.{{unbalanced opinion|date=April 2020}} On 8 July, the final blow was struck when all inhabitants of Latin origin were ordered to relocate to Istanbul, where they founded a quarter (Kefeli Mahalle) which was named after the town they had been forced to leave.Franz Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time (Princeton: University Press, 1978).

Renamed Kefe, Caffa became one of the most important Turkish ports on the Black Sea. It was a major center of the Crimean slave trade until the late 18th-century, referred to by the Lithuanian Mikhalon Litvin as: "not a town, but an abyss into which our blood is pouring".Davies, Brian (2014). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700. Routledge; ISBN 978-1-134-55283-2. pp. 24-25

In 1616, Zaporozhian Cossacks under the leadership of Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny destroyed the Turkish fleet and captured Caffa. Having conquered the city, the Cossacks released the men, women and children who were slaves.

File:View Feodosia city ruins.jpg

File:Карло Боссоли. Феодосия.jpg, 1856]]

Ottoman control ceased when the expanding Russian Empire took over Crimea between 1774 and 1783. It was renamed Feodosia (Russian Ѳеодосія; reformed spelling Феодосия), after the traditional Russian reading of its ancient Greek name. In 1900, Zibold constructed the first air well (dew condenser) on mount Tepe-Oba near Feodosia.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

{{Panorama

| image = File:Панорама крепости Феодосии (Каффы).jpg

| height = 230

| caption = {{center|Panorama of the fortress of Feodosia (Kaffa) by Mikhail Ivanov (1783)}}

}}

The city was occupied by the forces of Nazi Germany during World War II, sustaining significant damage in the process. The Jewish population numbering 3,248 before the German occupation was murdered by SD-Einsatzgruppe D between November 16 and December 15, 1941.Martin Gilbert, The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust, 2002, pp.64, 83 A witness interviewed by the Soviet Extraordinary Commission in 1944 and quoted on the website of the French organization Yahad-In Unum described how the Jews were rounded-up in the city:

[A]ll the Jews were gathered. The Germans told them they would be displaced somewhere in Ukraine. On December 4, 1941, in the morning, all the Jews, including my father, my mother and my sister were taken to an anti-tank trench where they were executed by German shooters. 1,500-1,700 people were shot that day.{{cite web |title=Execution of Jews in Feodosiya |work=The Map of Holocaust by Bullets (interactive map) |publisher=Yahad-In Unum |url=https://www.yahadmap.org/#village/feodosiya-feodosia-crimea-ukraine.69 |access-date=7 January 2021}}

All native Tatar inhabitants were arrested by Soviet forces as several thousand Tatars had fought side-by-side with the Nazis against Soviet forces and had participated in the Jewish genocide.{{cite web |title=РУКОВОДСТВО ПАРТИЗАНСКИМ ДВИЖЕНИЕМ КРЫМА В 1941—1942 ГОДАХ И "ТАТАРСКИЙ ВОПРОС" |url=http://a-pesni.org/ww2/oficial/krym/a-partizkrym.php |access-date=14 December 2019}} Following Stalin's orders, all Tatars were sent to Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and other Central Asian republics of the USSR.

During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Russian warship Novocherkassk, a landing ship likely used to transport drones, was hit in the early morning hours of 26 December 2023 in the harbour of Feodosia. There was a large fire and explosion. Russia reported that two missiles that were fired from Sukhoi Su-24 jets were shot down.[https://orf.at/stories/3343958/ Russisches Kriegsschiff vor Krim getroffen] orf.at, 26 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2023 (German).

Feodosia has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), narrowly missing the boundary of a Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa), with hot summer months drier than cool mild winter months but not enough to qualify as Mediterranean.

{{Weather box

| location = Feodosia (1991–2020, extremes 1881–present)

| metric first = Y

| single line = Y

| Jan record high C = 19.1

| Feb record high C = 18.6

| Mar record high C = 27.2

| Apr record high C = 27.5

| May record high C = 31.9

| Jun record high C = 35.0

| Jul record high C = 38.8

| Aug record high C = 38.9

| Sep record high C = 33.3

| Oct record high C = 29.0

| Nov record high C = 26.9

| Dec record high C = 21.8

| year record high C = 38.9

| Jan high C = 4.9

| Feb high C = 5.6

| Mar high C = 9.5

| Apr high C = 15.1

| May high C = 21.3

| Jun high C = 26.5

| Jul high C = 29.7

| Aug high C = 29.6

| Sep high C = 23.9

| Oct high C = 17.5

| Nov high C = 11.1

| Dec high C = 6.9

| year high C = 16.8

| Jan mean C = 2.0

| Feb mean C = 2.4

| Mar mean C = 5.8

| Apr mean C = 10.9

| May mean C = 16.7

| Jun mean C = 21.9

| Jul mean C = 24.8

| Aug mean C = 24.6

| Sep mean C = 19.3

| Oct mean C = 13.5

| Nov mean C = 7.9

| Dec mean C = 4.1

| year mean C = 12.8

| Jan low C = -0.7

| Feb low C = -0.4

| Mar low C = 2.8

| Apr low C = 7.4

| May low C = 12.8

| Jun low C = 17.6

| Jul low C = 20.4

| Aug low C = 20.2

| Sep low C = 15.3

| Oct low C = 10.1

| Nov low C = 5.0

| Dec low C = 1.5

| year low C = 9.3

| Jan record low C = -25.0

| Feb record low C = -25.1

| Mar record low C = -14.0

| Apr record low C = -5.5

| May record low C = 1.1

| Jun record low C = 5.0

| Jul record low C = 9.1

| Aug record low C = 9.4

| Sep record low C = 1.4

| Oct record low C = -11.2

| Nov record low C = -14.9

| Dec record low C = -18.6

| year record low C = -25.1

| precipitation colour = green

| Jan precipitation mm = 43

| Feb precipitation mm = 36

| Mar precipitation mm = 38

| Apr precipitation mm = 32

| May precipitation mm = 41

| Jun precipitation mm = 43

| Jul precipitation mm = 33

| Aug precipitation mm = 41

| Sep precipitation mm = 43

| Oct precipitation mm = 41

| Nov precipitation mm = 41

| Dec precipitation mm = 46

| year precipitation mm = 478

| Jan snow depth cm = 1

| Feb snow depth cm = 2

| Mar snow depth cm = 1

| Apr snow depth cm = 0

| May snow depth cm = 0

| Jun snow depth cm = 0

| Jul snow depth cm = 0

| Aug snow depth cm = 0

| Sep snow depth cm = 0

| Oct snow depth cm = 0

| Nov snow depth cm = 0

| Dec snow depth cm = 1

| year snow depth cm = 2

| Jan humidity = 80.5

| Feb humidity = 78.1

| Mar humidity = 75.5

| Apr humidity = 72.6

| May humidity = 70.8

| Jun humidity = 67.5

| Jul humidity = 63.0

| Aug humidity = 63.1

| Sep humidity = 79.6

| Oct humidity = 76.0

| Nov humidity = 80.0

| Dec humidity = 81.0

| year humidity = 73.1

| Jan rain days = 12

| Feb rain days = 8

| Mar rain days = 10

| Apr rain days = 11

| May rain days = 9

| Jun rain days = 7

| Jul rain days = 7

| Aug rain days = 6

| Sep rain days = 9

| Oct rain days = 8

| Nov rain days = 12

| Dec rain days = 12

| year rain days = 111

| Jan snow days = 8

| Feb snow days = 8

| Mar snow days = 6

| Apr snow days = 0.3

| May snow days = 0.1

| Jun snow days = 0

| Jul snow days = 0

| Aug snow days = 0

| Sep snow days = 0

| Oct snow days = 0.1

| Nov snow days = 2

| Dec snow days = 6

| year snow days = 31

| Jan sun = 63

| Feb sun = 72

| Mar sun = 129

| Apr sun = 182

| May sun = 252

| Jun sun = 283

| Jul sun = 308

| Aug sun = 287

| Sep sun = 246

| Oct sun = 166

| Nov sun = 85

| Dec sun = 51

| year sun = 2124

| source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214154907/http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/33976.htm |archive-date=14 December 2019 |url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/33976.htm |title=Weather and Climate-The Climate of Feodosia |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=ru |publisher=Weather and Climate}}

|source 2 = NOAA (humidity 1991–2020, sun 1961−1990){{cite web

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250420123624/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/data/oceans/archive/arc0216/0253808/6.6/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Ukraine/CSV/Feodosiia_33976.csv

| archive-date = 20 April 2025

| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/data/oceans/archive/arc0216/0253808/6.6/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Ukraine/CSV/Feodosiia_33976.csv

| title = Feodosiia Climate Normals 1991–2020

| work = World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020)

| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

| access-date = 20 April 2025}}{{cite web |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/TABLES/REG_VI/UP/33976.TXT |title=Feodosija Climate Normals 1961–1990 |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |access-date=1 March 2015}}

| date = August 2010

}}

{{Panorama

| image = File:PanoramaFeo2.jpg

| height = 230

| alt = Panorama Feodosia seen from the mountain Tepe Oba.

| caption = {{center|Panorama Feodosia seen from the mountain Tepe Oba.I}}

}}

File:Feodosia embankment.jpg

File:Tepe Oba. Theodosia.jpg

Modern Feodosia is a resort city with a population of about 69,000 people. It has beaches, mineral springs, and mud baths, sanatoria, and rest homes. Apart from tourism, its economy rests on agriculture and fisheries. Local industries include fishing, brewing and canning. As with much of the Crimea, most of its population is ethnically Russian; the Ukrainian language is infrequently used. In June 2006, Feodosia made the news with the 2006 anti-NATO protests.

While most beaches in the Crimea are made of pebbles, in the Feodosia area there is a unique Golden Beach (Zolotoy Plyazh) made of small seashells which stretches for some 15 km.

The city is sparsely populated during the winter months and most cafes and restaurants are closed. Business and tourism increase in mid-June and peak during July and August. As in the other resort towns of the Crimea, the tourists come mostly from the Commonwealth of Independent States countries of the former Soviet Union.

Feodosia was the city where the seascape painter Ivan Aivazovsky lived and worked all his life, and where general Pyotr Kotlyarevsky and the writer Alexander Grin spent their declining years. Popular tourist locations include the Aivazovsky National Art Gallery and the Genoese fortress.

File:Тепе-Оба 03.JPG|View from Tepe-Oba

File:Старовинне караїмське кладовище на Тепе-Оба 01.JPG|Ancient Karaites cemetery

File:Theodosia_castle.JPG|Genoese castle Caffa

File:Вид на Феодосійський порт з Тепе-Оба.JPG|Port and Tepe-Oba

File:Маяк на мисі Іллі-південна окінечність хребта Тепе-Оба.jpg|Lighthouse on Tepe-Oba

File:Феодосия-001.jpg|Feodosia city centre

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The late-medieval city of Caffa is the location of a section of the novel Caprice and Rondo by the Scottish novelist Dorothy Dunnett.

An early 14th-century bishop of Caffa appears in Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose, making several sharp replies in a long, tempestuous debate within a group of monks and clerics; he is portrayed as aggressive and somewhat narrow-minded.

• List of traditional Greek place names

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• Khvalkov E. Campania, Puglia e Basilicata nella colonizzazione genovese dell'Oltremare nei secoli XIV – XV: Caffa genovese secondo i dati dei libri contabili. In: Rassegna Storica Salernitana. 2016. Vol. 65. pp. 11–16.
• Khvalkov E. Italia settentrionale e centrale nel progetto coloniale genovese sul Mar Nero: gente di Padania e Toscana a Caffa genovese nei secoli XIII – XV secondo i dati delle Massariae Caffae ad annum 1423 e 1461. In: Studi veneziani. Vol. LXXIII, 2016. - pp. 237–240.{{Cite web |url=https://publications.hse.ru/articles/197382228 |title=Italia settentrionale e centrale nel progetto coloniale genovese sul Mar Nero: gente di Padania e Toscana a Caffa genovese nei secoli XIII – XV secondo i dati delle Massariae Caffae ad annum 1423 e 1461. In: Studi veneziani. 2016. Vol. 73. P. 237-240. Khvalkov E. |last=Khvalkov |first=Evgeny |date=2019 |website=SPb HSE |language=it |access-date=2019-10-19}}
• Khvalkov E. Il progetto coloniale genovese sul Mar Nero, la dinamica della migrazione latina a Caffa e la gente catalanoaragonese, siciliana e sarda nel Medio Evo. In: Archivio Storico Sardo. 2015. Vol. 50. No. 1. pp. 265–279.{{Cite journal |last=Khvalkov |first=Evgeny A. |date=2015 |title=Il progetto coloniale genovese sul Mar Nero, la dinamica della migrazione latina a Caffa e la gente catalanoaragonese, siciliana e sarda nel Medio Evo |url=http://www.deputazionestoriapatriasardegna.it/public/files/637/default/ass-vol-l-2015.pdf |journal=Archivio Storico Sardo |language=it |publisher=Deputazione di Storia Patria per la Sardegna. www.deputazionestoriapatriasardegna.it |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=265–279 |issn=2037-5514}}{{Cite web |url=http://kvk.bibliothek.kit.edu/view-title/index.php?katalog=BVB&url=https://www.gateway-bayern.de/BV043649653&signature=zLbLzN_QPACAfKtgX0q8ColSKkSkDRw7tAgfQe1GGbE&showCoverImg=1 |title=KVK-Volltitel |website=kvk.bibliothek.kit.edu |access-date=2019-10-16}}
• [http://www.societamessinesedistoriapatria.it/archivio/96/KHVALKOV.pdf Khvalkov E. Il Mezzogiorno italiano nella colonizzazione genovese del Mar Nero a Caffa genovese nei secoli XIII – XV (secondo i dati delle Massariae Caffae)] (pdf). In: Archivio Storico Messinese. 2015. Vol. 96 . - pp. 7–11.{{Cite web |url=http://www.societamessinesedistoriapatria.it/archivio/96/96.html |title=Società Messinese di Storia Patria. Archivio Storico Messinese, Volume 96 |date=2015 |website=www.societamessinesedistoriapatria.it |access-date=2019-10-21}}

• {{Commons category-inline}}
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• [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Ukraine.html#Kaffa WorldStatesmen- Ukraine]
• [http://www.museum.com.ua/en/istor/sev-vost/feodos/feodos.htm Ancient Theodosia and its Coinage]
• [http://otiumportal.com/solnechnye-berega-feodosii?lang=en Tourist Theodosius]
• [http://www.yadvashem.org/untoldstories/database/index.asp?cid=667 The murder of the Jews of Feodosia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519151457/http://www.yadvashem.org/untoldstories/database/index.asp?cid=667 |date=2015-05-19 }} during World War II, at Yad Vashem website.

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