Fortress of Louisbourg#Fortifications

{{More citations needed|date=November 2010}}

French settlement on Île Royale (now Cape Breton Island) can be traced to the early 17th century following settlements in Acadia that were concentrated on Baie Française (now the Bay of Fundy) such as at Port-Royal and other locations in present-day peninsular Nova Scotia.

A French settlement at Sainte Anne (now Englishtown) on the central east coast of Île Royale was established in 1629 and named Fort Sainte Anne, lasting until 1641. A fur trading post was established on the site from 1651 to 1659, but Île Royale languished under French rule as attention was focused on the St. Lawrence River/Great Lakes colony of Canada (which then comprised parts of what is now Quebec, Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin and Illinois), Louisiana (which encompassed the current Mississippi Valley states and part of Texas), and the small agricultural settlements of mainland Acadia.

The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 gave Britain control of part of Acadia (peninsular Nova Scotia) and Newfoundland; however, France maintained control of its colonies at Île Royale, Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island), Canada and Louisiana, with Île Royale being France's only territory directly on the Atlantic seaboard (which was controlled by Britain from Newfoundland to present-day South Carolina) and it was strategically close to important fishing grounds on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, as well as being well placed for protecting the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

In 1713, France set about constructing Port Dauphin and a limited naval support base at the former site of Fort Sainte-Anne; however, the winter icing conditions of the harbour led the French to choose another harbour on the southeastern part of Île Royale. The harbour, being ice-free and well protected, soon became a winter port for French naval forces on the Atlantic seaboard and they named it Havre Louisbourg after King Louis XIV.

{{further| Siege of Louisbourg (1745)}}

File:Vue du debarquement anglais pour l attaque de Louisbourg 1745.jpg]]British forces besieged Louisbourg in 1745. The British captured the fortress, but returned it to the French at the end of the War of Austrian Succession.

The Fortress was besieged in 1745 by a New England force backed by a Royal Navy squadron. The New England attackers succeeded when the fortress capitulated on June 16, 1745. A major expedition by the French to recapture the fortress led by Jean-Baptiste de La Rochefoucauld de Roye, duc d'Anville, the following year was destroyed by storms, disease and British naval attacks before it ever reached the fortress.

File:Louisbourg-09212 - Louisbourg Cross (50231103778).jpg

In 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession, restored Louisbourg to France in return for territory gained in the Austrian Netherlands and the British trading post at Madras in India. Maurepas, the ministre de la marine, was determined to have it back. He regarded the fortified harbour as essential to maintaining French dominance in the fisheries of the area. The disgust of the French in this transaction was matched by that of the English colonists.

The New England forces left, taking with them the famous Louisbourg Cross, which had hung in the fortress chapel. This cross was rediscovered in the Harvard University archives only in the latter half of the 20th century; it is now on long-term loan to the Louisbourg historic site.

Having given up Louisbourg, Britain in 1749 created its own fortified town on Chebucto Bay which they named Halifax. It soon became the largest Royal Navy base on the Atlantic coast and hosted large numbers of British army regulars. The 29th Regiment of Foot was stationed there; they cleared the land for the port and settlement.{{cite book |last=Skaarup |first=Harold A.|date=22 February 2012 |title=Canadian Artillery Museums and Gun Monuments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CYIw0x5y7s8C&dq=Having+given+up+Louisbourg%2C+Britain+in+1749+created+its+own+fortified+town+on+Chebucto+Bay+which+they+named+Halifax.+It+soon+became+the+largest+Royal+Navy+base+on+the+Atlantic+coast+and+hosted+large+numbers+of+British+army+regulars.+The+29th+Regiment+of+Foot+was+stationed+there%3B+they+cleared+the+land+for+the+port+and+settlement.&pg=PA123|publisher=iUniverse |page=123 |isbn=978-1469750002}}

{{further| Siege of Louisbourg (1758)}}

File:A View of Louisburg in North America, taken near the Light House when that City was besieged in 1758 (Yale).tif

Britain's American colonies were expanding into areas claimed by France by the 1750s, and the efforts of French forces and their First Nation allies to seal off the westward passes and approaches through which American colonists could move west soon led to the skirmishes that developed into the French and Indian War in 1754. The conflict widened into the larger Seven Years' War by 1756, which involved all of the major European powers.

A large-scale French naval deployment in 1757 fended off an attempted assault by the British in 1757. However, inadequate naval support the following year allowed a large British combined operation led by Jeffrey Amherst to land for the 1758 Siege of Louisbourg which ended after a siege of six weeks on 26 July 1758, with a French surrender.{{cite book|last=Johnston|first=A.J.B.|title=Emdgame 1758: The Promise, the Glory and the Despair of Louisbourg's Last Decade|year=2007|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|location=Lincoln, Nebraska}} The fortress was used by the British as a launching point for its 1759 Siege of Quebec that culminated in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham.

File:Philippe de Pastour de Costebelle.png, the first Governor of Île-Royale]]

• Philippe Pastour de Costebelle (1714–1717)
• Jacques L'Hermite (French Officer){{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/l_hermitte_jacques_2E.html|title=Biography – l'HERMITTE, JACQUES – Volume II (1701–1740) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}} (acting, 1714–1715)
• Joseph de St. Ovide, Monbeton de Brouillan (acting, 1716–1717; governor 1717–1739){{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/monbeton_de_brouillan_joseph_de_3E.html|title = Biography – MONBETON DE BROUILLAN, Saint-Ovide, JOSEPH DE – Volume III (1741–1770) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}}
• Francois de Bourville{{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/le_coutre_de_bourville_francois_3F.html|title = Biography – LE COUTRE DE BOURVILLE, FRANÇOIS – Volume III (1741–1770) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}} (acting, 1723–1724; 1729–1731; 1737–39; 1740)
• Isaac-Louis de Forant (1739–1740){{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/forant_isaac_louis_de_2E.html|title=Biography – FORANT, ISAAC-LOUIS DE – Volume II (1701–1740) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}}
• Jean-Baptiste Prévost du Quesnel (1740–1744){{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/le_prevost_duquesnel_jean_baptiste_louis_3E.html|title = Biography – LE PRÉVOST DUQUESNEL, JEAN-BAPTISTE-LOUIS – Volume III (1741–1770) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}}
• Louis Du Pont Duchambon de Vergor (acting, 1744–1745)
• Antoine Le Moyne de Châteauguay (1745)
• Peter Warren (1745–1746)
• Charles Knowles (1746–1747)
• Charles Watson (Royal Navy officer) (1748)
• Peregrine Thomas Hopson (1747–1749)
• Charles des Herbiers de La Ralière (1749–1751){{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/des_herbiers_de_la_raliere_charles_3E.html|title = Biography – DES HERBIERS DE LA RALIÈRE, CHARLES – Volume III (1741–1770) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}}
• Jean-Louis de Raymond (1751–1753){{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/raymond_jean_louis_de_4E.html|title=Biography – RAYMOND, JEAN-LOUIS DE, Comte de RAYMOND – Volume IV (1771–1800) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}}
• Charles Joseph D'Ailleboust{{Cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/ailleboust_charles_joseph_d_3E.html|title=Biography – AILLEBOUST, CHARLES-JOSEPH D' – Volume III (1741–1770) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography}} (acting, 1753–54)
• Augustin de Boschenry de Drucour (1754–1758)

File:Louisbourg04.jpg rebuilt one-fifth of the town, and its fortifications; the multi-year work commenced in 1963.]]

The site of the fortress was designated a National Historic Site in 1920.{{CRHP|4212|Fortress of Louisbourg|2 February 2013}} In 1961, the government of Canada decided to undertake a historical reconstruction of one-fifth of the town and fortifications with the aim being to recreate Louisbourg as it would have been at its height in 1744. The $26 million project required an interdisciplinary effort by archeologists, historians, engineers, and architects. Some craftsmen came from other countries but most of the reconstruction work was completed by locals, including unemployed coal miners from the industrial Cape Breton area. Over the years, they constructed some 60 buildings and two bastions.{{cite web |url=https://www.saltwire.com/cape-breton/lifestyles/creating-fortress-louisbourg-a-daunting-task-19222/|title=Creating Fortress Louisbourg a daunting task|date=February 11, 2019 |work=Saltwire |access-date=11 February 2023 |quote=}} Many of the workers learned 18th century French masonry techniques and other skills to create an accurate replica.

Dozens of researchers worked on the project over a span of five decades. They included British-born archeologists Bruce W. Fry and Charles Lindsay; and Canadian historians B. A. Balcom, Kenneth Donovan, Brenda Dunn, John Fortier, Margaret Fortier, Allan Greer, A.J.B. Johnston, Eric Krause, Anne Marie Lane Jonah, T.D. MacLean, Christopher Moore, Robert J. Morgan, Christian Pouyez, Gilles Proulx and many more. Among the architects, Yvon LeBlanc, one of the first Acadian architects, was responsible for most of the town-site buildings, with input from researchers who contributed to various committees. According to one source, accuracy was assured by a review of "750,000 pages of documents and 500 maps and plans have been copied from archives in France, England, Scotland, the United States and Canada".

File:Fortress Louisbourg DSC02430 - The Big Bang..... (8176570821).jpg

Today, the entire site of the fortress, including the one-fifth reconstruction, is the Fortress of Louisbourg National Historic Site of Canada, operated by Parks Canada. Offerings include guided and unguided tours, and the demonstration and explanation of period weapons, including muskets and a cannon, by enactors wearing period clothing. Children's programming includes puppet shows. The Museum / Caretakers Residence (built {{Circa|1935–36}}) within the site is a Classified Federal Heritage Building.{{CRHP|3158|Museum / Caretakers Residence}} The fortress also greatly aided the local economy of the town of Louisbourg, as it struggled to diversify economically with the decline of the North Atlantic fishery and the decline of coal mining.

On 5 May 1995, Canada Post issued the 'Fortress of Louisbourg' series to mark the 275th anniversary of the official founding of the fortress, the 250th anniversary of the siege by the New Englanders, the 100th anniversary of the commemoration by the Society of Colonial Wars, and the 100th anniversary of the arrival of the Sydney and Louisburg Railway (S & L). The Fortress of Louisbourg series includes: 'The Harbour and Dauphin Gate',[https://archive.today/20130101015325/http://data4.collectionscanada.gc.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s1=(military.A790,C790.)+Or+(null.B742.)&l=100&d=STMP&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/archivianet/02011702_e.html&r=70&f=G&Sect1=STMP Harbour and Dauphin Gate'] '18th Century Louisbourg';[https://archive.today/20130101211743/http://data4.collectionscanada.gc.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s1=(military.A790,C790.)+Or+(null.B742.)&l=100&d=STMP&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/archivianet/02011702_e.html&r=72&f=G&Sect1=STMP '18th Century Louisbourg' Canada Post stamp] 'The King's Bastion';[https://archive.today/20130101211743/http://data4.collectionscanada.gc.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s1=(military.A790,C790.)+Or+(null.B742.)&l=100&d=STMP&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/archivianet/02011702_e.html&r=72&f=G&Sect1=STMP 'The King's Bastion'] 'The King's Garden, Convent, Hospital, and British Barracks'[https://archive.today/20130101032104/http://data4.collectionscanada.gc.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s1=(military.A790,C790.)+Or+(null.B742.)&l=100&d=STMP&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/archivianet/02011702_e.html&r=73&f=G&Sect1=STMP King's Garden, Convent, Hospital, and British Barracks'] and 'The Fortifications and Ruins Fronting the Sea and Rochfort Point'.[https://archive.today/20130101172133/http://data4.collectionscanada.gc.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s1=(military.A790,C790.)+Or+(null.B742.)&l=100&d=STMP&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/archivianet/02011702_e.html&r=74&f=G&Sect1=STMP Fortifications and Ruins Fronting the Sea and Rochfort Point] The 43¢ stamps were designed by Rolf P. Harder.

The museum that operates from the Fortress is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada.

The Fortress of Louisbourg was the capital for the colony of Île-Royale, and was located on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island near its southeastern point. The location for the fortress was chosen because it was easy to defend against British ships attempting to either block or attack the St. Lawrence River, at the time the only way to get goods to Canada and its cities of Quebec and Montreal. South of the fort, a reef provided a natural barrier, while a large island provided a good location for a battery. These defences forced British ships to enter the harbour via a {{convert|500|ft|adj=on}} channel. The fort was built to protect and provide a base for France's lucrative North American fishery and to protect Quebec City from British invasions.Robert Emmet Wall. "Louisbourg ,1745" in The New England Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 1 (March 1964), page 64 – 65. For this reason, it has been given the nicknames ‘Gibraltar of the North’ or the ‘Dunkirk of America.’ The fort was also built to protect France's hold on one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, the Grand Banks. One hundred and sixteen men, ten women, and twenty-three children originally settled in Louisbourg.A.J.B Johnston. "From Port de peche to ville fortifiee: The Evolution of Urban Louisbourg 1713–1858" in Aspects of Louisbourg. The University College of Cape Breton Press, Sydney, Nova Scotia 1995, page 4

Image:Ïle Royale.jpg also pictured.]]

The population of Louisbourg quickly grew. In 1719, 823 people called this maritime city their home. Seven years later, in 1726, the population was 1,296, in 1734 it was 1,616, and by 1752, the population of Louisbourg was 4,174.B.A. Balcom. "The Cod Fishery of Isle Royale, 1713-58" in Aspects of Louisbourg. The University College of Cape Breton Press, Sydney, Nova Scotia 1995, page 171 Of course, population growth did not come without consequences. Smallpox ravaged the population in 1731 and 1732,Christopher Moore, Louisbourg Portraits, Toronto, Ontario: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, 2000 but Louisbourg continued to grow, especially economically.

File:Before Destruction (35073757404).jpg

Louisbourg was a large enough city to have a commercial district, a residential district, military arenas, marketplaces, inns, taverns and suburbs, as well as skilled labourers to fill all of these establishments.{{Cite journal |title=The Fortress of Louisbourg and its Cartographic Evidence |journal=Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=1972 |pages=3–40 |doi=10.2307/1493360 |jstor=1493360}}{{rp|3}} For the French, it was the second most important stronghold and commercial city in New France. Only Quebec was more important to France.R.H Whitbeck. "A Geographical Study of Nova Scotia" in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. 46, No. 6 (1914), page 413.

Unlike most other cities in New France, Louisbourg did not rely on agriculture or the seigneurial system.John Fortier, p. 4 Louisbourg itself was a popular port and was the third busiest port in North America (after Boston and Philadelphia.)Fortier, p. 3 It was also popular for its exporting of fish, and other products made from fish, such as cod liver oil. The North Atlantic fishing trade employed over ten thousand people, and Louisbourg was seen as the ‘nursery for seamen.’ Louisbourg was an important investment for the French government because it gave them a strong commercial and military foothold in the Grand Banks. For France, the fishing industry was more lucrative than the fur trade.A.J.B Johnston. "From Port de peche to ville fortifiee: The Evolution of Urban Louisbourg 1713–1858" in Aspects of Louisbourg. The University College of Cape Breton Press, Sydney, Nova Scotia 1995, page 4 In 1731, Louisbourg fishermen exported 167,000 quintals of cod and 1600 barrels of cod-liver oil. There were roughly 400 shallop-fishing vessels out each day vying for the majority of the days catch. Also, 60 to 70 ocean-going schooners would head out from Louisbourg to catch fish further down the coast.Christopher Moore, Louisbourg Portraits, Toronto, Ontario: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, 2000, page 109, 261-270. Louisbourg's commercial success was able to bring ships from Europe, The West Indies, Quebec, Acadia, and New England.

File:Fortress Louisbourg DSC02268 - Land Side of the King's Bastion and Walls (8176151324).jpg

Louisbourg was also known for its fortifications, which took the original French builders 28 years to complete. The first engineer behind the project was Jean-Francois du Vergery de Verville. Verville picked Louisbourg as his location because of its natural barriers. The engineering work was continued by Etienne Verrier and finally, by Louis Franquet; the latter was the "highest ranking engineering officer in North America".{{cite web |url=http://www.cmhg.gc.ca/cmh-pmc/page-159-eng.aspx |title=The King's Engineers And Military And Civil Construction |work=Canadian Military Gateway |access-date=10 February 2023 |quote=}}

The fort itself cost France 30 million French livres, which prompted King Louis XV to joke that he should be able to see the peaks of the buildings from his Palace in Versaille.Fortier, p. 11 The original budget for the fort was four million livres.B.A. Balcom. "The Cod Fishery of Isle Royale, 1713-58" in Aspects of Louisbourg. The University College of Cape Breton Press, Sydney, Nova Scotia 1995, page 171. Two and a half miles of wall surrounded the entire fort. On the western side of the fort, the walls were {{convert|30|ft}} high, and {{convert|36|ft}} across, protected by a wide ditch and ramparts.

The site had four gates that led into the city. The Dauphin Gate, which is currently reconstructed, was the busiest, leading to the extensive fishing compounds around the harbour and to the main road leading inland. The Frederick Gate, also reconstructed, was the waterfront entrance. The Maurepas Gate, facing the narrows, connected the fishing establishments, dwellings and cemeteries on Rocheford Point and was elaborately decorated as it was very visible to arriving ships. The Queen's Gate on the sparsely populated seaward side saw little use. Louisbourg was also home to six bastions, two of which have been reconstructed: the Dauphin bastion, commonly referred to as a 'demi-bastion' because of its modification; the King's bastion; the Queen's bastion; the Princess bastion; the Maurepas bastion; and the Brouillon bastion. On the eastern side of the fort, 15 guns pointed out to the harbour. The wall on this side was only {{convert|16|ft}} high and {{convert|6|ft}} across.

File:Fortress Louisbourg DSC02230 - Dauphin Gate (8176031095).jpg

Louisbourg was one of the "largest military garrisons in all of New France", and many battles were fought and lives lost here because of it.{{rp|3}} The fort had the embrasures to mount 148 guns; however, historians have estimated that only 100 embrasures had cannons mounted. Disconnected from the main fort, yet still a part of Louisbourg, a small island in the harbour entrance was also fortified. The walls on the Island Battery were {{convert|10|ft}} high, and {{convert|8|ft}} thick. Thirty-one 24-pound guns were mounted facing the harbour. The island itself was small, with room for only a few small ships to dock there.Christopher Moore, Louisbourg Portraits, Toronto, Ontario: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, 2000, page 66. An even larger fortified battery, the Royal Battery, was located across the harbour from the town and mounted 40 guns to protect the harbour entrance.

File:Louisburg Chapel 2021.jpg

During the 1700s, Louisbourg boasted the finest hospital in North America and the second-largest building in the fort town.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xkUfkFB3jxYC&q=%22Fortress+of+Louisbourg%22+hospital&pg=PA20 |title=Fortress America: The Forts That Defended America, 1600 to the Present - J. E. Kaufmann, H. W. Kaufmann - Google Books |date= 10 September 2007|isbn=9780306816345 |access-date=2016-10-29|last1=Kaufmann |first1=J. E. |last2=Kaufmann |first2=H. W. |publisher=Hachette Books }}From copy of JS McLennan's speech at the unveiling of the Kennington Cove held by the Cape Breton Regional Library, Louisbourg Collection, Drawer 2, File L, p.12. The hospital had a tall spire that would rival that of the King's bastion and was run by the Brothers of Saint-Jean-de-Dieu.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aghOw0Jytc0C&q=%22Fortress+of+Louisbourg%22+hospital&pg=PA115 |title=Louisbourg: The Novel - Guy Wendell Hogue - Google Books |date= June 2004|isbn=9781413717662 |access-date=2016-10-29|last1=Hogue |first1=Guy Wendell |publisher=PublishAmerica }} By 1744, the hospital was well equipped for surgery and other medical care by the staff of six Brothers who had access to 40 medicines. It contained 100 beds and buildings that housed a "bakery, kitchen, laundry, well and stables, plus housing for black slaves".{{cite journal |date=1 August 1966 |journal=Canadian Medical Association |pmc=1487996 |quote=|last1=Thomson |first1=G. |title=Healing all the king's men: Medical treatment at Fortress Louisbourg, 1744 |volume=155 |issue=3 |pages=323–325 |pmid=8705915 }}

Although most of the population was Roman Catholic during French control of the site, the Church was not powerful or wealthy. The Military Chapel was staffed by Recollets (missionaries) and everyone was welcome to attend the services. This structure is among those that have been fully restored.{{cite web |url=https://parks.canada.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/louisbourg/decouvrir-discover/visite-tour/18_roi-kings|title=The King's Bastion|date=11 March 2019 |work=Parks Canada |access-date=10 February 2023 |quote=}}

File:Forteresse de Louisbourg.jpg

The French soldiers and inhabitants were expelled back to France after the British capture in 1758. The fortifications and town at Louisbourg were systematically destroyed by British engineers beginning in 1760 to prevent the town and port from being used in the future by the French, should the peace process return Cape Breton island to France, or by anyone else. Demolition by British engineers took six years. The British kept a garrison at Louisbourg until 1768.{{cite book |last=Johnston |first=A.J.B. |title=Louisbourg: Past, Present, Future |publisher=Nimbus |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-771080-52-1 |location=Halifax, Nova Scotia}} Some of the cut-stones from Louisbourg were shipped to Halifax to be re-used and, in the 1780s, to Sydney, Nova Scotia. During the reconstruction of Fortress Louisbourg, more than one million artifacts were uncovered by archaeologists.

Louisbourg experiences a marine influenced humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb).

Looking at weather data from Louisbourg, NS, we can see the follow average high and low temperatures for the 2020/2021 winter:

• December 2020- (Avg High:5.7/Avg Low: −0.9)--->Daily Avg: 2.4
• January 2020- (Avg High:2.0/Avg Low: −4.2)--->Daily Avg: −1.1
• February 2020- (Avg High:1.1/Avg Low: −6.4)--->Daily Avg: −2.65{{Cite web|url=https://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_data/daily_data_e.html?StationID=54578&timeframe=2&StartYear=1840&EndYear=2021&Day=1&Year=2021&Month=3#|title=Daily Data Report for March 2021 - Climate - Environment and Climate Change Canada|date=31 October 2011}}

The above suggests that if climate data for 2021-2050 would match these averages or exceed them, areas like Louisbourg, NS could be considered to have an oceanic climate rather than a continental climate since it would meet the Köppen climate classification using the −3 isotherm. This would make sense given that most of the Atlantic Coast of Nova Scotia is predicted to transition to a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) for 2071-2100 climate normals.{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1038/sdata.2018.214|title = Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|year = 2018|last1 = Beck|first1 = Hylke E.|last2 = Zimmermann|first2 = Niklaus E.|last3 = McVicar|first3 = Tim R.|last4 = Vergopolan|first4 = Noemi|last5 = Berg|first5 = Alexis|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|last6 = Wood|first6 = Eric F.|journal = Scientific Data|volume = 5|page = 180214|pmid = 30375988|pmc = 6207062| bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}

{{Weather box

|location = Fortress of Louisbourg, 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1972–present

|metric first = yes

|single line = yes

|Jan record high C = 14.0

|Feb record high C = 13.0

|Mar record high C = 26.0

|Apr record high C = 19.0

|May record high C = 29.0

|Jun record high C = 31.7

|Jul record high C = 31.0

|Aug record high C = 32.0

|Sep record high C = 31.5

|Oct record high C = 25.0

|Nov record high C = 20.0

|Dec record high C = 13.5

|year record high C = 32.0

|Jan high C = −1.0

|Feb high C = −1.1

|Mar high C = 1.4

|Apr high C = 5.6

|May high C = 11.0

|Jun high C = 16.4

|Jul high C = 20.3

|Aug high C = 21.4

|Sep high C = 18.3

|Oct high C = 12.5

|Nov high C = 7.0

|Dec high C = 2.3

|year high C = 9.5

|Jan mean C = −4.9

|Feb mean C = −5.2

|Mar mean C = −2.2

|Apr mean C = 2.2

|May mean C = 6.9

|Jun mean C = 11.9

|Jul mean C = 16.2

|Aug mean C = 17.6

|Sep mean C = 14.3

|Oct mean C = 8.9

|Nov mean C = 3.8

|Dec mean C = −1.1

|year mean C = 5.7

|Jan low C = −8.9

|Feb low C = −9.3

|Mar low C = −5.9

|Apr low C = −1.3

|May low C = 2.7

|Jun low C = 7.4

|Jul low C = 12.2

|Aug low C = 13.8

|Sep low C = 10.3

|Oct low C = 5.2

|Nov low C = 0.6

|Dec low C = −4.5

|year low C = 1.9

|Jan record low C = −26.0

|Feb record low C = −25.0

|Mar record low C = −23.0

|Apr record low C = −13.5

|May record low C = −7.0

|Jun record low C = −1.5

|Jul record low C = 4.0

|Aug record low C = 3.5

|Sep record low C = −1.7

|Oct record low C = −4.5

|Nov record low C = −12.0

|Dec record low C = −20.6

|year record low C = −26.0

|precipitation colour = green

|Jan precipitation mm = 147.0

|Feb precipitation mm = 138.0

|Mar precipitation mm = 143.6

|Apr precipitation mm = 147.5

|May precipitation mm = 127.6

|Jun precipitation mm = 113.1

|Jul precipitation mm = 108.4

|Aug precipitation mm = 107.8

|Sep precipitation mm = 133.0

|Oct precipitation mm = 158.3

|Nov precipitation mm = 168.9

|Dec precipitation mm = 153.1

|year precipitation mm = 1646.3

|rain colour = green

|Jan rain mm = 83.4

|Feb rain mm = 77.9

|Mar rain mm = 100.1

|Apr rain mm = 127.9

|May rain mm = 126.9

|Jun rain mm = 113.1

|Jul rain mm = 108.4

|Aug rain mm = 107.8

|Sep rain mm = 133.0

|Oct rain mm = 158.3

|Nov rain mm = 160.7

|Dec rain mm = 106.3

|year rain mm = 1403.6

|Jan snow cm = 58.5

|Feb snow cm = 56.6

|Mar snow cm = 41.2

|Apr snow cm = 17.9

|May snow cm = 0.8

|Jun snow cm = 0.0

|Jul snow cm = 0.0

|Aug snow cm = 0.0

|Sep snow cm = 0.0

|Oct snow cm = 0.0

|Nov snow cm = 8.2

|Dec snow cm = 44.6

|year snow cm = 227.8

|unit precipitation days = 0.2 mm

|Jan precipitation days = 15.4

|Feb precipitation days = 13.3

|Mar precipitation days = 13.7

|Apr precipitation days = 15.3

|May precipitation days = 15.2

|Jun precipitation days = 14.0

|Jul precipitation days = 13.9

|Aug precipitation days = 14.3

|Sep precipitation days = 15.2

|Oct precipitation days = 16.8

|Nov precipitation days = 18.9

|Dec precipitation days = 17.8

|year precipitation days = 183.8

|unit rain days = 0.2 mm

|Jan rain days = 8.3

|Feb rain days = 7.2

|Mar rain days = 9.6

|Apr rain days = 13.6

|May rain days = 15.1

|Jun rain days = 14.0

|Jul rain days = 13.9

|Aug rain days = 14.3

|Sep rain days = 15.2

|Oct rain days = 16.8

|Nov rain days = 17.5

|Dec rain days = 11.9

|year rain days = 157.3

|unit snow days = 0.2 cm

|Jan snow days = 9.3

|Feb snow days = 8.0

|Mar snow days = 6.3

|Apr snow days = 3.1

|May snow days = 0.24

|Jun snow days = 0.0

|Jul snow days = 0.0

|Aug snow days = 0.0

|Sep snow days = 0.0

|Oct snow days = 0.0

|Nov snow days = 2.2

|Dec snow days = 8.0

|year snow days = 37.1

|Jan sun = 89.9

|Feb sun = 109.0

|Mar sun = 138.4

|Apr sun = 150.7

|May sun = 170.7

|Jun sun = 185.5

|Jul sun = 184.7

|Aug sun = 182.1

|Sep sun = 159.8

|Oct sun = 130.9

|Nov sun = 74.9

|Dec sun = 74.2

|year sun = 1650.7

|Jan percentsun = 31.9

|Feb percentsun = 37.3

|Mar percentsun = 37.5

|Apr percentsun = 37.2

|May percentsun = 36.9

|Jun percentsun = 39.5

|Jul percentsun = 38.8

|Aug percentsun = 41.6

|Sep percentsun = 42.4

|Oct percentsun = 38.6

|Nov percentsun = 26.2

|Dec percentsun = 27.4

|year percentsun = 36.3

|source 1 = Environment Canada{{cite web

| publisher = Environment Canada

| url = http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=6388&lang=e&province=NS&provSubmit=go&dCode=0

| title = Louisbourg, Nova Scotia

| work = Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010

|date = 31 October 2011| access-date = 11 May 2015}}{{cite web

| publisher = Environment Canada

| url = ftp://ftp.tor.ec.gc.ca/Pub/Normals/English/NS/NS_ANNA-YARM_ENG.csv

| title = Louisbourg, Nova Scotia

| work = Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201031083611/ftp://ftp.tor.ec.gc.ca/Pub/Normals/English/NS/NS_ANNA-YARM_ENG.csv

| archive-date = 2020-10-31

| url-status = dead

| access-date = 11 May 2015}}{{cite web

| publisher = Environment Canada

| url = http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_data/daily_data_e.html?hlyRange=%7C&dlyRange=1972-07-01%7C2013-11-30&mlyRange=1972-01-01%7C2006-02-01&StationID=6388&Prov=NS&urlExtension=_e.html&searchType=stnName&optLimit=yearRange&StartYear=1840&EndYear=2016&selRowPerPage=25&Line=0&searchMethod=contains&Month=3&Day=28&txtStationName=louisbourg&timeframe=2&Year=2012

| title = Daily Data Report for March 2012

| work = Canadian Climate Data

|date = 31 October 2011| access-date = 29 September 2016}}

|date=August 2010

}}

{{Portal|France|North America|History}}

• Karrer Regiment
• List of French forts in North America
• Louisbourg Garrison
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{{Reflist|30em}}

• [http://www.ourroots.ca/toc.aspx?id=12622&qryID=9358c1e4-a137-487f-8510-3252b7181288Dickason, Olive Patricia and Hoad, Linda M. Louisbourg et les Indiens : une étude des relations raciales de la France, 1713–1760]{{Dead link|date=November 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
• Drake, Samuel Adams (1891). The Taking of Louisburg 1745. Boston: Lee and Shepard Publishers. (reprinted by Kessinger Publishing {{ISBN|978-0-548-62234-6}})
• Fortier, John (1979). Fortress of Louisbourg. Toronto: Oxford University Press.
• Johnston, A.J.B (2008). Endgame 1758: The Promise, the Glory and the Despair of Louisbourg's Last Decade Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press and Sydney: Cape Breton University Press, 2007.
• Johnston, A.J.B. (2001). "Control and Order: The Evolution of French Colonial Louisbourg, 1713–1758" East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.
• Johnston, A.J.B. (1996). "Life and Religion at Louisbourg, 1713–1758" Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.
• {{cite book|title=Louisbourg: Past, Present, Future|last=Johnston|first=A.J.B.|publisher=Nimbus Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1-771080-52-1|location=Halifax}}
• Johnston, A.J.B. (1997). "Louisbourg: The Phoenix Fortress" Halifax: Nimbus Publishing.
• Johnston, A.J.B. (2002). "The Summer of 1744: A Portrait of Life in 18th-Century Louisbourg" Ottawa: Parks Canada.
• [https://archive.org/details/louisbourgfromit00mcleuoft McLennan, J.S (2000, originally 1918). Louisbourg: From its Foundation to its Fall, 1713–1758. Halifax: The Book Room Limited.]
• Parks Canada (undated). Fortress of Louisbourg National Historic Site brochure.
• Wood, William. The Great Fortress: A Chronicle of Louisbourg 1720–1760 ([https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6026 text version] from Project Gutenberg, [http://librivox.org/chronicles-of-canada-volume-8-the-great-fortress-a-chronicle-of-louisbourg-1720-1760/ audiobook] from LibriVox)

• {{official website|http://www.fortressoflouisbourg.ca/}}

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Category:History museums in Nova Scotia

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Louisbourg

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