Four temperaments

Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient theory of humourism. It may have originated in Mesopotamia,{{Cite book|last=Sudhoff|first=Karl|author-link=Karl Sudhoff|title=Essays in the History of Medicine|pages=67, 87, 104|year=1926|publisher=Medical Life Press, New York}} but it was Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) (and later Galen) who developed it into a medical theory. He believed that certain human moods, emotions, and behaviours were caused by an excess or lack of body fluids (called "humours"), which he classified as blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm, each of which was responsible for different patterns in personalities, as well as how susceptible one was to getting a disease. Galen (AD 129 – c. 200) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviours in humans. He classified them as hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the four elements.{{cite web|last=Boeree|first=C. George|title=Early Medicine and Physiology|url=http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/neurophysio.html|access-date=21 February 2013}} There could also be balance between the qualities, yielding a total of nine temperaments. The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin "temperare", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary characteristics were exquisitely balanced among warm-cool and dry-moist. In four less-ideal types, one of the four qualities was dominant over all the others. In the remaining four types, one pair of qualities dominated the complementary pair; for example, warm and moist dominated cool and dry. These last four were the temperamental categories which Galen named "sanguine", "choleric", "melancholic", and "phlegmatic" after the bodily humours. Each was the result of an excess of one of the humours which produced the imbalance in paired qualities.{{Cite book|first=Jerome|last=Kagan|year=1998|title=Galen's Prophecy: Temperament In Human Nature|publisher=New York: Basic Books|isbn=0-465-08405-2|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780465084050}}{{cite news|last=Osborn L. Ac.|first=David K.|title=Inherent Temperament|url=http://www.greekmedicine.net/b_p/Inherent_Temperament.html|access-date=21 February 2013}}{{Cite web |url=http://sun2.science.wayne.edu/~tpartrid/Manuscripts/HEETemperament1.25.02.doc |title=Temperament: Developmental and Ecological Dimensions |access-date=2010-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720112637/http://sun2.science.wayne.edu/~tpartrid/Manuscripts/HEETemperament1.25.02.doc |archive-date=2011-07-20 |url-status=dead }}

For example, if a person tends to be too happy or "sanguine", one can assume they have too much blood in proportion to the other humours, and can medically act accordingly. Likewise for being too calm and reserved or "phlegmatic" from too much phlegm; excessively sad or "melancholic" from too much black bile; and too angry or "choleric" from excess yellow bile.{{Cite web |title=Judy Duchan's History of Speech – Language Pathology |url=https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~duchan/new_history/ancient_history/humor_theory.html#:~:text=A%20melancholic%20temperament%20comes%20from,with%20an%20excess%20of%20phlegm. |access-date=2023-03-30 |website=www.acsu.buffalo.edu}}

The properties of these humours also corresponded to the four seasons. Thus blood, which was considered hot and wet, corresponded to spring. Yellow bile, considered hot and dry, corresponded to summer. Black bile, cold and dry, corresponded to autumn. And finally, phlegm, cold and wet, corresponded to winter.{{Citation|last=Jouanna|first=Jacques|title=The Legacy of the Hippocratic Treatise The Nature of Man: The Theory of the Four Humours|date=2012|work=Greek Medicine from Hippocrates to Galen|pages=335–359|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004232549_017 |isbn=9789004232549 |s2cid=171176381 |doi-access=free}}

These properties were considered the basis of health and disease. This meant that having a balance and good mixture of the humours defined good health, while an imbalance or separation of the humours led to disease. Because the humours corresponded to certain seasons, one way to avoid an imbalance or disease was to change health-related habits depending on the season. Some physicians did this by regulating a patient's diet, while some used remedies such as phlebotomy and purges to get rid of excess blood. Even Galen proposed a theory of the importance of proper digestion in forming healthy blood. The idea was that the two most important factors when digesting are the types of food and the person's body temperature. This meant that if too much heat were involved, then the blood would become "overcooked." This meant that it would contain too much of the yellow bile, and the patient would become feverish.{{Cite journal|last=Ayoub|first=Lois|date=1995|title=Old English Wæta and the Medical Theory of the Humours|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/27711180|journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology|volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=332–346|jstor=27711180 }} Lack of sufficient heat was believed to result in an excess of phlegm.

File:Charles Le Brun-Grande Commande-Les Quatre temperaments.jpg]]

Persian

• {{harvnb|Corbin|2016|loc=[https://press.princeton.edu/titles/2761.html Overview]}}. "In this work a distinguished scholar of Islamic religion examines the mysticism and psychological thought of the great eleventh-century Persian philosopher and physician Avicenna (Ibn Sina), author of over a hundred works on theology, logic, medicine, and mathematics."
• {{harvnb|Pasnau|Dyke|2010|p=52}}. "Most important of these initially was the massive Book of Healing (Al-Shifa) of the eleventh-century Persian Avicenna, the parts of which labeled in Latin as De anima and De generatione having been translated in the second half of the twelfth century."
• {{harvnb|Daly|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ&q=Ibn+Sina+Persian+polymath&pg=PA18 18]}}. "The Persian polymath Ibn Sina (981–1037) consolidated all of this learning, along with Ancient Greek and Indian knowledge, into his The Canon of Medicine (1025), a work still taught in European medical schools in the seventeenth century." polymath Avicenna (980–1037 AD) extended the theory of temperaments in his Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. He applied them to "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."{{Cite book|first=Peter L.|last=Lutz|year=2002|title=The Rise of Experimental Biology: An Illustrated History|page=60|publisher=Humana Press|isbn=0-89603-835-1}} Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) suggested that the humors acted as governing principles in bodily health, with astrological correspondences,Nicholas Culpeper (1653) [http://www.skyscript.co.uk/astrodiscourse.html An Astrologo-Physical Discourse of the Human Virtues in the Body of Man], transcribed and annotated by Deborah Houlding. Skyscript, 2009 (retrieved 16 November 2011). Originally published in Culpeper's Complete Herbal (English Physician). London: Peter Cole, 1652. and explained their influence upon physiognomy and personality.Nicholas Culpeper, Semeiotica Urania, or Astrological Judgement of Diseases. London: 1655. Reprint, Nottingham: Ascella, 1994. He proposed that some people had a single temperament, while others had an admixture of two, a primary and secondary temperament.{{cite book|last=Greenbaum|first=Dorian Gieseler|title=Temperament: Astrology's Forgotten Key|year=2005|publisher=Wessex Astrologer|isbn=1-902405-17-X|pages=42, 91}}

Modern medical science has rejected the theories of the four temperaments, though their use persists as a metaphor within certain psychological fields.{{cite journal|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.836|title=Metaphorical equivalence of elements and temperaments: Empirical studies of Bachelard's theory of imagination|year=1988|last1=Martindale|first1=Anne E.|author2-link=Colin Martindale|last2=Martindale|first2=Colin|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=55|issue=5|pages=836}} Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Erich Adickes (1866–1925), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), Eduard Spranger (1914), Ernst Kretschmer (1920), and Erich Fromm (1947) all theorised on the four temperaments (with different names) and greatly shaped modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyse personality differences using a psycho-statistical method called factor analysis, and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based. The factors that he proposed in his book Dimensions of Personality were neuroticism (N), the tendency to experience negative emotions, and extraversion (E), the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social ones. By pairing the two dimensions, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

In the field of physiology, Ivan Pavlov studied on the types and properties of the nervous system, where three main properties were identified: strength, mobility of nervous processes and balance between excitation and inhibition, and derived four types based on these three properties.Rokhin, L, Pavlov, I and Popov, Y. (1963), Psychopathology and Psychiatry, Foreign Languages Publication House: Moscow. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.185366/mode/2up]

Other researchers developed similar systems, many of which did not use the ancient temperament names, and several paired extraversion with a different factor which would determine relationship and task-orientation. Examples are DISC assessment and social styles. One of the most popular today is the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, attributed to the work of David Keirsey, whose four temperaments were based largely on the Greek gods Apollo, Dionysus, Epimetheus, and Prometheus, and were mapped to the 16 types of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). They were renamed as Artisan (SP), Guardian (SJ), Idealist (NF), and Rational (NT).{{Cite book |last=Becerra |first=Jose |url=https://bookdown.org/becerra_je/7-Rays/keirseys-personality-types.html |title=Chapter 3 Keirsey's personality types {{!}} The Bailey Seven Ray Types}} C.G. Jung's Psychological Types surveys the historical literature of the 'four humors' and related discussions extensively and in depth and proposes a psychoanalytic integration of the material.

Waldorf education and anthroposophy believe that the temperaments help to understand personality. They also believe that they are useful for education, helping teachers understand how children learn. Christian writer Tim LaHaye has attempted to repopularize the ancient temperaments through his books.{{cite book

| title=The Spirit Controlled Temperament

| last=LaHaye |first=Tim |author-link=Tim LaHaye

| publisher=Tyndale Publishing |year=1966

}}{{cite book |title=Your Temperament: Discover Its Potential |publisher=Tyndale Publishing |year=1984 |isbn=0-8423-6220-7 |last=LaHaye |first=Tim |author-link=Tim LaHaye |url=https://archive.org/details/spiritcontrolled00laha_1 }}{{cite book | title=Why You Act the Way You Do | publisher=Tyndale Publishing | isbn=0-8423-8212-7 | last=LaHaye | first=Tim | author-link=Tim LaHaye | url=https://archive.org/details/whyyouactwayyoud00laha | year=1988 }}

James David Barber developed The Presidential Character, wherein active relates to hot, passive relates to cold, positive relates to moist, and negative relates to dry. If one were to make a Punnett square of these characters, one can find an Active–Positive, Passive–Positive, Active–Negative, or Passive–Negative individual. This diagram was made after an influential study of the U.S. presidency, hence the name.{{Cite journal |last1=Doody |first1=John A. |last2=Immerwahr |first2=John |title=The Persistence of the Four Temperaments |date=1983 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41178265 |journal=Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=348–359 |jstor=41178265 |issn=0038-1861}}

Robert R. Blake created The Managerial Grid, wherein high concern for production relates to hot, low concern for production relates to cold, high concern for people relates to moist, and low concern for people relates to dry. If one were to make the same Punnett square of these characters, one can find a Team Management, a Country Club Management, a Task Management, or an Ineffective Management individual.

The National Christian Counselors Association of Richard and Phyllis Arno, licensed the FIRO-B istrument in the 1980's, and derived from it a theory of five temperaments, where the classical phlegmatic temperament is deemed to be a neutral temperament, whereas the "relationship-oriented introvert" position traditionally held by the phlegmatic is declared to be a new "fifth temperament" called "Supine" (meaning "lying on the back"). This instrument is used by many Christian ministries{{Cite web |date=2005 |title=History and Development of the Arno Profile System |url=https://www.apsreport.com/History.html |access-date=15 November 2024 |website=Arno Profile System}}

The 18th-century classical composer Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach composed a trio sonata in C minor known as Sanguineus et Melancholicus (Wq 161/1). In the 20th century, Carl Nielsen's Symphony No. 2 (Op.16) is subtitled "The Four Temperaments", each of the four movements being inspired by a sketch of a particular temperament.{{cite book |title=Symphony No. 2 |editor1-last=Foltmann |editor1-first=Niels Bo |year=1998 |work=Carl Nielsen Works |series=II. Instrumental Music |volume=2 |publisher=The Carl Nielsen Edition, Royal Danish Library |ismn = 979-0-66134-000-3 |isbn=978-87-598-0913-6 |url=http://www.kb.dk/export/sites/kb_dk/da/nb/dcm/cnu/pdf/CNU_II_02_symphony_2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016161615/http://www.kb.dk/export/sites/kb_dk/da/nb/dcm/cnu/pdf/CNU_II_02_symphony_2.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2014 |url-status=dead|ref={{harvid|Carl Nielsen Edition: Symphony No. 2}}}} Paul Hindemith's Theme and Four Variations for string orchestra and piano is also known as The Four Temperaments: although originally conceived as a ballet for Léonide Massine,{{cite web |last1=Corleonis |first1=Adrian |title=Paul Hindemith, Theme and Variations, 'Die vier Temperamente' (The Four Temperaments) |date=19 November 2007 |url=https://americansymphony.org/concert-notes/theme-and-variations-die-vier-temperamente-the-four-temperaments-1940/ |publisher=American Symphony Orchestra |access-date=1 February 2021}}{{Cite book|last=Hindemith|first=Paul|url=https://petruccimusiclibrary.ca/files/imglnks/caimg/c/c2/IMSLP339925-PMLP548282-hindemithTheFourTempermentsscore.pdf|title=Theme and Four Variations (The Four Temperaments)|publisher=Associated Music Publishers|year=1948|isbn=|location=New York |pages=}} the score was ultimately completed as a commission for George Balanchine, who subsequently choreographed it as a neoclassical ballet, using the theory of the temperaments as a point of departure.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iy8SRnmE9ZEC|title=The Cambridge Companion to Ballet|last=Kant|first=Marion|date= 2007|isbn=9781139827195|pages=231–232|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5hsMD9IsWEC|title=Balanchine's Complete Stories of the Great Ballets|last1=Balanchine|first1=George|last2=Mason|first2=Francis|date=1977|publisher=Doubleday |isbn=9780385113816|page=253 }}

The 19th-century French author Émile Zola used the four temperaments as a basis for his novel Thérèse Raquin.Zola, Preface to Thérèse Raquin.

{{Portal|Psychology}}

• {{annotated link|Big Five personality traits}}
• {{annotated link|Blood type personality theory}}
• {{annotated link|Enneagram of Personality}}
• {{annotated link|Four sons of Horus}}
• {{annotated link|Fundamental interpersonal relations orientation}}
• {{annotated link|Two-factor models of personality}}
• Table of similar systems of comparison of temperaments
• Humorism – The theory of the four humours
• Intermittent explosive disorder - DSM-5 diagnosis of a person with severe choleric traits

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book |last1=Corbin |first1=Henry |title=Avicenna and the visionary recital |date=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=9780691630540}}
• {{cite book |last1=Daly |first1=Jonathan |title=The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization |date= 2013 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ |language=en}}
• {{cite book |last1=Pasnau |first1=Robert |last2=Dyke |first2=Christina Van |title=Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy, Volume 1 |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

• Arikha, Noga (2007). Passions and Tempers: A History of the Humours. Harpers. {{ISBN|978-0060731175}}
• Edelman, Kathleen (2019). [https://www.isaidyouheard.study/ I Said This, You Heard That: How Your Wiring Colors Your Communication.] North Point Resources. {{ISBN|978-1943535415}}

• In Our Time (BBC Radio 4) [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20071220.shtml episode on the four humours] in MP3 format, 45 minutes
• [https://www.isaidyouheard.study/ I Said This, You Heard That (A Group Study in the Four Temperaments)] interactive workbook format that includes a temperament assessment; accompanying teaching videos available through the free app.
• [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/shakespeare/fourhumors.html Shakespeare and the Four Humors]

Category:Personality typologies