Geothermal energy in Turkey

Geothermal hot water has been used in spas since at least the 2nd century BC at Heiropolis,{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Hierapolis-Pamukkale |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/485/ |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=8 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608122143/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/485 |url-status=live }} for example Roman baths.{{Cite web |last=Cheviron |first=Nicolas |title=Ancient Roman spa awaits flooding in Turkey |url=https://phys.org/news/2010-10-ancient-roman-spa-awaits-turkey.html |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=phys.org |language=en}} Thousands of such hot springs and hundreds of spas have been used for tourism and health (such as balneotherapy for rheumatic diseases{{Cite journal |last1=Adıgüzel |first1=Tuba |last2=Arslan |first2=Beyza |last3=Gürdal |first3=Hatice |last4=Karagülle |first4=M Zeki |date=1 June 2022 |title=Evaluation of the therapeutic and the chemical effects of balneological treatment on clinical and laboratory parameters in knee osteoarthritis: a randomized, controlled, single-blinded trial |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-022-02274-6 |journal=International Journal of Biometeorology |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=1257–1265 |doi=10.1007/s00484-022-02274-6 |issn=1432-1254 |pmid=35347399 |bibcode=2022IJBm...66.1257A |s2cid=247767264 |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826070755/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00484-022-02274-6 |url-status=live }}) since ancient times, including by the Romans.{{cite news |last=Boekstein |first=Mark |date=2014 |title=From illness to wellness-has thermal spring health tourism reached a new turning point? |url=https://repository.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/handle/10566/2131 |journal=African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure |language=en |publisher=University of the Western Cape |issn=2223-814X |access-date=26 August 2022 |archive-date=19 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219005444/http://repository.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/handle/10566/2131 |url-status=live }} In 2007 the government published a master plan for thermal tourism.{{Cite news |last=Simpson |first=David |date=5 April 2007 |title=Turkey bids to be world's hotspot for thermal tourism |website=Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International |url=https://www.cabi.org/leisuretourism/news/16651 |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729170850/https://www.cabi.org/leisuretourism/news/16651 |url-status=live }}

In 1965, the government's Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration began the first geological and geophysical surveys in southwestern Turkey. The Kızıldere geothermal reservoir, on the western branch of the Büyük Menderes Graben, was found in 1968 to be suitable for electricity generation. A small 500 kW pilot power plant was built in 1974,{{Cite journal |last1=Serpen |first1=Umran |last2=DiPippo |first2=Ronald |date=1 May 2022 |title=Turkey – A geothermal success story: A retrospective and prospective assessment |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0375650522000232 |journal=Geothermics |language=en |volume=101 |pages=102370 |doi=10.1016/j.geothermics.2022.102370 |s2cid=246716590 |issn=0375-6505 |access-date=23 March 2022 |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323152240/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0375650522000232 |url-status=live }} and free electricity distributed to nearby households. The state-owned Electricity Generation Company enlarged the plant in 1984, to average around 10 MW. In 2008, the plant was privatized to Zorlu Energy with a 30 year operating lease, and they continued increasing the power, so that as of 2022 the Kızıldere Geothermal Power Plant remains Turkey's largest.{{cite conference |url=http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/ISS/2009Slovakia/I.2.Tevfik.pdf |book-title=International Geothermal Days |title=Kızıldere-New Geothermal Power Plant in Turkey |author1=Kaya, Tevfik |author2=Ali Kindap |location=Slovakia |year=2009 |access-date=7 January 2014 |archive-date=7 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107004220/http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/ISS/2009Slovakia/I.2.Tevfik.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/zorlus-geothermal-power-plant-opened.aspx?pageID=238&nID=55378&NewsCatID=345 |newspaper=Hürriyet Daily News |title=Zorlu's geothermal power plant opened |date=30 September 2013 |access-date=7 January 2014 |archive-date=6 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106230440/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/zorlus-geothermal-power-plant-opened.aspx?pageID=238&nID=55378&NewsCatID=345 |url-status=live }} In the early 21st century more power plants were built, mostly in Aydın.{{cite news |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=geothermal-power-plant-starts-generation-2010-04-05 |title=Geothermal power plant starts generation |newspaper=Hurriyet Daily News |agency=Anadolu Agency |date=5 April 2010 |access-date=8 April 2010 |archive-date=18 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318202948/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/ |url-status=live }}

In 2007, Turkey passed the Law on Geothermal Resources and Natural Mineral Waters, which accelerated geothermal exploration by making investment easier for the private sector. For example, the law reduced the number of licenses required to two.{{Cite web |last=Servin |first=Füsun |year=2021 |title=How Turkey became a role model for geothermal energy within a decade |url=https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/sites/default/files/medias/files/2022/02/B-S-Basin_Box-12-1.pdf |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=4 June 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826070746/https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/sites/default/files/medias/files/2022/02/B-S-Basin_Box-12-1.pdf |url-status=live }}

For plants started between 2010 and 2021 the Renewable Energy Support Scheme feed-in tariff was 10.5 US cent/kWh, guaranteed for ten years. In 2021 the feed-in tariff was changed to lira and reduced.{{Cite web |last=Richter |first=Alexander |date=31 January 2021 |title=Turkey introduces updated geothermal energy feed-in-tariff rates |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/turkey-introduces-updated-geothermal-energy-feed-in-tariff-rates/ |access-date=13 July 2022 |website=ThinkGeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=25 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725000304/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/turkey-introduces-updated-geothermal-energy-feed-in-tariff-rates/ |url-status=live }}

In 2010 the installed geothermal electricity generation capacity was 100 MW while direct use installations were almost 800 MWt.{{cite conference |last1=Serpen |first1=Umran |last2=Aksoy |first2=Niyazi |last3=Öngür |first3=Tahir |date= 1–2 February 2010 |title=2010 Present Status of Geothermal Energy in Turkey |url=http://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/SGW/2010/serpen.pdf |conference=Thirty-Fifth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering |location=Stanford, California |publisher=Stanford University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110331233143/http://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/SGW/2010/serpen.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2011 |access-date=7 July 2010 |book-title=Proceedings of the Thirty-Fifth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering |url-status=live}} By 2017 electricity generation capacity had been expanded over tenfold, to over 1 GW; and from 2009 to 2019 the number of geothermal power plants increased from 3 to 49.{{Cite web |last=Cariaga |first=Carlo |date=22 March 2022 |title=Development of geothermal in Turkey – UNESCO Science Report, Fusun Servin Tut Haklidir |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/development-of-geothermal-in-turkey-unesco-science-report-fusun-servin-tut-haklidir/ |access-date=23 March 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327041404/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/development-of-geothermal-in-turkey-unesco-science-report-fusun-servin-tut-haklidir/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite report |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377467/PDF/377467eng.pdf.multi |title=Countries in the Black Sea Basin. In UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development. |last1=Eröcal |first1=D |last2=Yegorov |first2=I |year=2021 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |access-date=1 July 2022 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701080435/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377467/PDF/377467eng.pdf.multi |url-status=live }}

Down to a few kilometers under the surface (drilling has been done to almost 5 km{{Rp|page=4}}) most rock is cooler than the boiling point of water, but there are a few high-temperature resources in the Menderes Massif, up to almost 300 °C.{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Geothermal Energy Use: Projections and Country Update for Turkey |url=https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01049.pdf |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706092037/https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01049.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Rp|page=2}} Due to extensional tectonism the highest temperatures are in the west.{{Rp|page=2}} There are 16 fields hotter than 130 °C, one in the Marmara Region and the rest in the Aegean Region.{{Rp|page=5}} The high geothermal potential is due to the geology of Turkey, such as the radiogenic granites of western Anatolia{{Cite journal |last1=Chandrasekharam |first1=Dornadula |last2=Baba |first2=Alper |date=7 April 2022 |title=Carbon dioxide emissions mitigation strategy through enhanced geothermal systems: western Anatolia, Turkey |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10345-5 |journal=Environmental Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=81 |issue=8 |pages=235 |doi=10.1007/s12665-022-10345-5 |issn=1866-6299 |pmc=8986971 |pmid=35411211 |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826070756/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12665-022-10345-5 |url-status=live }} and the Western Anatolian Graben systems (Büyük Menderes and Gediz Grabens{{Rp|page=5}}). The heat generated by the radioactivity of these granites, which cover over 4000 sq. km, ranges from around 5 to 16 μW/m³.

However the carbon content of non-condensable gases in the geothermal fluids are high at many plants,{{cite web |last1=Oliver |first1=Padraig |last2=Stadelmann |first2=Martin |date=2 March 2015 |title=Public Finance and Private Exploration in Geothermal: Gümüşköy Case Study, Turkey |url=http://climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/public-finance-and-private-exploration-in-geothermal-gumuskoy-case-study-turkey/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324141024/http://climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/public-finance-and-private-exploration-in-geothermal-gumuskoy-case-study-turkey/ |archive-date=24 March 2015 |access-date=9 March 2015 |website=Climate Policy Initiative}} therefore care must be taken to avoid excessive carbon emissions.

The geology of the metamorphic rocks of the Buyuk Menderes and Gediz grabens is unusual: especially in acid conditions the calcite in the rocks can release a lot of CO₂ into the surrounding very hot water.{{Cite journal |last1=Akın |first1=Serhat |last2=Frıdrıksson |first2=Thrainn |date=10 February 2020 |title=Characterizing the declining CO2 emissions from Turkish geothermal power plants |url=https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/87658 |journal=45th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering Stanford University, February 10–12, 2020 |language= |publisher=Middle East Technical University |access-date=16 June 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924034218/https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/87658 |url-status=live }} The {{CO2}} emissions from new geothermal plants in Turkey are some of the highest in the world, ranging from 900 to 1300 g/kWh{{Cite book |last1=Fusun |first1=S. |last2=Baytar |first2=Kaan |last3=Kekevi |first3=Mert |title=Climate Change and Energy Dynamics in the Middle East: Modeling and Simulation-Based Solutions|chapter=Global CO2 Capture and Storage Methods and a New Approach to Reduce the Emissions of Geothermal Power Plants with High CO2 Emissions: A Case Study from Turkey |publisher=Springer International Publishing |year=2019 |isbn=9783030112028 |editor-last=Qudrat-Ullah |editor-first=Hassan |series=Understanding Complex Systems |pages=323–357 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-11202-8_12 |editor2-last=Kayal |editor2-first=Aymen A. |s2cid=133813028}} (similar to coal power) but gradually decline.{{cite web |date=28 February 2019 |title=Characterizing the declining CO2 emissions from Turkish geothermal power plants |url=http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/925341551688872726/World-Bank-Turkey-ToR-consultant-CO2-emissions.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326184727/http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/925341551688872726/World-Bank-Turkey-ToR-consultant-CO2-emissions.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |access-date=26 March 2019 |publisher=World Bank}}{{Cite report|date=December 2020|title=Cumulative Impact Assessment of Geothermal Resources in Turkey Best Practices Guide|url=http://www.jeotermaletki.com/en/announcement/2019/final-best-practice-guide-has-been-published|url-status=live|access-date=22 May 2021|publisher=Stantec Mühendislik ve Müşavirlik Ltd. Şti|archive-date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522180936/http://www.jeotermaletki.com/en/announcement/2019/final-best-practice-guide-has-been-published}}{{Cite web |last1=Orucu |first1=Yasemin |last2=Hallgrimsdottir |first2=Elin |last3=Merino |first3=Almudena Mateos |last4=Akin |first4=Serhat |last5=Idrissi |first5=Oumaima |year=2021 |title=Understanding CO₂ Emissions from Geothermal Power Generation in Turkey |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/36083/Understanding-CO2-Emissions-from-Geothermal-Power-Generation-in-Turkey.pdf?sequence=1 |website=World Bank group |access-date=5 May 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615204058/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/36083/Understanding-CO2-Emissions-from-Geothermal-Power-Generation-in-Turkey.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }} According to a 2020 report, these short-term high {{CO2}} emissions can be dealt with.{{Cite report|title=Cumulative Impact Assessment of Geothermal Resources in Turkey|url=http://www.jeotermaletki.com/Upload/files/MoEU-EBRD%20Geothermal%20CIA%20December%202020-Final.pdf|url-status=live|publisher=Stantec Mühendislik ve Müşavirlik Ltd. Şti|date=December 2020|access-date=22 May 2021|archive-date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522185443/http://www.jeotermaletki.com/Upload/files/MoEU-EBRD%20Geothermal%20CIA%20December%202020-Final.pdf}}{{refn|A European study showing no net increase in CO₂ did not include Turkey.{{Cite book |last1=European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation. |url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/755565 |title=Study on 'Geothermal plants' and applications' emissions: overview and analysis : final report. |last2=Ernst & Young. |last3=RINA Consulting S.p.A. |last4=Vito. |date=2020 |publisher=Publications Office |location=LU |doi=10.2777/755565 |isbn=9789276041122 |access-date=14 June 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826070805/https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/b100f4de-932e-11ea-aac4-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |url-status=live }}|group=note}} Measures might include reinjection into the reservoir, or removal methods such as CarbFix.{{Cite journal |journal=Proceedings of the 15th Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies Conference|last1=Durucan|first1=Sevket|last2=Korre|first2=Anna|last3=Parlaktuna|first3=Mahmut|last4=Senturk|first4=Erdinc|last5=Wolf|first5=Karl-Heinz|last6=Chalari|first6=Athena|last7=Stork|first7=Anna|last8=Nikolov|first8=Stoyan|last9=de Kunder|first9=Richard|last10=Sigfusson|first10=Bergur|last11=Hjörleifsdóttir|first11=Vala|date=5 April 2021|title=SUCCEED: A CO2 storage and utilisation project aimed at mitigating against greenhouse gas emissions from geothermal power production|url= https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3819789|location=Rochester, NY|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3819789 |hdl=10044/1/89139 |ssrn=3819789|s2cid=235375579 | access-date=5 June 2021|archive-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318202930/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3819789|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}} Because emissions decline over time the World Bank has estimated that lifetime emissions will be similar to the world geothermal average.{{Cite journal |last1=Oumaima |first1=Idrissi |last2=Yasemin |first2=Orucu |last3=Elin |first3=Hallgrimsdottir |last4=Almudena |first4=Mateos Merino |last5=Serhat |first5=Akin |last6=Oumaima |first6=Idrissi |date=July 2021 |title=Understanding CO2 Emissions from Geothermal Power Generation in Turkey |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36083 |url-status=live |journal=Open Knowledge Repository |language=English |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123142152/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36083 |archive-date=23 January 2022 |access-date=23 January 2022}} The problem is not expected outside these two grabens.{{Rp|page=24}}

File:Keramet Kaplıcası.jpg{{Cite web |title=Keramet Thermal Spring |url=https://www.bursa.com.tr/en/mekan/keramet-thermal-spring-410 |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=Bursa Turizm Portalı |language=en |archive-date=15 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715053742/https://www.bursa.com.tr/en/mekan/keramet-thermal-spring-410 |url-status=live }}|alt=Bathers in a large outdoor pool]]

Although in most places the rocks are not hot enough to make steam to generate electricity, almost every region has heating possibilities, with theoretical total potential of 60 gigawatt thermal (GWth – meaning gigawatts of thermal power which means how fast heat is produced{{Cite web |title=Thermal power – Energy Education |url=https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Thermal_power |access-date=13 July 2022 |website=energyeducation.ca |language=en |archive-date=13 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713151331/https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Thermal_power |url-status=live }}).{{Rp|page=1}} As low as 40 to 45 °C is used.{{Rp|page=5}} Turkey is second only to China in direct use,{{Cite web |title=Renewables Global Status Report |url=https://www.ren21.net/reports/global-status-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524023106/http://www.ren21.net/status-of-renewables/global-status-report/ |archive-date=24 May 2019 |access-date=30 September 2020 |website=REN21}} with almost 4 GWth, including 1120 MWt district heating, 855 MWt greenhouse heating and many spas and hotels.{{Cite web |title=Türki̇ye'de Jeotermal ...mevcut durum |trans-title=Turkish Geothermal ---- current status |url=http://www.jeotermaldernegi.org.tr/sayfalar-Turkiye-de-Jeotermal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123134602/http://www.jeotermaldernegi.org.tr/sayfalar-Turkiye-de-Jeotermal |archive-date=23 January 2022 |access-date=23 January 2022 |website=Turkish Geothermal Association |language=TR}} It is hoped that spas will extend the season for tourism in Turkey.{{Cite web |last=Cariaga |first=Carlo |date=23 June 2022 |title=EIB holds Renewable Energy and Sustainability Summit in Izmir, Turkiye |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/eib-holds-renewable-energy-and-sustainability-summit-in-izmir-turkiye/ |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626075854/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/eib-holds-renewable-energy-and-sustainability-summit-in-izmir-turkiye/ |url-status=live }}

Direct-use heating is mostly district heating serving over 125,000 households. There is also 4.5 million m2 of heated greenhouses; and 520 spas, bathing and swimming pools (1400 MWth).{{Rp|page=5}} Further heat is sometimes pumped out of the waste water, for example to heat houses.{{Rp|page=5}} With these heated greenhouses crops can be grown even in the coldest areas;{{Cite web |last=Sari |first=Zelal Sahidenur |date=19 May 2022 |title=Geothermal Greenhouses in Çaldıran are promising in greenhouse agriculture |url=https://www.serhatnews.com/en/geothermal-greenhouses-in-caldiran-are-promising-in-greenhouse-agriculture.html |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=Serhat NEWS |language=en-GB |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519140125/https://www.serhatnews.com/en/geothermal-greenhouses-in-caldiran-are-promising-in-greenhouse-agriculture.html |url-status=live }} tomatoes are exported{{Cite web |last=Cariaga |first=Carlo |date=18 April 2022 |title=Geothermal greenhouse in Sandikli, Turkey exports produce to Europe |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/geothermal-greenhouse-in-sandikli-turkey-exports-produce-to-europe/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418160300/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/geothermal-greenhouse-in-sandikli-turkey-exports-produce-to-europe/ |url-status=live }} and fruit dried.{{Cite web |last=Cariaga |first=Carlo |date=30 March 2022 |title=Geothermal Drying Facility starts production in Balikesir |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/geothermal-drying-facility-starts-production-in-balikesir/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418171808/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/geothermal-drying-facility-starts-production-in-balikesir/ |url-status=live }}

Nevertheless in 2021 the International Energy Agency said that there was still untapped potential to heat buildings,{{Cite web|title=Turkey 2021 – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/turkey-2021|access-date=25 January 2022|website=IEA|language=en-GB|archive-date=7 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307012019/https://www.iea.org/reports/turkey-2021|url-status=live}} and in 2022 Ufuk Senturk, president of the Geothermal Power Plant Investors Association, said that the number of homes heated could be increased from 160 thousand to a million. According to the Greenhouse Investors and Manufacturers Association there are 5,400 decares of geothermally heated greenhouses (first in the world) as of 2022 with payback in 4 to 7 years, but this could be increased to 30 thousand decares.{{Cite web |last=Cariaga |first=Carlo |date=6 May 2022 |title=Geothermal greenhouses offer alternative solution to food crisis, Turkey |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/geothermal-greenhouses-offer-alternative-solution-to-food-crisis-turkey/ |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626075849/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/geothermal-greenhouses-offer-alternative-solution-to-food-crisis-turkey/ |url-status=live }} District heating is sometimes combined with electricity generation, and can save money compared to gas heating.{{Cite web |last=Cariaga |first=Carlo |date=18 April 2022 |title=Mayor of Buharkent, Turkey aims for district heating with geothermal |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/mayor-of-buharkent-turkey-aims-for-district-heating-with-geothermal/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418115059/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/mayor-of-buharkent-turkey-aims-for-district-heating-with-geothermal/ |url-status=live }}

{{Maplink |from=PowerPlant/Turkey/geothermal-operational.map |frame=yes |text=Geothermal power plants in Turkey (commons:Data:PowerPlant/Turkey/geothermal-operational.map)|zoom=7 |frame-latitude=37.8592 |frame-longitude=28.0716 }}

File:Electricity Turkey.svg

As of 2022 there were 63 plants on 27 geothermal fields.{{Rp|page=4}} Turkey is fourth in the world for geothermal power; with about half that of the United States, and slightly less than Indonesia and the Philippines. The regulator is the Energy Market Regulatory Authority.

Almost all geothermal power plants are south or east of Izmir, Turkey's third largest city.{{Cite web |title=Türkiye-Jeotermal Elektrik Santralleri Haritası |trans-title=Map of geothermal power plants in Turkey |url=http://jesder.org/ |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=Geothermal Power Plant Investors Association |language=tr |archive-date=18 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318203423/https://jesder.org/ |url-status=live }} Kızıldere is the most powerful, followed by Efeler.{{Cite web |title=Efeler Jeotermal Enerji Santrali |url=https://www.enerjiatlasi.com/jeotermal/efeler-jeotermal-enerji-santrali.html |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=Enerji Atlası |language=tr-TR |archive-date=16 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616044339/https://www.enerjiatlasi.com/jeotermal/efeler-jeotermal-enerji-santrali.html |url-status=live }} Electricity generation potential from hydrothermal (conventional geothermal rather than enhanced) was estimated at 4 GW in 2020, over double the actual capacity.

Two-thirds of the installed capacity uses binary technology (hot water from the ground evaporates a fluid with a lower boiling point which drives the turbines) while the rest use the flash cycle (some of the high pressure and very hot water from the ground "flashes" to steam which drives the turbines directly).{{cite conference |author=Orhan Mertoglu, Sakir Simsek, Nilgun Basarir, Halime Paksoy |date=11–14 June 2019 |title=Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for Turkey |url=http://europeangeothermalcongress.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/CUR-30-Turkey.pdf |conference= |publisher=European Geothermal Congress 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203035234/http://europeangeothermalcongress.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/CUR-30-Turkey.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2020 |access-date=20 September 2020 |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |last=Mertoğlu |first=Orhan |date=September 2020 |title=Geothermal Developments and Projections in Turkey |url=http://jeotermaldernegi.org.tr/sunum/cinsunum.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230121019/http://jeotermaldernegi.org.tr/sunum/cinsunum.pdf |archive-date=30 December 2021 |access-date=5 July 2021 |website=Turkish Geothermal Association}} Suppliers of binary-cycle technology; such as Atlas Copco, Exergy and Ormat; are prominent in the market. At high enthalpy and high temperature combined flash-binary plants are more efficient. Sometimes wells owned by competing companies interfere with each other.

There are both existing and planned plants in areas with vulnerabilities,{{Rp|page=|pages=100,103}} such as the valuable soils in Buharkent.{{Cite web |last=Kara |first=Nida |date=11 December 2020 |title=JES, hava ve su kirliliği, maden kıskacında can çekişen bir tarım kenti: Aydın |trans-title=Geothermal power plants, air and water pollution, an agricultural city dying in the grip of mines: Aydın |url=https://yesilgazete.org/jes-hava-ve-su-kirliligi-maden-kiskacinda-can-cekisen-bir-tarim-kenti-aydin/ |access-date=28 June 2022 |website=Yeşil Gazete |language=tr |archive-date=25 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825062559/https://yesilgazete.org/jes-hava-ve-su-kirliligi-maden-kiskacinda-can-cekisen-bir-tarim-kenti-aydin/ |url-status=live }}

In 2019 Enel sponsored the 88KEYS Institute to conduct a public opinion survey in Aydın, the province with the most geothermal potential.{{Cite web |last=Richter |first=Alexander |date=18 September 2019 |title=Results of a research on the perception of geothermal in the region of Aydin, Turkey released {{!}} ThinkGeoEnergy – Geothermal Energy News |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/results-of-a-research-on-the-perception-of-geothermal-in-the-region-of-aydin-turkey-released/ |access-date=14 June 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306010704/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/results-of-a-research-on-the-perception-of-geothermal-in-the-region-of-aydin-turkey-released/ |url-status=live }} At that time, over a fifth of people over 45 believed geothermal power was damaging to health.{{Cite news |date=16 September 2019 |title=Aydın'da, jeotermal algı araştırması sonuçları paylaşıldı |trans-title=Geothermal public opinion in Aydın |url=https://www.jeotermalhaberler.com/aydinda-jeotermal-algi-arastirmasi-sonuclari-paylasildi/ |access-date=14 June 2022 |website=Jeotermal Haberler |language=tr |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202115618/https://www.jeotermalhaberler.com/aydinda-jeotermal-algi-arastirmasi-sonuclari-paylasildi/ |url-status=live }} About half of that age group also believed that it is not harmful if properly managed, as did about two-thirds of younger people. In the 2010s there were concerns about the possibility of heavy metals being released to water or soil, but as of 2022 no heavy metal pollution from power plants has been found, although boron was found in irrigation water in 2017 which may damage crops.{{Cite web |title=Environmental impact of geothermal power plants in Aydın, Turkey |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320573970}} However arsenic has been found in greywater from direct heating and it has been suggested such water could be filtered by biochar.{{Cite web |title=Grey water footprint assessment of geothermal water resources in the southeastern Anatolia region |url=https://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=earth |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826070747/https://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=earth |url-status=live }}

In 2020 the Ministry of Environment and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development published a guide which recommended various social, environmental and technical best practices, including that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the concentration of foul smelling {{chem|H|2|S}} gas in the air should not exceed 7 μg/m3 in an average of 30 minutes. The WHO says that due to the strong public reaction against odor from geothermal power plants and the resulting social perceptions, the odor problem needs to be taken very seriously and solutions need to be implemented. WHO recommended technologies that guarantee the re-injection of the entire source (liquid + non-condensable gases) during operation as the most effective method to prevent gases from being released into the atmosphere. WHO further advised that {{chem|H|2|S}} could be reinjected together with {{CO2}}, as is sometimes done in Iceland. However the carbon price in Iceland is the same as the EU Allowance (around 80 euros a tonne in mid-2022),{{Cite web |title=Iceland carbon tax |url=https://lpdd.org/resources/iceland-carbon-tax/ |access-date=14 June 2022 |website=Legal Pathways to Deep Decarbonization |publisher=Sabin Center for Climate Change Law |language=en-US |archive-date=31 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831212443/https://lpdd.org/resources/iceland-carbon-tax/ |url-status=live }} whereas in Turkey there is no immediate financial penalty for releasing it because the Turkish Emissions Trading System is not yet charging.

Geothermal has high upfront costs{{Cite web |date=16 June 2022 |title="Supercritical" geothermal could power everything |url=https://www.energymonitor.ai/tech/renewables/supercritical-geothermal-could-power-everything |access-date=13 July 2022 |website=Energy Monitor |language=en-US |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714130951/https://www.energymonitor.ai/tech/renewables/supercritical-geothermal-could-power-everything |url-status=live }} and is financially risky,{{cite web |date=27 November 2018 |title=Renewable Energy Investment in Turkey: Between Aspiration and Endurance |url=http://turkishpolicy.com/article/933/renewable-energy-investment-in-turkey-between-aspiration-and-endurance |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203081644/http://turkishpolicy.com/article/933/renewable-energy-investment-in-turkey-between-aspiration-and-endurance |archive-date=3 December 2018 |access-date=27 November 2018 |publisher=Turkish Policy Quarterly}} but if public money is invested at an early stage of a project that gives private investors confidence to complete the financing. In 2022 the World Bank loaned $300 million for geothermal energy,{{Cite web |date=16 December 2021 |title=Turkey to Scale-up Renewable Geothermal Energy Generation with World Bank Support |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/16/turkey-to-scale-up-renewable-geothermal-energy-generation-with-world-bank-support |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123141325/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/16/turkey-to-scale-up-renewable-geothermal-energy-generation-with-world-bank-support |archive-date=23 January 2022 |access-date=23 January 2022 |website=World Bank |language=en}} some to private companies via the state industrial development bank Türkiye Sınai Kalkınma Bankası.{{Cite report |date=2021 |title=Resettlement Policy Framework for the Turkey Geothermal Development Project – Component 2 – Financial Intermediaries (TSKB) – draft |url=https://www.tskb.com.tr/i/assets/document/pdf/2-TSKB_Geothermal_Development_Project_AF_Resettlement_Policy_Framework_Draft_Sep2021.pdf |access-date=26 June 2022 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706185305/https://www.tskb.com.tr/i/assets/document/pdf/2-TSKB_Geothermal_Development_Project_AF_Resettlement_Policy_Framework_Draft_Sep2021.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=October 2021 |title=Geothermal Development Project (P172827) Additional Finance Loan – Environmental and Social Management Framework |url=https://www.tskb.com.tr/i/assets/document/pdf/TSKB_GeothermalDevelopmentProject_AF_ESMF_Oct2021_Final.pdf |publisher=:tr:Türkiye Sınai Kalkınma Bankası |access-date=26 June 2022 |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626081707/https://www.tskb.com.tr/i/assets/document/pdf/TSKB_GeothermalDevelopmentProject_AF_ESMF_Oct2021_Final.pdf |url-status=live }} According to the Geothermal Power Plant Investors Association the cost of a kilometre deep well is about 1 million USD. However it may be possible to use existing oil exploration boreholes in Southeast Anatolia. The feed-in-tariff is in lira and adjusted quarterly, but capped at 8.6 US cents/kWh.{{Cite web |date=April 2022 |title=Doing business in Turkey: Energy |url=https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/ad4409f2/doing-business-in-turkey-energy |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=Norton Rose Fulbright |language=en |archive-date=20 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420044310/https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/ad4409f2/doing-business-in-turkey-energy |url-status=live }} In 2021, the Geothermal Energy Association said that development costs (measured in lira) were increasing 70% annually (official inflation of the economy of Turkey was also about 70% in mid-2022{{Cite web |date=3 June 2022 |title=Turkey's inflation rate hits 73.5 percent |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/turkeys-inflation-rate-hits-73-5-percent/ |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=Politico |language=en-US |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626091705/https://www.politico.eu/article/turkeys-inflation-rate-hits-73-5-percent/ |url-status=live }}), but that the feed in tariff quarterly increases were not keeping pace; so they called for monthly increases.{{Cite web |last=Richter |first=Alexander |date=5 December 2021 |title=Turkish geothermal sector sees further development opportunities |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/turkish-geothermal-sector-sees-further-development-opportunities/ |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=Think GeoEnergy |language=en-US |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626091705/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/turkish-geothermal-sector-sees-further-development-opportunities/ |url-status=live }} After YEKDEM was changed to lira in 2021 investment decreased.{{Cite web |title=Opportunities and challenges of geothermal energy in Turkiye |url=https://open.metu.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11511/109270/1-s2.0-S0973082624000437-main.pdf}}

International conferences on geothermal energy are held most years in Turkey, such as the Women in Geothermal conference in Istanbul{{Cite web |title=2021 – Women in Geothermal – WinG Turkey |url=https://wingturkey.com/events/2021/ |access-date=14 June 2022 |language=tr |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025045500/https://wingturkey.com/events/2021/ |url-status=live }} and the International Geothermal Energy Congress & Exhibition in Izmir.{{Cite web |title=IGC Türkiye |url=https://www.igc-turkey.com/en |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=IGC Türkiye |publisher=Enerchange Turkey |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606200327/https://www.igc-turkey.com/en |url-status=live }} Dry hot rock geothermal fields in eastern Turkey have not been fully explored{{Cite web |last=Öztürk |first=Şafak |date=2019 |title=Evaluation of Geothermal Potential of Turkey using GIS based Multi Criteria Analysis |url=http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12624431/index.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318202950/http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12624431/index.pdf |archive-date=18 March 2022 |access-date=30 September 2020 |website=Middle East Technical University}} and such enhanced geothermal has expensive engineering challenges. It has also been estimated that 30% of Turkish residences could be heated through geothermal energy.{{cite conference |url=http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/ISS/2009Slovakia/I.4.SIMSEK.pdf |publisher=Geothermal Energy |title=New Wide Development of Geothermal Power Production in Turkey |author=Şimşek, Şakir |access-date=9 March 2015 |conference= |year=2009 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115942/http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/ISS/2009Slovakia/I.4.SIMSEK.pdf |url-status=live }} Studies show that geothermal energy could also be used for desalination or to produce hydrogen by electrolysis; but as of 2022 this has not been applied practically.{{Cite journal |last1=Karayel |first1=G. Kubilay |last2=Javani |first2=Nader |last3=Dincer |first3=Ibrahim |date=15 June 2022 |title=Effective use of geothermal energy for hydrogen production: A comprehensive application |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036054422200500X |journal=Energy |language=en |volume=249 |pages=123597 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2022.123597 |s2cid=247151471 |issn=0360-5442}} As Turkey is prone to earthquakes, research on induced seismic risk is also a significant topic, and the increased number of geothermal plants may have caused the increased surface cracks observed in the area.{{Cite journal |last=Ozcelik |first=Mehmet |date=3 June 2022 |title=Induced seismic risk assessment of geothermal energy production, Büyük Menderes Graben, Turkey |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10033-5 |journal=Arabian Journal of Geosciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1114 |doi=10.1007/s12517-022-10033-5 |s2cid=249285513 |issn=1866-7538 |access-date=14 June 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826070758/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12517-022-10033-5 |url-status=live }} Construction is an important part of the Turkish economy, and it has been suggested that the technology used to produce dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) at Kızıldere and Tuzla geothermal power plants could be adapted to capture {{CO2}} emissions from cement production. Produced dry ice can also be used to fight wildfires in Turkey.{{Cite journal |last1=Baba |first1=Alper |last2=Chandrasekharam |first2=Dornadula |date=6 March 2022 |title=Geothermal resources for sustainable development: A case study |journal=International Journal of Energy Research |volume=46 |issue=14 |language=en |pages=20501–20518 |doi=10.1002/er.7778 |s2cid=247306748 |issn=0363-907X |doi-access=free }} Extracting lithium from geothermal water is being researched, to meet some of the demand from increasing battery production.{{Cite web |last=Kotaro |first=Hosokawa |date=15 March 2022 |title=SK Innovation to build EV battery plant in Turkey with Ford |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Automobiles/SK-Innovation-to-build-EV-battery-plant-in-Turkey-with-Ford |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=Nikkei Asia |language=en-GB |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628131541/https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Automobiles/SK-Innovation-to-build-EV-battery-plant-in-Turkey-with-Ford |url-status=live }}

Development is supported by the World Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development via the Green Economy Financing Facility.{{Cite news |last=Kaya |first=Nuran Erkul |date=19 April 2022 |title=EBRD launches €500M financing facility to support green transition in Turkiye |agency=Anadolu Agency |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/ebrd-launches-500m-financing-facility-to-support-green-transition-in-turkiye/2567173 |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623064057/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/ebrd-launches-500m-financing-facility-to-support-green-transition-in-turkiye/2567173 |url-status=live }} As of 2021 further research is needed on {{CO2}} emissions, but projects with estimated average annual lifetime emissions above 540 g{{CO2}}/kWh (this is roughly similar to a gas-fired power plant) will not be financed.{{Rp|page=31}}

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{{Reflist|group="note"}}{{notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

• [http://www.jeotermaldernegi.org.tr/ Turkish Geothermal Association]
• [https://www.jeotermalenerjidernegi.org.tr/en Turkish Geothermal Energy Association]
• [https://jesder.org/ Jeotermal Elektrik Santral Yatırımcıları Derneği (Geothermal Power plant investors association)]
• [https://www.mta.gov.tr/v3.0/arastirmalar/jeotermal-enerji-arastirmalari Geothermal research]

{{Geothermal power}}

{{Renewable energy by country}}

{{Europe topic |Geothermal energy in}}

{{Asia topic |Geothermal energy in}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Geothermal energy in Turkey}}