Health and environmental effects of battery electric cars

Although all cars have effects on other people, battery electric cars have major environmental benefits over conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, such as:

• Elimination of harmful tailpipe pollutants such as various oxides of nitrogen, which kill thousands of people every year{{Cite web |last=Association |first=New Scientist and Press |title=Diesel fumes lead to thousands more deaths than thought |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2131067-diesel-fumes-lead-to-thousands-more-deaths-than-thought/ |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=New Scientist |language=en-US}}
• Less {{CO2}} emissions than fossil-fuelled cars, thus limiting climate change{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-01-26 |title=Supporting the global shift to electric mobility |url=http://www.unep.org/topics/transport/electric-mobility/supporting-global-shift-electric-mobility |access-date=2024-01-27 |website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme |language=en}}
• As almost all electric cars have regenerative braking, brake pads can be used less frequently than in non-electric cars, and may thus sometimes produce less particulate pollution than brakes in non-electric cars.{{Cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=August 4, 2017 |title=Electric cars are not the answer to air pollution, says top UK adviser |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/04/fewer-cars-not-electric-cars-beat-air-pollution-says-top-uk-adviser-prof-frank-kelly |access-date=September 1, 2019 |newspaper=The Guardian |via=www.theguardian.com}}{{Cite web |last=Loeb |first=Josh |date=March 10, 2017 |title=Particle pollution from electric cars could be worse than from diesel ones |url=https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/03/particle-pollution-from-electric-cars-could-be-worse-than-from-diesel-ones/ |access-date=September 1, 2019 |website=eandt.theiet.org}} Also, some electric cars may have a combination of drum brakes and disc brakes, and drum brakes are known to cause less particulate emissions than disc brakes.{{Cite web |last=Geylin |first=Mike |date=2022-06-09 |title=Corrosion, Emissions and the Return of Drum Brakes? |url=https://thebrakereport.com/corrosion-emissions-and-the-return-of-drum-brakes/ |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=The BRAKE Report |language=en-US}} Under the Euro 7 standard electric cars have a lower limit of brake particulates.{{Cite web |last=Prez |first=Matt de |date=19 December 2023 |title=EU strikes provisional deal over Euro 7 emissions limits |url=https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/news/eu-backs-softer-euro-7-rules-for-cars-and-vans |website=www.fleetnews.co.uk}}{{Cite web |title=Regulation of the European Parliament and of the council on type-approval of motor vehicles and engines and of systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles, with respect to their emissions and battery durability (Euro 7) |url=https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/PE-109-2023-INIT/en/pdf |date=2024-04-03 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241111074118/https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/PE-109-2023-INIT/en/pdf |archive-date=2024-11-11 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=data.consilium.europa.eu |at=Annex I}}{{Cite web |date=2023-12-18 |title=Euro 7: Deal on new EU rules to reduce road transport emissions {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20231207IPR15740/euro-7-deal-on-new-eu-rules-to-reduce-road-transport-emissions |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en |quote=The deal sets brake particles emissions limits (PM10) for cars and vans (3mg/km for pure electric vehicles; 7mg/km for most internal combustion engine (ICE), hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles and 11mg/km for large ICE vans).}}

Electric cars may have some disadvantages, such as:

• Possible increased tire pollution compared to fossil-fueled cars. This is sometimes caused by the fact that most electric cars have a heavy battery, which means the car's tires are subjected to more wear.{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/electric-vehicle-tires-a-lesser-known-pollution-headache/a-66189707|title=Electric vehicle tires: a lesser-known pollution headache – DW – 07/12/2023|website=dw.com}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/5/22/23733215/ford-ev-battery-size-weight-safety-jim-farley|title=An auto CEO came very close to saying the right thing about heavy EV batteries|first=Andrew J.|last=Hawkins|date=22 May 2023|website=The Verge}} Devices to capture tyre particulates are being developed,{{Cite news |date=2022-09-02 |title=When Driving, Tires Emit Pollution. And EVs Make the Problem Worse |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-09-02/new-tech-aims-to-capture-electric-car-tire-emissions |access-date=2022-12-05}}{{Cite web |title=FEATURE: The engineers fighting deadly air pollution with an ingenious car add-on |url=https://www.imeche.org/news/news-article/feature-the-engineers-fighting-deadly-air-pollution-with-an-ingenious-car-add-on |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=www.imeche.org}} and under Euro 7 all new cars will have to meet the same tyre particulate limit.{{Cite web |last=Fischer-Lauder |first=Hannah |date=2023-12-20 |title=Euro 7: EU Agrees on New Rules to Curb Road Transport Emissions |url=https://impakter.com/euro-7-eu-agrees-on-new-rules-to-curb-road-transport-emissions/ |access-date=2024-01-27 |website=Impakter |language=en-US}}
• If electric cars are bigger than fossil fuel cars there may be more road dust pollution. However as of 2024 more research on road dust air pollution is needed.

Plug-in hybrids and electric cars run off lithium-ion batteries and rare-earth element electric motors. Electric vehicles use much more lithium carbonate equivalent in their batteries compared to the 7g (0.25 oz) for a smartphone or the 30 g (1.1 oz) used by tablets or computers. As of 2016, a hybrid electric passenger car might use 5 kg (11 lb) of lithium carbonate equivalent, while one of Tesla's high performance electric cars could use as much as 80 kg (180 lb) of lithium carbonate equivalent. ^{{{cite news |last=Hiscock |first=Geoff |date=2015-11-18 |title=Electric vehicles, storage units drive prices up |work=The Nikkei |url=http://asia.nikkei.com/Markets/Commodities/Electric-vehicles-storage-units-drive-prices-up?page=2 |access-date=2016-02-29}}}

Most electric vehicles use permanent magnet motors as they are more efficient than induction motors. These permanent magnets use neodymium and praseodymium which can be dirty{{Cn|date=March 2025}} and difficult to produce.

File:Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain.png{{cite web |date=2024 |title=Batteries and secure energy transitions |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/batteries-and-secure-energy-transitions |publisher=IEA |location=Paris}}{{rp|58}}]]

The demand for lithium used by the batteries and rare-earth elements (such as neodymium, boron, and cobalt{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/tv-shows/reporters/20230707-energy-transition-the-dark-side-of-the-electric-car-battery-cobalt-rush|title=Reporters - Energy transition: The dark side of the electric car battery cobalt rush|date=7 July 2023|website=France 24}}) used by the electric motors, is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles. However in 2024 The Economist wrote that “… within a decade or so most of the global demand for raw materials to build new batteries could be met by recycling old ones.”.{{Cite news |title=Most electric-car batteries could soon be made by recycling old ones |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2024/09/19/most-electric-car-batteries-could-soon-be-made-by-recycling-old-ones |access-date=2024-11-03 |work=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}

In 2022 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said (with medium confidence) "Emerging national strategies on critical minerals and the requirements from major vehicle manufacturers are leading to new, more geographically diverse mines. The standardisation of battery modules and packaging within and across vehicle platforms, as well as increased focus on design for recyclability are important. Given the high degree of potential recyclability of lithium-ion batteries, a nearly closed-loop system in the future could mitigate concerns about critical mineral issues."{{Cite report |url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf |title=IPCC: Climate Change 2022, Mitigation of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers |date=4 April 2022 |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |access-date=2004-04-22 |url-status=dead |website=ipecac.ch |archive-date=2022-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807023536/https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf }}{{Rp|page=142}}

Open-pit nickel mining has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia.{{cite news |last1=Rick |first1=Mills |title=Indonesia and China killed the nickel market |url=https://www.mining.com/web/indonesia-and-china-killed-the-nickel-market/ |work=MINING.COM |date=4 March 2024}}{{cite news |title=Land grabs and vanishing forests: Are 'clean' electric vehicles to blame? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/14/land-grabs-and-cleared-forests-why-electric-vehicles-are-getting-a-bad-rep |work=Al Jazeera |date=14 March 2024}} In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia.{{cite news |title=Indonesia's massive metals build-out is felling the forest for batteries |url=https://apnews.com/article/indonesia-nickel-deforestation-rainforest-mining-tesla-ev-184550cddf1df6aad8e883862ab366df |work=AP News |date=15 July 2024}}{{cite news |title=EU faces green dilemma in Indonesian nickel |url=https://www.dw.com/en/eu-faces-green-dilemma-in-sourcing-nickel-from-indonesia/a-69681557 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=16 July 2024}} Open-pit cobalt mining has led to deforestation and habitat destruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo.{{cite news |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |work=NPR |date=1 February 2023}}

File:Piles of Salt Salar de Uyuni Bolivia Luca Galuzzi 2006 a.jpg in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world.{{cite news |author=Simon Romero |date=2009-02-02 |title=In Bolivia, Untapped Bounty Meets Nationalism |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/03/world/americas/03lithium.html?_r=1 |accessdate=2010-02-28 |work=New York Times}}{{cite web |title=Página sobre el Salar (Spanish) |url=http://www.evaporiticosbolivia.org/index.php?Modulo=Temas&Opcion=Reservas |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323141916/http://www.evaporiticosbolivia.org/index.php?Modulo=Temas&Opcion=Reservas |archive-date=2011-03-23 |access-date=2010-11-27 |publisher=Evaporiticosbolivia.org}}]]

{{See also|Lithium#Environmental_issues|Lithium-ion battery#Environmental impact}}

The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia.{{cite news |author=Clifford Krauss |date=2009-03-09 |title=The Lithium Chase |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/10/business/energy-environment/10lithium.html?ref=automobiles |access-date=2010-03-10}}{{cite news |author=Brendan I. Koerner |date=2008-10-30 |title=The Saudi Arabia of Lithium |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2008/1124/034.html |access-date=2011-05-12}} Published on Forbes Magazine dated November 24, 2008. Lithium recovered from brine, such as in Nevada{{cite web |date=January 2009 |title=USGS Mineral Commodities Summaries 2009 |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2009/mcs2009.pdf |access-date=2010-03-07 |publisher=U. S. Geological Survey}} See page 95.{{cite book |author=Hammond, C. R. |title=The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition |publisher=CRC press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8493-0481-1}} and Cornwall, is much more environmentally friendly.{{Cite web |last=Early |first=Catherine |title=The new 'gold rush' for green lithium |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201124-how-geothermal-lithium-could-revolutionise-green-energy |access-date=2021-01-13 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en}}

Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia, and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium. Other important reserves are located in Chile,{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/jun/14/electric-cost-lithium-mining-decarbonasation-salt-flats-chile|title=The rush to 'go electric' comes with a hidden cost: destructive lithium mining|first=Thea|last=Riofrancos|date=14 June 2021|newspaper=The Guardian}} China, and Brazil.

According to a 2020 study balancing lithium supply and demand for the rest of the century needs good recycling systems, vehicle-to-grid integration, and lower lithium intensity of transportation.{{Cite journal |last1=Greim |first1=Peter |last2=Solomon |first2=A. A. |last3=Breyer |first3=Christian |date=2020-09-11 |title=Assessment of lithium criticality in the global energy transition and addressing policy gaps in transportation |url= |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=4570 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.4570G |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-18402-y |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7486911 |pmid=32917866}}

File:Rareearth production.svg oxides production by country (1950–2000)]]

{{See also|Rare-earth element}}

Electric motor manufactured for plug-in electric cars and hybrid electric vehicles use rare-earth elements. The demand for heavy metals, and other specific elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term.{{cite book |author=Irving Mintzer |url=http://www.potomacenergyfund.com/files/Potomac%20Energy%20Fund%20-%20Look%20Before%20You%20Leap.pdf |title=Chapter 6: Look Before You Leap: Exploring the Implications of Advanced Vehicles for Import Dependence and Passerger Safety |publisher=The Brookings Institution |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |editor=David B. Sandalow |pages=107–126 |access-date=2019-01-14 |archive-date=2016-05-17 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517003859/http://www.potomacenergyfund.com/files/Potomac%20Energy%20Fund%20-%20Look%20Before%20You%20Leap.pdf |url-status=dead }} in [http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"]

China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare-earth elements,{{Cite web|url=https://hir.harvard.edu/not-so-green-technology-the-complicated-legacy-of-rare-earth-mining/|title=Not So "Green" Technology: The Complicated Legacy of Rare Earth Mining|date=12 August 2021|website=Harvard International Review}} the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare-earth production, but since the mid-1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou, Inner Mongolia, are currently the largest source of rare-earth metals and are 80% of China's production.{{cite news |author=Tim Folger |date=June 2011 |title=Rare Earth Elements: The Secret Ingredients of Everything |work=National Geographic |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/06/rare-earth-elements/folger-text |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522032130/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/06/rare-earth-elements/folger-text |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 22, 2011 |access-date=2011-06-12}}{{Relevant|date=August 2024}}

Electric cars also have impacts arising from the manufacturing of the vehicle.{{Cite journal |last1=Notter |first1=Dominic A. |last2=Gauch |first2=Marcel |last3=Widmer |first3=Rolf |last4=Wäger |first4=Patrick |last5=Stamp |first5=Anna |last6=Zah |first6=Rainer |last7=Althaus |first7=Hans-Jörg |date=2010-09-01 |title=Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=44 |issue=17 |pages=6550–6556 |bibcode=2010EnST...44.6550N |doi=10.1021/es903729a |issn=0013-936X |pmid=20695466|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/2725414 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Notter |first1=Dominic A. |last2=Kouravelou |first2=Katerina |last3=Karachalios |first3=Theodoros |last4=Daletou |first4=Maria K. |last5=Haberland |first5=Nara Tudela |year=2015 |title=Life cycle assessment of PEM FC applications: electric mobility and μ-CHP |journal=Energy Environ. Sci. |language=en |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=1969–1985 |doi=10.1039/c5ee01082a}} Electric cars can utilize two types of motors: permanent magnet motors (like the one found in the Mercedes EQA), and induction motors (like the one found on the Tesla Model 3). Induction motors do not use magnets, but permanent magnet motors do. The magnets found in permanent magnet motors used in electric vehicles contain rare-earth metals to increase the power output of these motors.{{Cite web |last=Hanejko |first=Fran |title=Permanent Magnet vs Induction Motor: Torque, Losses, Material |url=https://www.horizontechnology.biz/blog/induction-vs-permanent-magnet-motor-efficiency-auto-electrification |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=www.horizontechnology.biz |language=en-us}} The mining and processing of metals such as lithium, copper, and nickel can release toxic compounds into the surrounding area. Local populations may be exposed to toxic substances through air and groundwater contamination.{{Cite web |date=2021-12-31 |title=Lithium Extraction Environmental Impact · Eco Jungle |url=https://ecojungle.net/post/lithium-extraction-environmental-impact/ |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=Eco Jungle |language=en}}

Several reports have found that hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current internal combustion engine vehicles but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle.{{Cite web|url=https://www.rideapart.com/news/656056/france-prohibits-ev-greenwashing-2023/|title=France Prohibits Electric Vehicle Greenwashing In 2023|website=RideApart.com}} The initial higher carbon footprint is due mainly to battery production,{{cite journal |last1=Buekers |first1=J |last2=Van Holderbeke |first2=M |last3=Bierkens |first3=J |last4=Int Panis |first4=L |year=2014 |title=Health and environmental benefits related to electric vehicle introduction in EU countries |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266450977 |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=33 |pages=26–38 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2014.09.002|bibcode=2014TRPD...33...26B |s2cid=110866624 }} which may double the production carbon footprint {{As of|2023|lc=y}} but this varies a lot by country and is forecast to decrease rapidly during the decade.{{Cite web |title=The race to decarbonize electric-vehicle batteries {{!}} McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-race-to-decarbonize-electric-vehicle-batteries# |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=www.mckinsey.com}}

{{See also|Plug-in hybrid#Greenhouse gas emissions}}

ICE vehicles typically produce more carbon emissions than EVs.{{Cite journal |last=Kuyumcu |first=Alen Murat |last2=Bingül |first2=Barış |last3=Akar |first3=Fırat |last4=Yıldız |first4=Aleyna |date=2024-08-15 |title=Well-to-wheel carbon footprint and cost analysis of gasoline, diesel, hydrogen ICE, hybrid and fully electric city buses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544224014580 |journal=Energy |volume=301 |pages=131685 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2024.131685 |issn=0360-5442}}{{Cite journal |last=Saini |first=Harshit |last2=Rama Rao |first2=T. |last3=Saini |first3=Sanjai |last4=Anbazhagan |first4=Geetha |last5=and Sharma |first5=Vijay |date=2023-04-11 |title=Well-to-wheel performance of internal combustion engine vehicles and electric vehicles – study for future Indian market |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15567036.2023.2182844 |journal=Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=2089–2111 |doi=10.1080/15567036.2023.2182844 |issn=1556-7036}} Some of the environmental impact is be shifted to the site of the generation plants, depending on the method by which the electricity used to recharge the batteries is generated. This shift of environmental impact from the vehicle itself (in the case of internal combustion engine vehicles) to the source of electricity (in the case of electric vehicles) is referred to as the long tailpipe of electric vehicles. This impact, however, is still less than that of traditional vehicles, as the large size of power plants allow them to generate less emissions per unit power than internal combustion engines, and electricity generation continues to become greener as renewables such as wind, solar and nuclear power become more widespread. By 2050, carbon emissions reduced by the use of electric cars can save over 1163 lives annually and over $12.61 billion in health benefits in many major U.S. metropolitan cities such as Los Angeles and New York City.{{Cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Shuai |last2=Yu |first2=Wendi |last3=Fulton |first3=Lewis M. |last4=Jung |first4=Jia |last5=Choi |first5=Yunsoo |last6=Gao |first6=H. Oliver |date=2023-03-01 |title=Impacts of the large-scale use of passenger electric vehicles on public health in 30 US. metropolitan areas |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=173 |pages=113100 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2022.113100 |s2cid=256772423 |issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023RSERv.17313100P }}

The specific emission intensity of generating electric power varies significantly with respect to location and time, depending on current demand and availability of renewable sources (See List of renewable energy topics by country and territory). The phase-out of fossil fuels and coal and transition to renewable and low-carbon power sources will make electricity generation greener, which will reduce the impact of electric vehicles that use that electricity.

Most of the lithium-ion battery production occurs in China, where the bulk of energy used is supplied by coal burning power plants. A study of hundreds of cars on sale in 2021 concluded that the life cycle GHG emissions of full electric cars are slightly less than hybrids and that both are less than gasoline and diesel fuelled cars.{{Cite journal |last1=Buberger |first1=Johannes |last2=Kersten |first2=Anton |last3=Kuder |first3=Manuel |last4=Eckerle |first4=Richard |last5=Weyh |first5=Thomas |last6=Thiringer |first6=Torbjörn |date=2022-05-01 |title=Total CO2-equivalent life-cycle emissions from commercially available passenger cars |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=159 |pages=112158 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2022.112158 |s2cid=246758071 |issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free }}

{{See also|Mobile source air pollution}}

Compared to conventional internal combustion engine automobiles, electric cars reduce local air pollution, especially in cities,{{Cite web |title=Zeroing in on Healthy Air report |url=https://www.lung.org/clean-air/electric-vehicle-report |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=www.lung.org |language=en}} as they do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen.

The operation of any car results in non-exhaust emissions such as brake dust, airborne road dust, and tire erosion, which contribute to particulate matter in the air.{{Cite web|title=This is why electric cars won't stop air pollution|url=https://www.imeche.org/news/news-article/this-is-why-electric-cars-won%27t-stop-air-pollution|access-date=2020-10-12|website=www.imeche.org}} Particulate matter is dangerous for respiratory health.{{Cite journal |last1=Habre |first1=Rima |last2=Girguis |first2=Mariam |last3=Urman |first3=Robert |last4=Fruin |first4=Scott |last5=Lurmann |first5=Fred |last6=Shafer |first6=Martin |last7=Gorski |first7=Patrick |last8=Franklin |first8=Meredith |last9=McConnell |first9=Rob |last10=Avol |first10=Ed |last11=Gilliland |first11=Frank |date=February 2021 |title=Contribution of tailpipe and non-tailpipe traffic sources to quasi-ultrafine, fine and coarse particulate matter in southern California |journal=Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995) |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=209–230 |doi=10.1080/10962247.2020.1826366 |issn=2162-2906 |pmc=8112073 |pmid=32990509|bibcode=2021JAWMA..71..209H }}{{Cite web |title=Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport : An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/4a4dc6ca-en/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/4a4dc6ca-en |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=www.oecd-ilibrary.org |language=en}} In the UK non-tailpipe particulate emissions from all types of vehicles (including electric vehicles) may be responsible for between 7,000 and 8,000 premature deaths a year. Due to regenerative braking, EVs produce less brake dust, but have more tire erosion due to their higher weight. This means that usually EVs have fewer non-exhaust emissions than combustion cars.{{Cite journal |last=Rakha |first=Hesham A. |last2=Farag |first2=Mohamed |last3=Foroutan |first3=Hosein |date=2025-03-01 |title=Electric versus gasoline vehicle particulate matter and greenhouse gas emissions: Large-scale analysis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S136192092500032X |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=140 |pages=104622 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2025.104622 |issn=1361-9209|hdl=10919/120795 |hdl-access=free }}

Battery electric vehicles have lower maintenance costs compared to internal combustion vehicles since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems onboard last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. Electric cars do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.{{cite book |author=Saurin D. Shah |url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx |title=Chapter 2: Electrification of Transport and Oil Displacement |publisher=The Brookings Institution |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |editor=David B. Sandalow |edition=1st |pages=29, 37 and 43 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404071834/http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx |archivedate=2010-04-04}} in [http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx "Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"]

Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking.{{Cite book |last=Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon |title=Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 22–26 and 114–139] |publisher=Oxford University Press, New York |isbn=978-0-19-537664-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 }}

BEVs are easily totaled because of battery damage,{{Cite web |last=Carey |first=Nick |date=March 20, 2023 |title=Insight: Scratched EV battery? Your insurer may have to junk the whole car |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/scratched-ev-battery-your-insurer-may-have-junk-whole-car-2023-03-20/ |website=Reuters}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/yikes-the-60000-hyundai-ioniq-5-battery-replacement-saga-continues-226590.html|title=Yikes! The $60,000 Hyundai Ioniq 5 Battery Replacement Saga Continues|first=Florin|last=Amariei|date=24 December 2023|website=autoevolution}} and some have called for the right to repair.{{Cite web |last=Hansen |first=Sonja |date=2024 |title=The Right to Repair of Electric Vehicle Batteries |url=https://www.no-burn.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/03-Battery-Infosheet-The-Right-to-Repair-of-Electric-Vehicle-Batteries.pdf |website=GAIA}} Some EVs are made using gigacasting to lower their cost which complicates repairs.{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedrive.com/news/toyota-will-adopt-tesla-style-cast-bodies-that-might-be-impossible-to-fix|title=Toyota Will Adopt Tesla-Style Cast Bodies That Might Be Impossible to Fix|first=James|last=Gilboy|date=September 22, 2023|website=The Drive}}

Overall whether an electric car uses more water than a fossil-fuelled car mainly depends on how the electricity is generated in the region that the car is used, for example in China in the 2010s an electric car used more.{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Li |last2=Shen |first2=Wei |last3=Kim |first3=Hyung Chul |last4=Wallington |first4=Timothy J. |last5=Zhang |first5=Qiang |last6=Han |first6=Weijian |date=2020-03-01 |title=Life cycle water use of gasoline and electric light-duty vehicles in China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921344919305348 |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=154 |pages=104628 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104628 |issn=0921-3449}} Up to 150,000 liters of water are required to put out a single electric car fire. Fossil-fuelled car fires are typically extinguished using less than 4,000 liters.{{Cite web|url=https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/consumer-news/360108/thermal-runaway-ev-battery-fires-controlled-water-cutting-tech|title=Thermal runaway EV battery fires controlled with water cutting tech|website=Auto Express}} However electric cars are much less likely to catch fire.{{Cite web |title=02.2 EV Fire FAQs |url=https://www.evfiresafe.com/ev-fire-faqs |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=EV Fire Safe |language=en}}

{{Main|Battery recycling}}

Like internal combustion engine cars, most electric cars, as of 2023, contain lead–acid batteries which are used to power the vehicle's auxiliary electrical systems.{{Cite web |title=FLASH: BYD announces to stop using ... |url=https://www.mysteel.net/news/all/5044746-flash-byd-announces-to-stop-using-lead-acid-starting-battery- |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=www.mysteel.net |language=en}} In some countries lead acid batteries are not recycled safely.{{Cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_LAB_Recycling_Guidelines_2020.pdf|title=Consequences of a Mobile Future: Creating an Environmentally Conscious Life Cycle for Lead-Acid Batteries}}{{Cite web|title=Getting the Lead Out: Why Battery Recycling Is a Global Health Hazard|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/getting-the-lead-out-why-battery-recycling-is-a-global-health-hazard|access-date=2021-01-03|website=Yale E360|language=en-US}}

Current retirement criteria for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles cite 80% capacity for end-of-first-life, and 65% capacity for end-of-second-life.{{Cite journal |last1=Tao |first1=Yanqiu |last2=Rahn |first2=Christopher D. |last3=Archer |first3=Lynden A. |last4=You |first4=Fengqi |date=2021-11-05 |title=Second life and recycling: Energy and environmental sustainability perspectives for high-performance lithium-ion batteries |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=7 |issue=45 |pages=eabi7633 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abi7633 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8570603 |pmid=34739316|bibcode=2021SciA....7.7633T }} The first-life defines the lifespan of the battery's intended use, while the second-life defines the lifespan of the battery's subsequent use-case. Lithium-ion batteries from cars can sometimes be re-used for a second-life in factories{{Cite news |date=2021-04-26 |title=Electric cars: What will happen to all the dead batteries? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-56574779 |access-date=2021-12-14}} or as stationary batteries.{{Cite web |date=2021-11-16 |title=Electric Vehicle Battery Reuse and Recycling |url=https://www.advancedenergy.org/2021/11/16/electric-vehicle-battery-reuse-and-recycling/ |access-date=2021-12-14 |website=Advanced Energy |language=en-US}} Some electric vehicle manufacturers, such as Tesla, claim that a lithium-ion battery that no longer fulfills the requirements of its intended use can be serviced by them directly, thereby lengthening its first-life.{{Cite web |date=2018-09-26 |title=Sustainability |url=https://www.tesla.com/support/sustainability-recycling |access-date=2022-04-08 |website=www.tesla.com |language=en-us}} Reused electric vehicle batteries can potentially supply 60-100% of the grid-scale lithium-ion energy storage by 2030.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Juner |last2=Mathews |first2=Ian |last3=Ren |first3=Dongsheng |last4=Li |first4=Wei |last5=Cogswell |first5=Daniel |last6=Xing |first6=Bobin |last7=Sedlatschek |first7=Tobias |last8=Kantareddy |first8=Sai Nithin R. |last9=Yi |first9=Mengchao |last10=Gao |first10=Tao |last11=Xia |first11=Yong |date=2021-08-18 |title=End-of-life or second-life options for retired electric vehicle batteries |journal=Cell Reports Physical Science |language=en |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=100537 |doi=10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100537 |s2cid=238701303 |issn=2666-3864|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021CRPS....200537Z }} The carbon footprint of an electric vehicle lithium-ion battery can be reduced by up to 17% if reused rather than immediately retired. After retirement, direct recycling processes allow reuse of cathode mixtures, which removes processing steps required for manufacturing them. When this is infeasible, individual materials can be obtained through pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy. When lithium-ion batteries are recycled, if they are not handled properly, the harmful substances inside will cause secondary{{Clarify|date=December 2021}} pollution to the environment.{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Haohui |last2=Gong |first2=Yuan |last3=Yu |first3=Yajuan |last4=Huang |first4=Kai |last5=Wang |first5=Lei |date=2019-12-01 |title=Superior "green" electrode materials for secondary batteries: through the footprint family indicators to analyze their environmental friendliness |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06865-6 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=26 |issue=36 |pages=36538–36557 |doi=10.1007/s11356-019-06865-6 |issn=1614-7499 |pmid=31732947 |bibcode=2019ESPR...2636538W |s2cid=208046071}} These same processes can also endanger workers and damage their health.{{Cite journal |last1=Harper |first1=Gavin |last2=Sommerville |first2=Roberto |last3=Kendrick |first3=Emma |last4=Driscoll |first4=Laura |last5=Slater |first5=Peter |last6=Stolkin |first6=Rustam |last7=Walton |first7=Allan |last8=Christensen |first8=Paul |last9=Heidrich |first9=Oliver |last10=Lambert |first10=Simon |last11=Abbott |first11=Andrew |date=November 2019 |title=Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=575 |issue=7781 |pages=75–86 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5 |pmid=31695206 |s2cid=207913324 |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Natur.575...75H }} Vehicle fires cause local pollution.{{Cite journal|title=Ecotoxicity Evaluation of Fire-Extinguishing Water from Large-Scale Battery and Battery Electric Vehicle Fire Tests|first1=Maria|last1=Quant|first2=Ola|last2=Willstrand|first3=Tove|last3=Mallin|first4=Jonna|last4=Hynynen|date=28 March 2023|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=57|issue=12|pages=4821–4830|doi=10.1021/acs.est.2c08581|pmid=36913186|pmc=10061927}}

Although there are several ways the electric motors can be recycled, as of 2024 about half of the magnetic material is lost: this is partly because very few manufacturers consider end-of-life in the design.{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Zushu |last2=Hamidi |first2=Ahmed Samir |last3=Yan |first3=Zhiming |last4=Sattar |first4=Anwar |last5=Hazra |first5=Sumit |last6=Soulard |first6=Juliette |last7=Guest |first7=Caroline |last8=Ahmed |first8=Syed Hadi |last9=Tailor |first9=Friya |date=2024-06-01 |title=A circular economy approach for recycling Electric Motors in the end-of-life Vehicles: A literature review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344924001769 |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=205 |pages=107582 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107582 |issn=0921-3449 |quote=Very few manufacturers have considered EoL and as a result, most EMs are currently being recycled sub-optimally with a large amount of intrinsic active material value (40 to 60 %) being lost as magnets.}}

• All-electric mode
• Battery
• Battery fade
• Converting existing vehicle to electric
• Downcycling of end-of-life e-automotive batteries
• Electric power
• Electric velomobiles
• Fuel cell car
• Full cost accounting
• Hybrid electric vehicle
• Induction motor
• Modal shift
• Neighborhood Electric Vehicle
• Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
• Plug-in hybrid electric car
• Robotic disassembly of electric car batteries
• Solar car
• Vehicles powered by advanced biofuels

{{Reflist}}

Category:Electric vehicle industry

Category:Environmental issues

Category:Environmental impact of products

• {{cite web |last=Wheeler |first=Max |date=July 30, 2024 |url=https://smart-motoring.com/ev/are-electric-vehicles-really-green/ |title=Are Electric Vehicles Really Green? |website=Smart Motoring |location=UK |access-date=2025-03-18}}