Electric car

{{See also|Vehicle classification by propulsion system|Plug-in electric vehicle#Terminology|Battery electric vehicle}}

The term "electric car" typically refers specifically to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) or all-electric cars, a type of electric vehicle (EV) that has an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on the vehicle is the only energy source that provide propulsion for the wheels. The term generally refers to highway-capable automobiles, but there are also low-speed electric vehicles with limitations in terms of weight, power, and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on certain public roads. The latter are classified as Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) in the United States,{{cite web |url= http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/rulings/lsv/lsv.html |title=US Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 49 CFR Part 571 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards |access-date=2009-08-06 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100227044214/http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/rulings/lsv/lsv.html |archive-date=27 February 2010 |url-status=live }} and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe.{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52010PC0542&from=EN|title=Citizens' summary EU proposal for a Regulation on L-category vehicles (two- or three-wheel vehicles and quadricycles) |publisher=European Commission |date=2010-10-04 |access-date=2023-04-06}}

{{Main|History of the electric vehicle}}

Robert Anderson is often credited with inventing the first electric car some time between 1832 and 1839.{{cite book|first= Hans|last= Roth|title= Das erste vierrädrige Elektroauto der Welt|trans-title= The first four-wheeled electric car in the world|language= de|date= March 2011|pages= 2–3}}

The following experimental electric cars appeared during the 1880s:

• In 1881, Gustave Trouvé presented an electric car driven by an improved Siemens motor at the Exposition internationale d'Électricité de Paris.{{cite book |first=Ernest H |last=Wakefield |title= History of the Electric Automobile |publisher=Society of Automotive Engineers |year=1994 |isbn= 1-5609-1299-5 |pages=2–3 }}
• in 1882 Werner von Siemens presents the Electromote, the world's first trolleybus, in Berlin.
• In 1884, Thomas Parker built an electric car in Wolverhampton, England using his own specially-designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries, although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895.{{Cite conference |last= Guarnieri |first= M. |year= 2012 |title=Looking back to electric cars |journal=Proc. HISTELCON 2012 – 3rd Region-8 IEEE HISTory of Electro – Technology Conference: The Origins of Electrotechnologies |pages=1–6 |doi= 10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583 |isbn=978-1-4673-3078-7 |doi-access=free }}{{cite web |url= http://www.owningelectriccar.com/electric-car-history.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140105043545/http://www.owningelectriccar.com/electric-car-history.html |title= Electric Car History |access-date=2012-12-17 |archive-date=2014-01-05 }}{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5212278/Worlds-first-electric-car-built-by-Victorian-inventor-in-1884.html |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |title=World's first electric car built by Victorian inventor in 1884 |date= 2009-04-24 |access-date=2009-07-14 |location=London |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180421173243/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5212278/Worlds-first-electric-car-built-by-Victorian-inventor-in-1884.html |archive-date= 21 April 2018 |url-status=live }}
• In 1888, the German Andreas Flocken designed the Flocken Elektrowagen, regarded by some as the first "real" electric car.{{Cite book |title=30-Second Great Inventions |last= Boyle |first=David |publisher=Ivy Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781782406846 |page=62 }}{{Cite book |title= Electric and Hybrid Vehicles |last=Denton |first=Tom |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=9781317552512 |page=6 }}{{cite web |url= https://www.np-coburg.de/lokal/coburg/coburg/Elektroauto-in-Coburg-erfunden;art83423,1491254 |title=Elektroauto in Coburg erfunden |trans-title=Electric car invented in Coburg |work=Neue Presse Coburg |location=Germany |language=de |date=2011-01-12 |access-date=2019-09-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160309155726/https://www.np-coburg.de/lokal/coburg/coburg/Elektroauto-in-Coburg-erfunden;art83423,1491254 |archive-date=9 March 2016 |url-status=live }}
• In 1890, Andrew Morrison introduced the first electric car to the United States.{{Cite web |title=The History of the Electric Car |url=https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Energy.gov |language=en}}

Electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, providing a level of comfort and an ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline-driven cars of the time.{{cite web |url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/182400/electric-automobile |title=Electric automobile |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica (online) |access-date=2014-05-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140220135955/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/182400/electric-automobile |archive-date=20 February 2014 |url-status=live }} The electric vehicle fleet peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century.{{cite news|url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/justingerdes/2012/05/11/the-global-electric-vehicle-movement-best-practices-from-16-cities/ |title= The Global Electric Vehicle Movement: Best Practices From 16 Cities |first= Justin |last=Gerdes |magazine=Forbes |date=2012-05-11 |access-date=2014-10-20 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170729205753/https://www.forbes.com/sites/justingerdes/2012/05/11/the-global-electric-vehicle-movement-best-practices-from-16-cities/ |archive-date=29 July 2017 |url-status=live }}

In 1897, electric cars first found commercial use as taxis in Britain and in the United States. In London, Walter Bersey's electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn.{{cite web |url=https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/the-surprisingly-old-story-of-londons-first-ever-electric-taxi/ |title= The Surprisingly Old Story of London's First Ever Electric Taxi |last= Says |first= Alan Brown |website= Science Museum Blog |date= 9 July 2012 |language= en-GB |access-date=2019-10-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191023082317/https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/the-surprisingly-old-story-of-londons-first-ever-electric-taxi/ |archive-date=23 October 2019 |url-status=live }} In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the design of the Electrobat II, formed part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia.{{cite web |url= http://edisontechcenter.org/ElectricCars.html |title=History of Electric Cars |first=Galen |last=Handy |publisher=The Edison Tech Center |year=2014 |access-date=2017-09-07 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170918161405/http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ElectricCars.html |archive-date=18 September 2017 |url-status=live }} During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the United States included Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric, and Detroit Electric. Their electric vehicles were quieter than gasoline-powered ones, and did not require gear changes.{{cite web |title= Some Facts about Electric Vehicles |url= http://www.automobilesreview.com/auto-news/some-facts-about-electric-vehicles/42240/ |website=Automobilesreview |access-date=2017-10-06 |date=2012-02-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170811145521/http://www.automobilesreview.com/auto-news/some-facts-about-electric-vehicles/42240/ |archive-date=11 August 2017 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/photo-essays/2019-01-05/171-years-before-tesla-the-evolution-of-electric-vehicles?srnd=hyperdrive |title=171 Years Before Tesla: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles |first1= Marisa |last1= Gertz |first2= Melinda |last2= Grenier |work= Bloomberg |date= 2019-01-05 |access-date= 2019-09-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190111060541/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/photo-essays/2019-01-05/171-years-before-tesla-the-evolution-of-electric-vehicles?srnd=hyperdrive |archive-date= 11 January 2019 |url-status= live }}

Six electric cars held the land speed record in the 19th century.{{citation |url= http://www.macscouter.com/CubScouts/PowWow07/SCCC_2007/CubScoutThemes/Jan_2008.pdf |date=January 2008 |title=Cub Scout Car Show |access-date=2009-04-12 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040037/http://www.macscouter.com/CubScouts/PowWow07/SCCC_2007/CubScoutThemes/Jan_2008.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }} The last of them was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke the {{convert|100|km/h|abbr=on}} speed barrier by reaching a top speed of {{convert|105.88|km/h|abbr=on}} in 1899.

Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE) cars and mass production of cheaper gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles, especially the Ford Model T, led to a decline. ICE cars' much quicker refueling times and cheaper production costs made them more popular. However, a decisive moment came with the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor{{cite web|last= Laukkonen|first= J.D.|date= 1 October 2013|title= History of the Starter Motor|url=http://www.crankshift.com/history-starter-motor/|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190921052450/http://www.crankshift.com/history-starter-motor/|archive-date=21 September 2019|access-date=30 September 2019|work=Crank Shift | quote = This starter motor first showed up on the 1912 Cadillac, which also had the first complete electrical system, since the starter doubled as a generator once the engine was running. Other automakers were slow to adopt the new technology, but electric starter motors would be ubiquitous within the next decade.}} that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking.

File:Capture d’écran 2016-10-14 à 21.26.28.png|Gustave Trouvé's personal electric vehicle (1881), the world's first publicly presented full-scale electric car powered by an improved Siemens motor

File:First Trolleybuss of Siemens in Berlin 1882 (postcard).jpg|The Electromote, the world's first trolleybus by Werner von Siemens, Berlin 1882

File:1888 Flocken Elektrowagen.jpg|The Flocken Elektrowagen (1888) was the first four-wheeled electric car in the worldhttp://www.np-coburg.de/lokal/coburg/coburg/Elektroauto-in-Coburg-erfunden;art83423,1491254 np-coburg.de

File:Thomas Parker Electric car.jpg|Early electric car built by Thomas Parker - photo from 1895{{cite web |url= http://www.historywebsite.co.uk/genealogy/Parker/ElwellParker.htm |title=Elwell-Parker, Limited |access-date=2016-02-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100247/http://www.historywebsite.co.uk/genealogy/Parker/ElwellParker.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}

File:Jamais contente.jpg|"La Jamais Contente", 1899

File:Apollo15LunarRover.jpg|NASA's Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery-driven (1971)

File:EV1 (6).jpg|The General Motors EV1, one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources Board (CARB) mandate, had a range of {{Convert|160|mi|km|abbr= in|order= flip}} with NiMH batteries in 1999.

File:Tesla Roadster.JPG|The Tesla Roadster (2008).

In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal of a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.{{cite book |last1=Sperling |first1=Daniel |first2=Deborah |last2= Gordon |title=Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 22–26] |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-537664-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 }}{{cite book |first=Sherry |last=Boschert |title=Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pluginhybridscar00bosc/page/15 15–28] |publisher=New Society Publishers |isbn=978-0-86571-571-4 |url= https://archive.org/details/pluginhybridscar00bosc/page/15 }} In response, automakers developed electric models. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market, because of a massive campaign by the US automakers to discredit the idea of electric cars.See Who Killed the Electric Car? (2006)

California electric-automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster, first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than {{convert|200|mi|km|abbr= in|round=5|order=flip}} per charge.{{cite web |url= https://cleantechnica.com/2015/04/26/electric-car-history/ |title=Electric Car Evolution |first= Zachary |last=Shahan |publisher=Clean Technica |date=2015-04-26 |access-date=2016-09-08 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160918061731/https://cleantechnica.com/2015/04/26/electric-car-history/ |archive-date=18 September 2016 |url-status=live }} 2008: The Tesla Roadster becomes the first production electric vehicle to use lithium-ion battery cells as well as the first production electric vehicle to have a range of over 200 miles on a single charge.

Better Place, a venture-backed company based in Palo Alto, California, but steered from Israel, developed and sold battery charging and battery swapping services for electric cars. The company was publicly launched on 29 October 2007 and announced deployment of electric vehicle networks in Israel, Denmark and Hawaii in 2008 and 2009. The company planned to deploy the infrastructure on a country-by-country basis. In January 2008, Better Place announced a memorandum of understanding with Renault-Nissan to build the world's first Electric Recharge Grid Operator (ERGO) model for Israel. Under the agreement, Better Place would build the electric recharge grid and Renault-Nissan would provide the electric vehicles. Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by mismanagement, wasteful efforts to establish toeholds and run pilots in too many countries, the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, and a market penetration far lower than originally predicted.{{Cite book |last=Blum |first=Brian |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/990318853 |title=Totaled : the billion-dollar crash of the startup that took on big auto, big oil and the world |isbn=978-0-9830428-2-2 |oclc=990318853}}

File:Volkswagen ID.3 at IAA 2019 IMG 0779.jpg has invested in a wide-ranging electrification strategy in Europe, North America and China, with its electric "MEB" platform.]]

The Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched in 2009 in Japan, was the first highway-legal series production electric car,{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTOE62T09V20100330 |title=Mitsubishi Motors lowers price of electric i-MiEV|date= 2010-03-30 |first= Chang-Ran |last= Kim |work= Reuters|access-date= 2020-05-22 }} and also the first all-electric car to sell more than 10,000 units. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, surpassed the i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car at that time.{{cite news |url= http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/best-selling-electric-car/|title=Best-selling electric car |work=Guinness World Records|year=2012|access-date=2020-05-22|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://archive.today/20130216050030/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/best-selling-electric-car/|archive-date=2013-02-16}}

Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve urban air quality.{{cite book|title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?|editor=David B. Sandalow|year=2009|publisher=The Brookings Institution|isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1|edition=1st.|url= http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx|pages=1–6|access-date=6 February 2011|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190328104012/https://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx/ |archive-date=28 March 2019|url-status=live}}See Introduction During the 2010s, the electric vehicle industry in China expanded rapidly with government support.{{Cite web|title= DRIVING A GREEN FUTURE: A RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF CHINA'S ELECTRIC VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT AND OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE|url=https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/China-green-future-ev-jan2021.pdf |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117071311/https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/China-green-future-ev-jan2021.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2021 }} Several automakers marked up the prices of their electric vehicles in anticipation of the subsidy adjustments, including Tesla, Volkswagen and Guangzhou-based GAC Group, which counts Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota as foreign partners.{{Cite web|date=2022-01-03|title=Automakers raise prices for NEVs in China ahead of subsidy cuts|url=https://kr-asia.com/automakers-raise-prices-for-nevs-in-china-ahead-of-subsidy-cuts|access-date=2022-01-13|website=KrASIA|language=en}}

In July 2019 US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully-electric Tesla Model S the title "ultimate car of the year".{{cite news |url= https://www.motortrend.com/news/2013-tesla-model-s-beats-chevy-toyota-cadillac-ultimate-car-of-the-year/ |title=2013 Tesla Model S Beats Chevy, Toyota, and Cadillac for Ultimate Car of the Year Honors |first= Scott |last= Evans |work= MotorTrend |date= 2019-07-10 |access-date=2019-07-17 |quote= We are confident that, were we to summon all the judges and staff of the past 70 years, we would come to a rapid consensus: No vehicle we've awarded, be it Car of the Year, Import Car of the Year, SUV of the Year, or Truck of the Year, can equal the impact, performance, and engineering excellence that is our Ultimate Car of the Year winner, the 2013 Tesla Model S. }} In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the world's all-time best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered; it reached the milestone of 1 million global sales in June 2021.

{{multiple image

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| image1 = 2020+ Electric vehicle stock - International Energy Agency.svg

| caption1 = The global stock of both plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) has grown steadily since the 2010s.{{cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 / Trends in electric light-duty vehicles |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-electric-light-duty-vehicles |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512122042/https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-electric-light-duty-vehicles |archive-date=12 May 2023 |date=April 2023 |url-status=live }}

| image2 = Ev sales 2012 2024 stacked.png

| caption2 = Sales of passenger electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles since 2012.{{cite web|title=Electric car sales, 2012 – 2024|url=https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/electric-car-sales-2012-2024|website=IEA Data and Statistics|publisher=International Energy Agency|access-date=27 May 2025}}

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In the third quarter of 2021, the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that sales of electric vehicles had reached six percent of all US light-duty automotive sales, the highest volume of EV sales ever recorded at 187,000 vehicles. This was an 11% sales increase, as opposed to a 1.3% increase in gasoline and diesel-powered units. The report indicated that California was the US leader in EV with nearly 40% of US purchases, followed by Florida – 6%, Texas – 5% and New York 4.4%.{{cite news |last1=Ali |first1=Shirin |title=More Americans are buying electric vehicles, as gas car sales fall, report says |url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/resilience/smart-cities/599426-more-americans-are-buying-electric-vehicles-as-gas/ |work=The Hill |date=23 March 2022}}

Electric companies from the Middle East have been designing electric cars. Oman's Mays Motors have developed the Mays i E1 which is expected to begin production in 2023. Built from carbon fibre, it has a range of about {{convert|350|miles|km|round=10|order=flip|abbr=in}} and can accelerate from {{convert|0-80|mph|km/h|round=5|order=flip|abbr=on}} in about 4 secs.{{cite news |url=https://www.greenprophet.com/2022/03/oman-electrica-car-mays-motors/ |title=Oman makes first electric car in the Middle East |first=Karin |last=Kloosterman |work=Green Prophet |location=Canada |date=23 March 2022 |access-date=22 May 2022}} In Turkey, the EV company Togg is starting production of its electric vehicles. Batteries will be created in a joint venture with the Chinese company Farasis Energy.{{cite news |url=https://www.greenprophet.com/2022/05/togg-electric-turkey/ |title=Turkey's all electric Togg EV |first=Karin |last=Kloosterman |work=Green Prophet |location=Canada |date=22 May 2022 |access-date=22 May 2022}}

The most expensive part of an electric car is its battery. The price decreased from {{Euro|605}} per kWh in 2010, to {{Euro|170}} in 2017, to {{Euro|100}} in 2019.{{cite news |url= https://www.umweltdialog.de/de/wirtschaft/mobilitaet/2018/Trotz-fallender-Batteriekosten-bleiben-Elektromobile-teuer.php |title=Trotz fallender Batteriekosten bleiben E-Mobile teuer |trans-title=Despite falling battery costs electric cars remain expensive |work=Umwelt Dialog |location=Germany |language=de |date=2018-07-31 |access-date=2019-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228085104/https://www.umweltdialog.de/de/wirtschaft/mobilitaet/2018/Trotz-fallender-Batteriekosten-bleiben-Elektromobile-teuer.php |archive-date=28 December 2019 |url-status=live }}{{cite news|url= https://www.nzz.ch/mobilitaet/auto-mobil/audi-entwicklungsvorstand-rothenpieler-brennstoffzelle-im-fokus-ld.1465168 |title=Wir arbeiten mit Hochdruck an der Brennstoffzelle |trans-title=We are working hard on the fuel cell |first=Stephan |last=Hauri |work=Neue Zürcher Zeitung |location=Switzerland |language=de |date=2019-03-08 |access-date=2019-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326111120/https://www.nzz.ch/mobilitaet/auto-mobil/audi-entwicklungsvorstand-rothenpieler-brennstoffzelle-im-fokus-ld.1465168 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }} In China LFP batteries are popular and are cheaper.{{Cite web |title=Where are EV battery prices headed in 2025 and beyond? |url=https://www.spglobal.com/automotive-insights/en/blogs/2025/01/where-are-ev-battery-prices-headed-in-2025-and-beyond}}

In the EU and US, the total cost of ownership of recent electric cars is cheaper than that of equivalent gasoline cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs.{{Cite journal|date=2021-02-01|title=The total cost of electric vehicle ownership: A consumer-oriented study of China's post-subsidy era|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421520307345|journal=Energy Policy|language=en|volume=149|pages=112023|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112023|issn=0301-4215|last1=Ouyang|first1=Danhua|last2=Zhou|first2=Shen|last3=Ou|first3=Xunmin|bibcode=2021EnPol.14912023O |s2cid=228862530|url-access=subscription}} A 2024 Consumer Reports analysis of 29 car brands found Tesla was the least expensive to maintain over a 10-year period; Tesla was the only all-electric brand included.{{Cite web |date=2024-04-23 |title=Four of the Five Least Expensive Car Brands to Maintain Are American |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/cars/car-maintenance/the-cost-of-car-ownership-a1854979198/ |access-date=2024-04-30 |website=Consumer Reports |language=en-US}}

The greater the distance driven per year, the more likely the total cost of ownership for an electric car will be less than for an equivalent ICE car.{{cite web |title=Large Auto Leasing Company: Electric Cars Have Mostly Lower Total Cost in Europe |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2020/05/08/large-auto-leasing-company-electric-cars-have-mostly-lower-total-cost-in-europe/ |website=CleanTechnica |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200521114051/https://cleantechnica.com/2020/05/08/large-auto-leasing-company-electric-cars-have-mostly-lower-total-cost-in-europe/ |archive-date=21 May 2020 |date=9 May 2020 |url-status=live}} The break-even distance varies by country depending on the taxes, subsidies, and different costs of energy. In some countries the comparison may vary by city, as a type of car may have different charges to enter different cities; for example, in England, London charges ICE cars more than Birmingham does.{{cite news |title=Birmingham clean air charge: What you need to know |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-birmingham-44551122 |work=BBC |date=13 March 2019 |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190323125626/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-birmingham-44551122 |archive-date=23 March 2019 |url-status=live }}

Several national and local governments have established EV incentives to reduce the purchase price of electric cars and other plug-ins.{{cite web |url= http://jama.org/pdf/FactSheet10-2009-09-24.pdf |title=Fact Sheet – Japanese Government Incentives for the Purchase of Environmentally Friendly Vehicles |publisher=Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association |access-date=2010-12-24|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101226222150/http://www.jama.org/pdf/FactSheet10-2009-09-24.pdf |archive-date=2010-12-26}}{{cite news|url= http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/06/02/china-to-start-pilot-program-providing-subsidies-for-electric-cars-and-hybrids/ |title=China to Start Pilot Program, Providing Subsidies for Electric Cars and Hybrids |work=The New York Times |date=2010-06-02 |access-date=2010-06-02 |first=Jim |last=Motavalli |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100603030955/http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/06/02/china-to-start-pilot-program-providing-subsidies-for-electric-cars-and-hybrids/ |archive-date=3 June 2010 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/04/acea-tax-20100421.html#more |title=Growing Number of EU Countries Levying CO2 Taxes on Cars and Incentivizing Plug-ins |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2010-04-21 |access-date=2010-04-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101231035827/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/04/acea-tax-20100421.html#more |archive-date=31 December 2010 |url-status=live }}{{cite web|date=2009-11-30|title=Notice 2009–89: New Qualified Plug-in Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Credit|url=https://www.irs.gov/irb/2009-48_IRB/ar09.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328102104/http://www.irs.gov/irb/2009-48_IRB/ar09.html|archive-date=28 March 2010|access-date=2010-04-01|publisher=Internal Revenue Service}}

{{As of|2020|}}, the electric vehicle battery is more than a quarter of the total cost of the car.{{Cite news|date=2020-12-16|title=Batteries For Electric Cars Speed Toward a Tipping Point|language=en|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-12-16/electric-cars-are-about-to-be-as-cheap-as-gas-powered-models|access-date=2021-03-04}} New purchase prices are expected to drop below those of new ICE cars when battery costs fall below {{USD|100}} per kWh, which is forecast to be in the mid-2020s.{{Cite web|date=2020-03-13|title=EV-internal combustion price parity forecast for 2023 – report|url=https://www.mining.com/ev-internal-combustion-price-parity-forecasted-for-2023-report/|access-date=2020-10-30|website=MINING.COM|language=en-US}}{{Cite web|date=2020-10-23|title=Why are electric cars expensive? The cost of making and buying an EV explained|url=https://auto.hindustantimes.com/auto/news/why-are-electric-cars-expensive-the-cost-of-making-and-buying-an-ev-explained-41603419957680.html|access-date=2020-10-30|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}

Leasing or subscriptions are popular in some countries,{{cite news|last=Stock|first=Kyle|date=2018-01-03|title=Why early EV adopters prefer leasing – by far|newspaper=Automotive News|url=http://www.autonews.com/article/20180103/OEM05/180109952/why-ev-drivers-prefer-leasing-by-far|access-date=2018-02-05}}{{Cite web|last=Ben|date=2019-12-14|title=Should I Lease An Electric Car? What To Know Before You Do|url=http://15.222.154.211/lease-an-electric-car/|access-date=2020-10-30|website=Steer|language=en-US|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812034604/http://15.222.154.211/lease-an-electric-car/|url-status=dead}} depending somewhat on national taxes and subsidies,{{Cite web|date=2020-07-15|title=Subsidies slash EV lease costs in Germany, France|url=https://europe.autonews.com/automakers/subsidies-slash-ev-lease-costs-germany-france|access-date=2020-10-30|website=Automotive News Europe|language=en}} and end of lease cars are expanding the second hand market.{{Cite magazine|title=To Save the Planet, Get More EVs Into Used Car Lots|language=en-us|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/save-planet-more-evs-used-car-lots/|access-date=2020-10-30|issn=1059-1028}}

Electricity almost always costs less than gasoline per kilometer travelled, but the price of electricity often varies depending on where and what time of day the car is charged.{{cite news |url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2018/01/14/electric-vehicles-cost-less-than-half-as-much-to-drive/#6b6004853f97 |title=Electric Vehicles Cost Less Than Half As Much To Drive |last=McMahon |first=Jeff |magazine=Forbes |access-date=2018-05-18 |language=en |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180518131437/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2018/01/14/electric-vehicles-cost-less-than-half-as-much-to-drive/#6b6004853f97 |archive-date=18 May 2018 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web|title=How much does it cost to charge an electric car?|url=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/advice-electric-cars/how-much-does-it-cost-charge-electric-car|access-date=2021-08-01|website=Autocar|language=en}} Cost savings are also affected by the price of gasoline which can vary by location.{{cite web |last1=Kaminski |first1=Joe |title=The U.S. States Where You'll Save the Most Switching from Gas to Electric Vehicles |url=https://www.mroelectric.com/blog/state-by-state-cost-electric-vehicles/ |website=www.mroelectric.com |date=17 August 2021 |publisher=MRO Electric |access-date=3 September 2021}}

File:Piles of Salt Salar de Uyuni Bolivia Luca Galuzzi 2006 a.jpg in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world.{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/03/world/americas/03lithium.html?_r=1 |title=In Bolivia, Untapped Bounty Meets Nationalism |first=Simon |last=Romero |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2009-02-02|access-date=2010-02-28|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161227122218/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/03/world/americas/03lithium.html?_r=1|archive-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url= http://www.evaporiticosbolivia.org/index.php?Modulo=Temas&Opcion=Reservas |title=Página sobre el Salar (Spanish) |publisher=Evaporiticosbolivia.org |access-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110323141916/http://www.evaporiticosbolivia.org/index.php?Modulo=Temas&Opcion=Reservas |archive-date=2011-03-23 }}]]

{{Main|Environmental aspects of the electric car}}

Electric cars have several benefits when replacing ICE cars, including a significant reduction of local air pollution, as they do not emit exhaust pollutants such as volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen.{{Cite web|title=Vehicle exhaust emissions {{!}} What comes out of a car exhaust? {{!}} RAC Drive|url=https://www.rac.co.uk/drive/advice/emissions/vehicle-exhaust-emissions-what-comes-out-of-your-cars-exhaust/|access-date=2021-08-06|website=www.rac.co.uk|language=en}} Similar to ICE vehicles, electric cars emit particulates from tyre and brake wear{{Cite web|title=Tyre pollution 1000 times worse than tailpipe emissions|url=https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/news/environment/2020/03/06/tyre-pollution-1000-times-worse-than-tailpipe-emissions|access-date=2020-10-30|website=www.fleetnews.co.uk|language=en}} which may damage health,{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-01|title=Tyre and road wear particles (TRWP) - A review of generation, properties, emissions, human health risk, ecotoxicity, and fate in the environment|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=733|pages=137823|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137823|issn=0048-9697|doi-access=free|last1=Baensch-Baltruschat|first1=Beate|last2=Kocher|first2=Birgit|last3=Stock|first3=Friederike|last4=Reifferscheid|first4=Georg|pmid=32422457|bibcode=2020ScTEn.73337823B}} although regenerative braking in electric cars means less brake dust.{{Cite web|date=2019-07-02|title=EVs: Clean Air and Dirty Brakes|url=https://thebrakereport.com/clean-air-dirty-brakes/|access-date=2020-11-13|website=The BRAKE Report|language=en-US}} More research is needed on non-exhaust particulates.{{Cite web|title=Statement on the evidence for health effects associated with exposure to non-exhaust particulate matter from road transport|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/917308/COMEAP_Statement__on_the__evidence__for__health__effects__associated__with__exposure_to_non_exhaust_particulate_matter_from_road_transport_-COMEAP-Statement-non-exhaust-PM-health-effects.pdf|url-status=live|website=UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022235723/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/917308/COMEAP_Statement__on_the__evidence__for__health__effects__associated__with__exposure_to_non_exhaust_particulate_matter_from_road_transport_-COMEAP-Statement-non-exhaust-PM-health-effects.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2020 }} The sourcing of fossil fuels (oil well to gasoline tank) causes further damage as well as use of resources during the extraction and refinement processes.

Depending on the production process and the source of the electricity to charge the vehicle, emissions may be partly shifted from cities to the plants that generate electricity and produce the car as well as to the transportation of material. The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emissions of the electricity source and the efficiency of the vehicle. For electricity from the grid, the life-cycle emissions vary depending on the proportion of coal-fired power, but are always less than ICE cars.{{Cite web|title=A global comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars {{!}} International Council on Clean Transportation|url=https://theicct.org/publications/global-LCA-passenger-cars-jul2021|access-date=2021-08-06|website=theicct.org}}

The cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid by health cost savings in less than three years.{{cite news |title=Electric car switch on for health benefits |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-05-electric-car-health-benefits.html |publisher=Inderscience Publishers |location=UK |date=2019-05-16 |access-date=2019-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529160512/https://phys.org/news/2019-05-electric-car-health-benefits.html |archive-date=29 May 2019 |url-status=live }} According to a 2020 study, balancing lithium supply and demand for the rest of the century will require good recycling systems, vehicle-to-grid integration, and lower lithium intensity of transportation.{{Cite journal|last1=Greim|first1=Peter |last2=Solomon|first2=A. A.|last3=Breyer|first3=Christian |date=2020-09-11|title=Assessment of lithium criticality in the global energy transition and addressing policy gaps in transportation|url= |journal=Nature Communications|language=en |volume=11|issue=1|pages=4570 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-18402-y|pmid=32917866 |pmc=7486911 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.4570G |issn=2041-1723}}

The adoption of electric cars has accelerated due to advancements in battery technology, environmental concerns, and supportive government policies, making them a key player in the transition to cleaner transportation options.{{cite tech report |publisher=International Energy Agency |date=April 2023 |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023}}

{{cite tech report |publisher=Mordor Intelligence |date=2024 |title=Electric Vehicles Market - Size & share analysis - Growth trends & forecasts up to 2029 |url=https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/electric-vehicle-market}}

Some activists and journalists have raised concerns over the perceived lack of impact of electric cars in solving the climate change crisis{{cite web |last1=Casson |first1=Richard |title=We don't just need electric cars, we need fewer cars |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/13968/we-dont-just-need-electric-cars-we-need-fewer-cars/ |website=Greenpeace International |publisher=Greenpeace |access-date=13 June 2021}} compared to other, less popularized methods.{{cite news |title=Let's Count the Ways E-Scooters Could Save the City |url=https://www.wired.com/story/e-scooter-micromobility-infographics-cost-emissions/ |access-date=13 June 2021 |publisher=Wired |date=December 7, 2018}} These concerns have largely centered around the existence of less carbon-intensive and more efficient forms of transportation such as active mobility,{{Cite web|last=Brand|first=Christian|title=Cycling is ten times more important than electric cars for reaching net-zero cities|url=http://theconversation.com/cycling-is-ten-times-more-important-than-electric-cars-for-reaching-net-zero-cities-157163|access-date=2021-08-10|website=The Conversation|date=29 March 2021 |language=en}} mass transit and e-scooters and the continuation of a system designed for cars first.{{cite news |last1=Laughlin |first1=Jason |title=Why is Philly Stuck in Traffic? |url=https://www.inquirer.com/transportation/inq/traffic-philadelphia-center-city-bike-lanes-subway-bus-transit-solutions-20190129.html |access-date=13 June 2021 |publisher=The Philadelphia Inquirer |date=January 29, 2018}}

File:European_and_American_car_buyers_would_opt_for_hybrid_or_petrol_or_diesel_cars,_while_Chinese_respondents_favour_fully_electric_cars.jpg

A 2022 survey found that 33% of car buyers in Europe will opt for a petrol or diesel car when purchasing a new vehicle. 67% of the respondents mentioned opting for the hybrid or electric version.{{Cite web |title=2021-2022 EIB Climate Survey, part 2 of 3: Shopping for a new car? Most Europeans say they will opt for hybrid or electric |url=https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/4th-climate-survey/hybrid-electric-petrol-cars-flying-holidays-climate.htm |access-date=2022-04-04 |website=EIB.org |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=fm |date=2022-02-02 |title=Cypriots prefer hybrid or electric cars |url=https://www.financialmirror.com/2022/02/02/cypriots-prefer-hybrid-or-electric-cars/ |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=Financial Mirror |language=en-GB}} More specifically, it found that electric cars are only preferred by 28% of Europeans, making them the least preferred type of vehicle. 39% of Europeans tend to prefer hybrid vehicles, while 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles.{{Cite web |date=2022-02-01 |title=Germans less enthusiastic about electric cars than other Europeans - survey |url=https://www.cleanenergywire.org/news/germans-less-enthusiastic-about-electric-cars-other-europeans-survey |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=Clean Energy Wire |language=en}}

44% Chinese car buyers, on the other hand, are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car.{{Cite journal |last1=Rahmani |first1=Djamel |last2=Loureiro |first2=Maria L. |date=2018-03-21 |title=Why is the market for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) moving slowly? |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=e0193777 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0193777 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5862411 |pmid=29561860|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1393777R |doi-access=free }}

Specifically for the EU, 47% of car buyers over 65 years old are likely to purchase a hybrid vehicle, while 31% of younger respondents do not consider hybrid vehicles a good option. 35% would rather opt for a petrol or diesel vehicle, and 24% for an electric car instead of a hybrid.{{Cite web |date=2022-02-02 |title=67% of Europeans will opt for a hybrid or electric vehicle as their next purchase, says EIB survey |url=https://mayorsofeurope.eu/reports-analyses/67-of-europeans-will-opt-for-a-hybrid-or-electric-vehicle-as-their-next-purchase/ |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=Mayors of Europe |language=en-US}}

In the EU, only 13% of the total population do not plan on owning a vehicle at all.

File:Electric car diagram.svg

Electric motors can provide high power-to-weight ratios. Batteries can be designed to supply the electrical current needed to support these motors. Electric motors have a flat torque curve down to zero speed. For simplicity and reliability, most electric cars use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch.

Many electric cars have faster acceleration than average ICE cars, largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses and the more quickly-available torque of an electric motor.{{cite news |title=Gas-powered vs. Electric Cars: Which Is Faster? |url= https://auto.howstuffworks.com/gas-powered-vs-electric-cars-which-is-faster.htm |work=How Stuff Works |date=15 January 2019 |access-date=5 October 2020 |first=Cherise |last=Threewitt |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190322181830/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/gas-powered-vs-electric-cars-which-is-faster.htm |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=live }} However, NEVs may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak motors.

Electric vehicles can also use a motor in each wheel hub or next to the wheels; this is rare but claimed to be safer.{{Cite web|date=2020-05-20|title=In-wheel motors: The benefits of independent wheel torque control|url=https://www.e-motec.net/in-wheel-motors-beyond-torque-vectoring/|access-date=2021-08-06|website=E-Mobility Technology|language=en-US}} Electric vehicles that lack an axle, differential, or transmission can have less drivetrain inertia. Some direct current motor-equipped drag racer EVs have simple two-speed manual transmissions to improve top speed.{{cite web |last=Hedlund |first=R. |date=November 2008 |title=The Roger Hedlund 100 MPH Club |publisher=National Electric Drag Racing Association |url= http://nedra.com/100mph_club.html |access-date=2009-04-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101206091614/http://nedra.com/100mph_club.html |archive-date=6 December 2010 |url-status=live }} The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One claims it can go from {{convert|0|-|97|km/h|mph|abbr=on|0}} in 2.5 seconds. Tesla claims the upcoming Tesla Roadster will go {{convert|0|-|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on|0}} in 1.9 seconds.{{cite news |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/tesla-roadster-goes-0-60-mph-less-than-2-seconds-base-version-2017-11 |title=The new Tesla Roadster can do 0–60 mph in less than 2 seconds – and that's just the base version |access-date=2019-04-22 |date=2017-11-17 |last1=DeBord |first1=Matthew |work=Business Insider |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072312/https://www.businessinsider.com/tesla-roadster-goes-0-60-mph-less-than-2-seconds-base-version-2017-11 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |url-status=live }}

{{main|Electric car energy efficiency}}

File:Energy flow in cars (recuperation in green).pdf]]

Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as a fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories; diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%; electric vehicles convert over 77% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels.{{Cite web |title=All-Electric Vehicles |url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtech.shtml |access-date=2023-10-14 |website=www.fueleconomy.gov |language=en}}{{Cite book |title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? |first=Saurin D. |last=Shah|year=2009 |publisher=The Brookings Institution |isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1 |edition=1st |chapter=2|pages=29, 37 and 43}}{{cite web |url= https://cleantechnica.com/2018/03/10/electric-car-myth-buster-efficiency/ |title=Electric Car Myth Buster – Efficiency |date=2018-03-10 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US |access-date=2019-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418004549/https://cleantechnica.com/2018/03/10/electric-car-myth-buster-efficiency/ |archive-date=18 April 2019 |url-status=live }} This is partially offset by power required to move the significant weight of the batteries.

Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds. The electronics select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration.{{Cite news |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2019/07/22/ev-transmissions-are-coming-and-its-a-good-thing/ |title=EV Transmissions Are Coming, And It's A Good Thing |first=Jennifer |last=Sensiba |work=CleanTechnica |date=2019-07-23 |access-date=2019-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723194905/https://cleantechnica.com/2019/07/22/ev-transmissions-are-coming-and-its-a-good-thing/ |archive-date=23 July 2019 |url-status=live }} Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking.

Combustion powered cars harness waste heat from the engine to provide cabin heating, but this option is not available in an electric vehicle. While heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater, higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump, such as on the Nissan Leaf.{{Cite web|title=Can heat pumps solve cold-weather range loss for EVs?|url=https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1124387_can-heat-pumps-solve-cold-weather-range-loss-for-evs|access-date=2020-11-13|website=Green Car Reports|date=8 August 2019 |language=en}} PTC junction cooling{{cite patent |country=US |number=5889260 |title=Electrical PTC heating device |pubdate=1999-03-30 |inventor1-last=Golan|inventor1-first=Gad |inventor2-last=Galperin|inventor2-first=Yuly }} is also attractive for its simplicity—this kind of system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster.

To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and Tesla cars can be preheated while the vehicle is plugged in.{{cite web |author=NativeEnergy |url= https://www.recyclebank.com/live-green/3-electric-car-myths-that-will-leave-you-out-in-the-cold |title=3 Electric Car Myths That Will Leave You Out in the Cold |publisher=Recyclebank |date=2012-09-07 |access-date=2013-07-21 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130411184704/https://www.recyclebank.com/live-green/3-electric-car-myths-that-will-leave-you-out-in-the-cold |archive-date=11 April 2013 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |first=Ed |last=Piotrowski |url=http://cgdailydrive.com/how-i-survived-the-cold-weather/ |title=How i Survived the Cold Weather |publisher=The Daily Drive – Consumer Guide Automotive |date=2013-01-03 |access-date=2013-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603061952/http://cgdailydrive.com/how-i-survived-the-cold-weather/ |archive-date=3 June 2013 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://www.teslarati.com/effects-winter-tesla-battery-range/ |title=Effects of Winter on Tesla Battery Range and Regen |website=teslarati.com |date=2014-11-24 |access-date=2015-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221192753/http://www.teslarati.com/effects-winter-tesla-battery-range/ |archive-date=21 February 2015 |url-status=live }}

Some electric cars (for example, the Citroën Berlingo Electrique) use an auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline-fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice "green" and "Zero emissions" credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked; two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option.{{cite web |url=http://www.toyota.com/prius-hybrid/options.html |title=2010 Options and Packages |work=Toyota Prius |publisher=Toyota |access-date=2009-07-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090707082048/http://www.toyota.com/prius-hybrid/options.html |archive-date=7 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}

File:V10084P006.jpg]]

The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided into three parts dealing with specific issues:

• On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery{{cite web |title=ISO 6469-1:2019 Electrically propelled road vehicles — Safety specifications — Part 1: Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/68665.html |website=ISO |access-date=21 November 2019 |date=April 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191230043955/https://www.iso.org/standard/68665.html |archive-date=30 December 2019 |url-status=live }}
• Functional safety means and protection against failures{{cite web |title=ISO 6469-2:2018 Electrically propelled road vehicles — Safety specifications — Part 2: Vehicle operational safety |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/68666.html |website=ISO |access-date=22 November 2019 |date=February 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191222080825/https://www.iso.org/standard/68666.html |archive-date=22 December 2019 |url-status=live }}
• Protection of persons against electrical hazards{{cite web |title=ISO 6469-3:2018 Electrically propelled road vehicles — Safety specifications — Part 3: Electrical safety |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/68667.html |website=ISO |access-date=22 November 2019 |date=October 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191226153537/https://www.iso.org/standard/68667.html |archive-date=26 December 2019 |url-status=live }}

Research published in the British Medical Journal in 2024 indicates that between 2013 and 2017 in the United Kingdom, electric cars killed pedestrians at twice the rate of petrol or diesel vehicles because "they are less audible to pedestrians in urban areas".{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/05/21/electric-cars-kill-pedestrians-twice-rate-petrol-diesel/|title=Electric cars 'twice as lethal for pedestrians as petrol or diesel'|last=Searles|first=Michael|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=21 May 2024|access-date=22 May 2024}} Jurisdictions have passed laws requiring electric vehicles to be manufactured with sound generators.

The weight of the batteries themselves usually makes an EV far heavier than a comparable gasoline vehicle. In a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle will, on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a lighter vehicle; therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits to the occupant, while increasing harm to others.{{cite book|author1=National Research Council|author2=Transportation Research Board|author3=Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences|author4=Board on Energy and Environmental Systems|author5=Committee on the Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards|title=Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yRybeDbz8R8C&pg=PA71|year=2002|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-07601-2|page=71|access-date=6 February 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191224152556/https://books.google.com/books?id=yRybeDbz8R8C&pg=PA71|archive-date=24 December 2019|url-status=live}} On average, an accident will cause about 50% more injuries to the occupants of a {{convert|2000|lb|-2|abbr=on}} vehicle than those in a {{convert|3000|lb|-2|abbr=on}} vehicle.{{cite web |url= http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/regrev/evaluate/pdf/809662.pdf |publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=October 2003 |title=Vehicle Weight, Fatality Risk and Crash Compatibility of Model Year 1991–99 Passenger Cars and Light Trucks |access-date=2009-04-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090920124646/http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/regrev/evaluate/pdf/809662.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2009 |url-status=live }} Heavier cars are more dangerous to people outside the car if they hit a pedestrian or another vehicle.{{Cite web|last=Valdes-Dapena|first=Peter|date=7 June 2021|title=Why electric cars are so much heavier than regular cars|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/06/07/business/electric-vehicles-weight/index.html|access-date=2021-08-10|website=CNN|department=CNN Business}}

The battery in skateboard configuration lowers the center of gravity, increasing driving stability, lowering the risk of an accident through loss of control.{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Peiling|date=2020|title=Effect of electric battery mass distribution on electric vehicle movement safety|url=https://www.jvejournals.com/article/21569|access-date=2021-08-10|journal=Vibroengineering PROCEDIA|volume=33 |pages=78–83 |doi=10.21595/vp.2020.21569 |s2cid=225065995 |language=en|doi-access=free}} Additionally, a lower center of gravity provides a greater resistance to roll-over crashes.{{Cite web |title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Maintenance and Safety of Electric Vehicles |url=https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric-maintenance#:~:text=All-electric%20vehicles%20tend%20to,less%20likely%20to%20roll%20over. |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=afdc.energy.gov |language=en}} If there is a separate motor near or in each wheel, this is claimed to be safer due to better handling.{{Cite web|date=2018-06-26|title=Protean Electric's In-Wheel Motors Could Make EVs More Efficient|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/protean-electrics-inwheel-motors-could-make-evs-more-efficient|access-date=2021-08-10|website=IEEE Spectrum|language=en}}

{{Main|Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents}}

Like their ICE counterparts, electric vehicle batteries can catch fire after a crash or mechanical failure.{{cite journal |last1=Spotnitz |first1=R. |last2=Franklin |first2=J. |issn=0378-7753 |doi=10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00488-3 |title=Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=81–100 |year=2003 |bibcode= 2003JPS...113...81S }} Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have occurred, albeit fewer per distance traveled than ICE vehicles.{{cite news |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2018/03/29/roadshow-electric-cars-not-as-likely-to-catch-fire-as-gas-powered-vehicles/ |title=Roadshow: Electric cars not as likely to catch fire as gasoline powered vehicles |date=2018-03-29 |newspaper=The Mercury News |access-date=2018-05-12 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512112928/https://www.mercurynews.com/2018/03/29/roadshow-electric-cars-not-as-likely-to-catch-fire-as-gas-powered-vehicles/ |archive-date=12 May 2018 |url-status=live }} Some cars' high-voltage systems are designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment,{{cite press release |url= http://media.gm.com/content/media/us/en/gm/news.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2011/Jan/0118_NFPA |title=Detroit First Responders Get Electric Vehicle Safety Training |work=General Motors News |date=2011-01-19 |access-date=2011-11-12 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110605004927/http://media.gm.com/content/media/us/en/gm/news.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2011/Jan/0118_NFPA |archive-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url= http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/08/gmfr-20100827.html |title=General Motors Kicks Off National Electric Vehicle Training Tour For First Responders |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2010-08-27 |access-date=2011-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731082849/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/08/gmfr-20100827.html |archive-date=31 July 2013 |url-status=live }} and in case of failure firefighters may be trained for manual high-voltage system shutdown.{{cite news |url=http://translogic.aolautos.com/2011/12/16/chevy-volt-unplugged-when-to-depower-your-ev-after-a-crash/?ncid |title=Chevy Volt Unplugged: When To Depower Your EV After a Crash |author=AOL Autos |work=Translogic |date=2011-12-16 |access-date=2011-12-20 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117182627/http://translogic.aolautos.com/2011/12/16/chevy-volt-unplugged-when-to-depower-your-ev-after-a-crash/?ncid |archive-date=17 January 2012 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url= http://www.nissan-techinfo.com/refgh0v/og/FRG/2011-Nissan-LEAF-FRG.pdf |title=2011 LEAF First Responder's Guide |publisher=Nissan North America |year=2010 |access-date=2011-12-20 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120708163828/http://www.nissan-techinfo.com/refgh0v/og/FRG/2011-Nissan-LEAF-FRG.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2012 |url-status=live }} Much more water may be required than for ICE car fires and a thermal imaging camera is recommended to warn of possible re-ignition of battery fires.{{Cite web|title=What firefighters need to know about electric car batteries|url=https://www.firerescue1.com/firefighter-training/articles/what-firefighters-need-to-know-about-electric-car-batteries-omiDv8vd87oZ9ZKs/|access-date=2021-08-10|website=FireRescue1|date=22 February 2017 |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=04.8 EV fire reignition |url=https://www.evfiresafe.com/ev-fire-reignition |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=EV Fire Safe |language=en}}

{{As of|2018}}, most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car with a conventional automatic transmission. Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear, and no parking pawl may be present, the modes "P" and "N" are often still provided on the selector. In this case, the motor is disabled in "N" and an electrically actuated hand brake provides the "P" mode.

In some cars, the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in "D", similar to a traditional automatic transmission car.{{cite web |url=http://www.autocar.co.uk/CarReviews/FirstDrives/Ford-Focus-BeV/245743/ |title=Ford Focus BEV – Road test |publisher=Autocar.co.uk |access-date=2011-01-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120403043125/http://www.autocar.co.uk/CarReviews/FirstDrives/Ford-Focus-BeV/245743/ |archive-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=live }}

When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking, depending on the type of transmission and mode. EVs are usually equipped with regenerative braking that slows the vehicle and recharges the battery somewhat.{{cite web |first=Christopher |last=Lampton |title=How Regenerative Braking Works |date=23 January 2009 |website=HowStuffWorks.com |url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-parts/brakes/brake-types/regenerative-braking.htm |access-date=21 November 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190915134246/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-parts/brakes/brake-types/regenerative-braking.htm |archive-date=15 September 2019 |url-status=live }} Regenerative braking systems also decrease the use of the conventional brakes (similar to engine braking in an ICE vehicle), reducing brake wear and maintenance costs.

File:Nissan Leaf battery pack DC 03 2011 1629.jpg

{{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}

Lithium-ion-based batteries are often used for their high power and energy density.{{Cite web|title=What happens to old electric vehicle batteries?|url=https://www.whichcar.com.au/car-advice/what-happens-to-old-ev-batteries|access-date=2020-10-30|website=WhichCar|language=en-au}} Batteries with different chemical compositions are becoming more widely used, such as lithium iron phosphate which is not dependent on nickel and cobalt so can be used to make cheaper batteries and thus cheaper cars.{{Cite web|title=What Tesla's bet on iron-based batteries means for manufacturers|url=https://techcrunch.com/2021/07/28/what-teslas-bet-on-iron-based-batteries-means-for-manufacturers/|access-date=2021-08-11|website=TechCrunch|date=28 July 2021|language=en-US}}

{{Further|List of electric cars currently available}}

File:BEV EPA range comparison 2020 model year USA.png-rated range for model year 2020 electric cars rated up until January 2020{{Fuel Economy Guide |year=2020}}]]

The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used, and (as with all vehicles), the aerodynamics, weight and type of vehicle, performance requirements, and the weather.{{cite conference |first1=Sahand Ghaseminejad |last1=Liasi |first2=Masoud Aliakbar |last2=Golkar |title=Electric vehicles connection to microgrid effects on peak demand with and without demand response |conference=2017 Iranian Conference |pages=1272–1277 |publisher=IEEE |date=2 May 2017|doi=10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985237 }} Cars marketed for mainly city use are often manufactured with a short range battery to keep them small and light.{{Cite web|title=Best small electric cars 2021|url=https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/best-cars-vans/354245/best-small-electric-cars-2021|access-date=2021-08-11|website=Auto Express|language=en}}

Most electric cars are fitted with a display of the expected range. This may take into account how the vehicle is being used and what the battery is powering. However, since factors can vary over the route, the estimate can vary from the actual range. The display allows the driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a charging point en route. Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency.{{cite web |url=https://electrek.co/2016/09/06/aaa-ev-emergency-charging-truck/ |title=AAA says that its emergency electric vehicle charging trucks served "thousands" of EVs without power |first=Fred |last=Lambert |work=Electrek |date=2016-09-06 |access-date=2016-09-06 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160910081813/https://electrek.co/2016/09/06/aaa-ev-emergency-charging-truck/ |archive-date=10 September 2016 |url-status=live }}

{{Main|IEC 62196}}

Most electric cars use a wired connection to supply electricity for recharging. Electric vehicle charging plugs are not universal throughout the world. However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other types of charging stations through the use of plug adapters.{{Cite news |url= https://www.autoblog.com/2017/01/19/diginow-super-charger-v2-tesla-ev/ |title=Diginow Super Charger V2 opens up Tesla destination chargers to other EVs |website=Autoblog |access-date=2018-09-03 |language=en |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180903082058/https://www.autoblog.com/2017/01/19/diginow-super-charger-v2-tesla-ev/ |archive-date=3 September 2018 |url-status=live }}

The Type 2 connector is the most common type of plug, but different versions are used in China and Europe.{{Cite web|title=ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES|url=https://energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/file-uploads/EV_ChargingChina-CGEP_Report_Final.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328210252/https://energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/file-uploads/EV_ChargingChina-CGEP_Report_Final.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2019 }}{{Cite web|title=CCS Combo Charging Standard Map: See Where CCS1 And CCS2 Are Used|url=https://insideevs.com/news/488143/ccs-combo-charging-standard-map-ccs1-ccs2/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=InsideEVs|language=en}}

The Type 1 (also called SAE J1772) connector is common in North America{{cite web |url=http://www.arb.ca.gov/regact/charger/uid.pdf |title=Rulemaking: 2001-06-26 Updated and Informative Digest ZEV Infrastructure and Standardization |date=2002-05-13 |work=title 13, California Code of Regulations |publisher=California Air Resources Board |access-date=2010-05-23 |quote=Standardization of Charging Systems |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100615234417/http://www.arb.ca.gov/regact/charger/uid.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2010 |url-status=live }}{{cite press release |title=ARB Amends ZEV Rule: Standardizes Chargers & Addresses Automaker Mergers |url= http://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/nr062801.htm |publisher=California Air Resources Board |date=2001-06-28 |access-date=2010-05-23 |quote=the ARB approved the staff proposal to select the conductive charging system used by Ford, Honda and several other manufacturers |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100616001956/http://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/nr062801.htm |archive-date=16 June 2010 |url-status=live }} but rare elsewhere, as it does not support three-phase charging.{{cite web|date=2010-06-14|title=ACEA position and recommendations for the standardization of the charging of electrically chargeable vehicles|url=http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20100630_Standardisation_e-vehicles.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706132407/http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20100630_Standardisation_e-vehicles.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-06|publisher=ACEA Brussels}}

Wireless charging, either for stationary cars or as an electric road,{{Cite web|date=2021-07-29|title=Magnetised concrete that charges electric vehicles on the move tested in America|url=https://www.driving.co.uk/news/technology/magment-magnetised-concrete-charging-electric-cars/|access-date=2021-08-22|website=Driving.co.uk from The Sunday Times|language=en-GB}} is less common {{As of|2021|lc=y}}, but is used in some cities for taxis.{{Cite web|title=Nottingham hosts wireless charging trial|url=https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/news/fleet-industry-news/2020/01/17/electric-taxi-wireless-charging-trial-in-nottingham|access-date=2021-08-22|website=www.fleetnews.co.uk|language=en}}{{Cite web|last=Campbell|first=Peter|date=2020-09-09|title=Electric vehicles to cut the cord with wireless charging|url=https://www.ft.com/content/720bc57b-944f-47a5-8d65-12439228571b|access-date=2021-08-22|website=www.ft.com|language=en-GB}}

Electric cars are usually charged overnight from a home charging station; sometimes known as a charging point, wallbox charger, or simply a charger; in a garage or on the outside of a house.{{Cite web|title=How to charge your electric car at home|url=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/advice-electric-cars/how-charge-your-electric-car-home|access-date=2021-09-01|website=Autocar|language=en}}{{Cite web|title=The Best Home EV Charger Buying Guide For 2020|url=https://insideevs.com/features/341500/the-ultimate-buyers-guide-to-home-ev-chargers-plus-top-5-picks/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=InsideEVs|language=en}} {{As of|2021}} typical home chargers are 7 kW, but not all include smart charging. Compared to fossil fuel vehicles, the need for charging using public infrastructure is diminished because of the opportunities for home charging; vehicles can be plugged in and begin each day with a full charge.{{cite news|date=2018-03-09|title=Electric Vehicle Charging: Types, Time, Cost and Savings|work=Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/electric-vehicles/car-charging-time-type-cost#.XACNxGhKiUl|url-status=live|access-date=2018-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130071654/https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/electric-vehicles/car-charging-time-type-cost#.XACNxGhKiUl|archive-date=30 November 2018}} Charging from a standard outlet is also possible but very slow.

File:Eletroposto6.jpg, Brazil. This station is run by Petrobras and uses solar energy.]]

{{Main|Electric vehicle charging network}}

Public charging stations are almost always faster than home chargers,{{Cite news |url= https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2018/01/25/electric-vehicle-car-charging/1059349001/ |title=Thinking of buying an electric vehicle? Here's what you need to know about charging |work=USA Today |access-date=2018-05-20 |language=en |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180521111414/https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2018/01/25/electric-vehicle-car-charging/1059349001/ |archive-date=21 May 2018 |url-status=live }} with many supplying direct current to avoid the bottleneck of going through the car's AC to DC converter,{{Cite web|title=DC Fast Charging Explained|url=https://evsafecharge.com/dc-fast-charging-explained/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=EV Safe Charge|language=en-US}} {{As of|2021|lc=y}} the fastest being 350 kW.{{Cite web|title=How electric vehicle (EV) charging works|url=https://www.electrifyamerica.com/how-ev-charging-works/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=Electrify America|language=en}}

Combined Charging System (CCS) is the most widespread charging standard, whereas the GB/T 27930 standard is used in China, and CHAdeMO in Japan. The United States has no de facto standard, with a mix of CCS, Tesla Superchargers, and CHAdeMO charging stations.

Charging an electric vehicle using public charging stations takes longer than refueling a fossil fuel vehicle. The speed at which a vehicle can recharge depends on the charging station's charging speed and the vehicle's own capacity to receive a charge. {{As of|2021}} some cars are 400-volt and some 800-volt.{{Cite news|date=2021-08-19|title=New, 800V, electric cars, will recharge in half the time|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/new-800v-electric-cars-will-recharge-in-half-the-time/21803666|access-date=2021-08-22|issn=0013-0613}} Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can refill the vehicle's battery to 80% in 15 to 20 minutes.

{{cite web |title=How long does it take to charge an electric car? Charging speeds explained |url=https://www.rac.co.uk/drive/electric-cars/charging/electric-car-charging-speeds/ |website=RAC |access-date=22 February 2025 |date=19 November 2024}}{{cite web |title=Charger Types and Speeds |url=https://www.transportation.gov/rural/ev/toolkit/ev-basics/charging-speeds |website=US Department of Transportation |access-date=22 February 2025 |date=31 January 2025}}

Vehicles and charging stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as two hours to refill a battery to 80%. As with a mobile phone, the final 20% takes longer because the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

File:NIO Power Battery Swap (cropped).jpg]]

Some companies are building battery swapping stations, to substantially reduce the effective time to recharge.{{Cite web|date=2021-07-09|title=EV maker Nio to have 4,000 battery swapping stations globally in 2025|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/ev-maker-nio-have-4000-battery-swapping-stations-globally-2025-2021-07-09/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=Reuters|language=en}}{{Cite web|title=EV battery swapping startup Ample charges up operations in Japan, NYC|url=https://techcrunch.com/2021/06/15/ev-battery-swapping-startup-ample-charges-up-operations-in-japan-nyc/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=TechCrunch|date=16 June 2021|language=en-US}} Some electric cars (for example, the BMW i3) have an optional gasoline range extender. The system is intended as an emergency backup to extend range to the next recharging location, and not for long-distance travel.{{cite web|url= http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1082814_bmw-i3-electric-car-rex-range-extender-not-for-daily-use/page-2 |title=BMW i3 Electric Car: ReX Range Extender Not For Daily Use? |first=John |last=Voelcker |publisher=Green Car Reports|date=12 March 2013 |access-date=12 March 2013}}

{{main|Electric road}}

File:Electric road systems.svg (red) from a strip of resonant inductive coils (blue) embedded several centimeters under the road (gray); (B) with a current collector (red) sliding over a ground-level power supply rail segment (blue) flush with the surface of the road (gray); (C) with an overhead current collector (red) sliding against a powered overhead line (blue)]]

An electric road system (ERS) is a road which supplies electric power to vehicles travelling on it. Common implementations are overhead power lines above the road, ground-level power supply through conductive rails, and dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) through resonant inductive coils or inductive rails embedded in the road. Overhead power lines are limited to commercial vehicles while ground-level rails and inductive power transfer can be used by any vehicle, which allows for public charging through a power metering and billing systems. Of the three methods, ground-level conductive rails are estimated to be the most cost-effective.{{citation|url=http://emobilitycentre.se/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Power-Conversion-Challenges-with-an-All-Electric-Land-Transport-System.pdf|title=Power conversion challenges with an all-electric land transport system|first=Francisco J. |last=Márquez-Fernández|publisher=Swedish Electromobility Centre|date=May 20, 2019}}{{rp|10–11}}

Government studies and trials have been conducted in several countries seeking a national electric road network.

Korea was the first to implement an induction-based public electric road with a commercial bus line in 2013 after testing an experimental shuttle service in 2009,{{citation| url=https://trl.co.uk/sites/default/files/PIARC%20ERS%20Academy%20Report%20PPR875_Final%20Version.pdf |title=Electric Road Systems: a solution for the future|first1=D. |last1=Bateman|first2=D. |last2=Leal|publisher=TRL|date=October 8, 2018|access-date=November 19, 2019|archive-date=August 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803034309/https://trl.co.uk/sites/default/files/PIARC%20ERS%20Academy%20Report%20PPR875_Final%20Version.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{rp|11–18}} but it was shut down due to aging infrastructure amidst controversy over the continued public funding of the technology.{{cite news|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/tech/2019/04/325_265924.html|title=ICT minister nominee accused of wasting research money|last=Kwak |first=Yeon-soo|date=24 March 2019|newspaper=The Korea Times}}

United Kingdom municipal projects in 2015{{citation|title=Who Killed the Electric Highway?|first=Ed |last=Targett|date=September 20, 2016}} and 2021 found wireless electric roads financially unfeasible.{{citation|url=https://www.cenex.co.uk/app/uploads/2022/12/20220622-DynaCoV-Project-Closedown-Report.pdf|title=DynaCoV - Dynamic Charging of Vehicles - Project closedown report|first=Steven |last=Pinkerton-Clark |date=June 22, 2022}}

Sweden has been performing assessments of various electric road technologies since 2013 under the Swedish Transport Administration electric road program.{{citation|url=https://www.entelios.se/globalassets/los-energy2/entelios-innhold/hasselgren-ers-systems-in-sweden-191010.pdf|title=Swedish ERS - program background, current analysis phase and plans ahead|date=October 9, 2019|first=Björn |last=Hasselgren|publisher=Swedish Transport Administration}}{{rp|5}} After receiving electric road construction offers in excess of the project's budget in 2023, Sweden pursued cost-reduction measures for either wireless or rail electric roads.{{citation |url=https://www.trafikverket.se/vara-projekt/projekt-i-orebro-lan/sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/nyheter-for-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/2023/vi-avbryter-upphandlingen-for-sverige-forsta-permanenta-elvag/ |title=Vi avbryter upphandlingen för Sverige första permanenta elväg |date=August 28, 2023 |website=Trafikverket}} The project's final report was published in 2024, which recommended against funding a national electric road network in Sweden as it would not be cost-effective, unless the technology was adopted by its trading partners such as by France and Germany.{{citation |url=https://www.trafikverket.se/vara-projekt/projekt-i-orebro-lan/sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/nyheter-for-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/2024/arbetet-med-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag-pausas/ |title= Arbetet med Sveriges första permanenta elväg pausas |date=December 2, 2024 |author=Trafikverket}}{{citation |url=https://trafikverket.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1917105/FULLTEXT01.pdf |title=Planeringsunderlag elväg |first=Kenneth |last=Natanaelsson |date=November 29, 2024 |publisher=Trafikverket}}

Germany found in 2023 that the wireless electric road system (wERS) by Electreon collects 64.3% of the transmitted energy, poses many difficulties during installation, and blocks access to other infrastructure in the road.A. Wendt et al., "Wireless Electric Road Systems – Technology Readiness and Recent Developments," 2024 IEEE Wireless Power Technology Conference and Expo (WPTCE), Kyoto, Japan, 2024, pp. 177-182, doi: 10.1109/WPTCE59894.2024.10557264. Germany trialed overhead lines in three projects and reported they are too expensive, difficult to maintain, and pose a safety risk.{{citation|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/energie-bilanz-e-highway-lastwagen-koennen-haelfte-an-co2-sparen-dpa.urn-newsml-dpa-com-20090101-240229-99-169944|title=Bilanz E-Highway: Lastwagen können Hälfte an CO2 sparen|date=March 1, 2024|publisher=DPA}}{{citation|title=Verlängerung der Laufzeit wird das eWayBW-Pilotprojekt nicht retten|first=Adrian |last=Mahler |date=April 12, 2024|website=BNN.DE|url=https://bnn.de/mittelbaden/gaggenau/meinung-verlaengerung-der-laufzeit-wird-ewaybw-nicht-retten}}{{citation|title=Kritik der FDP: eWayBW-Oberleitung verhindert Landung von Rettungshelikopter auf B462|first=Adrian |last=Mahler |date=March 18, 2024|website=BNN.DE|url=https://bnn.de/mittelbaden/gaggenau/oberleitung-verhindert-landung-von-rettungshelikopter-auf-b462}}

France found similar drawbacks for overhead lines as Germany did. France began several electric road pilot projects in 2023 for inductive and rail systems.{{citation |url=https://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/les-autoroutiers-divises-sur-les-solutions-a-mettre-en-place-pour-faire-rouler-des-camions-electriques.N2208923 |title=Les autoroutiers divisés sur les solutions à mettre en place pour faire rouler des camions électriques |first=Marc |last=Fressoz |date=May 9, 2024 |website=L'USINENOUVELLE.com}} Ground-level power supply systems are considered the most likely candidates.{{citation |url=https://www.lemoniteur.fr/article/mobilite-electrique-2-5-une-fenetre-etroite-pour-brancher-les-autoroutes.2203237 |title=Sur les routes de la mobilité électrique |first=Laurent |last=Miguet |date=April 28, 2022 |website=Le Moniteur}}

{{Main|Vehicle-to-grid}}

During peak load periods, when the cost of generation can be very high, electric vehicles with vehicle-to-grid capabilities could contribute energy to the grid. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. The batteries in the vehicles serve as a distributed storage system to buffer power.{{cite news |title=Groupe Renault begins large-scale vehicle-to-grid charging pilot |url= https://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/emily-folk/groupe-renault-begins-largescale-vehicletogrid-charging-pilot-20190322 |work=Renewable Energy Magazine |date=22 March 2019 |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190322175643/https://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/emily-folk/groupe-renault-begins-largescale-vehicletogrid-charging-pilot-20190322 |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Rechargeable battery#Lifespan and cycle stability}}

As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time, especially if they are frequently charged to 100%; however, this may take at least several years before being noticeable.{{Cite news |url= https://phys.org/news/2013-04-life-lithium-ion-batteries-electric.html |title=Understanding the life of lithium ion batteries in electric vehicles |access-date=2018-09-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180903050049/https://phys.org/news/2013-04-life-lithium-ion-batteries-electric.html |archive-date=3 September 2018 |url-status=live }} A typical warranty is 8 years or {{ cvt|100000|mi}},{{Cite web|title=What happens to old electric car batteries? {{!}} National Grid Group|url=https://www.nationalgrid.com/stories/journey-to-net-zero-stories/what-happens-old-electric-car-batteries|access-date=2021-08-10|website=www.nationalgrid.com|language=en}} but for non-professional drivers mileage may not be relevant, and the batteries usually last much longer,{{Cite web |last=Braga |first=Beverly |date=2024-12-15 |title=EV Batteries May Last Longer Than Expected Because We've Been Testing Them Wrong: Study |url=https://www.thedrive.com/news/ev-batteries-may-last-longer-than-expected-because-weve-been-testing-them-wrong-study?utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=socialflow&utm_source=facebook&fbclid=IwY2xjawHVLPRleHRuA2FlbQIxMAABHYX_T5zBeRxWRAzCtEFLbPoJm_Y0XkwqvkRh2qm0mT_NZbikDQ99K6eB5A_aem_Z8zsYQ5SoHfhfxZ7L1yE7A |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=The Drive |language=en-US}} perhaps 15 to 20 years in the car and then more years in another use.{{Cite web |title=What happens to old electric car batteries? {{!}} National Grid Group |url=https://www.nationalgrid.com/stories/journey-to-net-zero-stories/what-happens-old-electric-car-batteries |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=www.nationalgrid.com |language=en}}

File:BEVsSales-2010-2023ByCountry.png

{{Main|List of production battery electric vehicles}}

Tesla became the world's leading electric vehicle manufacturer in December 2019.{{cite web| url= https://www.electrive.com/2020/02/04/newest-cam-study-shows-tesla-as-ev-sales-leader/ | title=Newest CAM study shows Tesla as EV sales leader | first=Chris | last=Randall |publisher=electricdrive.com | date=2020-02-04 | access-date=2020-05-23}}{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/391128/tesla-model-3-cumulative-sales-best/ |title=Within Weeks, Tesla Model 3 Will Be World's Top-Selling EV of All Time | first=Mark | last=Kane | publisher=InsideEVs.com| date=2020-01-04 | access-date=2020-05-23}}Cumulatively, Tesla has sold about 900,000 electric cars since 2008. Its Model S was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 and 2016,{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-is-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-for-second-year-in-a-row/ |title=Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year in a Row |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2017-01-26 |access-date=2017-01-26 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170126165815/http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-is-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-for-second-year-in-a-row/ |archive-date=26 January 2017 |url-status=live }} See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.{{cite news |url= http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-was-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-in-2015/ |title=Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-01-12 |access-date=2016-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201070442/http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-was-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-in-2015/ |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=live }} its Model 3 has been the world's best selling plug-in electric car for four consecutive years, from 2018 to 2021, and the Model Y was the top selling plug-in car in 2022.{{cite web|url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2021/02/global-top-20-december-2020.html | title=Global Top 20 - December 2020 | last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com| date=2021-02-02 | access-date=2021-02-03}} "Global sales totaled 3,124,793 plug-in passenger cars in 2020, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a global market share of 4%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 365,240 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 499,535 units, followed by VW with 220,220."{{cite web|url= http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/global-top-20-december-2018.html| title=Global Top 20 - December 2018| last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com| date=2019-01-31 | access-date=2019-01-31}} "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD." The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's cumulative best selling electric car. Tesla produced its 1 millionth electric car in March 2020, becoming the first auto manufacturer to do so,{{cite web|url= https://electrek.co/2020/03/09/tesla-produces-1000000th-electric-car/|title=Tesla produces its 1 millionth electric car|last=Lambert|first=Fred|date=2020-03-10|website=Electrek|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-28}} and in June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to pass 1 million sales.{{cite web|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/08/26/tesla-model-3-has-passed-1-million-sales/ |title=Tesla Model 3 Has Passed 1 Million Sales |first=Zachary |last=Shahan |publisher=CleanTechnica |date=2021-08-26 |access-date=2021-08-26}} Tesla has been listed as the world's top selling plug-in electric car manufacturer, both as a brand and by automotive group for four years running, from 2018 to 2021.{{cite web| url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2020/02/2019-sales-by-oem.html | title=2019 Global Sales by OEM| last=Jose| first=Pontes| publisher=EVSales.com| date=2020-02-04| access-date=2020-05-23 }} "Tesla led plug-in car sales among automotive groups in 2019, with 367,849 units delivered, followed by BYD with 225,757, and the Renault-Nissan Alliance with 183,299. Accounting just for the all-electric segment (1.6 million electric cars sold in 2019), again Tesla was the leader, followed by BAIC (163,838), BYD (153,085), the Renault-Nissan Alliance (132,762), and SAIC (105,573)."{{cite web| url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/02/2018-global-sales-by-oem.html| title=2018 Global Sales by OEM| last=Jose| first=Pontes| publisher=EVSales.com| date=2019-02-03| access-date=2019-02-03| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190204014731/http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/02/2018-global-sales-by-oem.html| archive-date=4 February 2019| url-status=live}} "Tesla led plug-in car sales among automotive groups in 2018, with 245,240 units delivered, followed by BYD with 229,338, and the Renault-Nissan Alliance with 192,711."{{cite web |url=https://www.electrive.com/2019/01/10/bmw-sells-over-140000-plug-in-cars-throughout-2018/ |title=BMW sells over 140,000 plug-in cars throughout 2018 |publisher=electricdrive.com |date=2019-01-10 |access-date=2019-01-14 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190114100618/https://www.electrive.com/2019/01/10/bmw-sells-over-140000-plug-in-cars-throughout-2018/ |archive-date=14 January 2019 |url-status=live }} The global share of plug-in electric cars by brand in 2018 was led by Tesla with 12%, followed by BYD with 11%, BMW with 9%, BAIC with 6%, and Roewe and Nissan, both with 5%. At the end of 2021, Tesla's global cumulative sales since 2012 totaled 2.3 million units,{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/563407/tesla-2021q4-final-delivery-numbers/ |title=Tesla Q4 2021 Final EV Delivery Numbers And Outlook |first=Mark |last=Kane |work=InsideEVs |date=January 27, 2022 |access-date=January 27, 2022 |quote=Cumulatively, Tesla sold over 2.3 million electric cars.}} with 936,222 of those delivered in 2021.{{cite web| title=Tesla Fourth Quarter & Full Year 2021 Update | url=https://tesla-cdn.thron.com/static/WIIG2L_TSLA_Q4_2021_Update_O7MYNE.pdf?xseo=&response-content-disposition=inline%3Bfilename%3D%22tsla-q4-and-fy-2021-update.pdf%22 |publisher=Tesla |location=Palo Alto | date=January 26, 2022 | access-date=January 27, 2022}} See table "Operational Summary" pp. 7 and 8 for revised and final production and sales numbers.

BYD Auto is another leading electric vehicle manufacturer, with the majority of its sales coming from China. From 2018 to 2023, BYD produced nearly 3.18 million purely plug-in electric car, with 1,574,822 of those were produced in 2023 alone.{{Cite web |last=Jin |first=Qian |date=2024-01-01 |title=BYD sold 3.02 million vehicles in 2023, up 61.9% |url=https://carnewschina.com/2024/01/01/byd-sold-3-02-million-vehicles-in-2023/ |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=CarNewsChina.com |language=en-US}} In the fourth quarter of 2023, BYD surpassed Tesla as the top-selling electric vehicle manufacturer by selling 526,409 battery electric cars, while Tesla delivered 484,507 vehicles.{{Cite web |last=Kane |first=Mark |date=2024-01-02 |title=BYD Sales Hit Massive Record In December, Overtaking Tesla |url=https://insideevs.com/news/702783/byd-plugin-car-sales-december2023/ |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=InsideEVs |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Opletal |first=Jiri |date=2024-01-02 |title=BYD overtook Tesla as the world's top EV maker |url=https://carnewschina.com/2024/01/02/byd-overtook-tesla-as-the-worlds-top-ev-maker/ |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=CarNewsChina.com |language=en-US}}

{{As of|2021|12}}, the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance listed as one of major all-electric vehicle manufacturers, with global all-electric vehicle sales totaling over 1 million light-duty electric vehicles, including those manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors since 2009.{{cite press release |url=https://en.media.alliance-2022.com/news/renault-nissan-mitsubishi-motors-announce-common-roadmap-alliance-2030-best-of-3-worlds-for-a-new-future-fd6e-989c5.html | title=RENAULT, NISSAN & MITSUBISHI MOTORS ANNOUNCE COMMON ROADMAP ALLIANCE 2030: BEST OF 3 WORLDS FOR A NEW FUTURE | publisher=Media Alliance Website | location=Paris, Tokyo, Yokohama | date=2022-01-27 | access-date=2022-01-28 |quote= In the main markets (Europe, Japan, the US, China) 15 Alliance plants already produce parts, motors, batteries for 10 EV models on the streets, with more than 1 million EV cars sold so far and 30 billion e-kilometers driven.}}{{cite web|url= https://group.renault.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/urd_2019_-3-avril_14h.pdf |title=2019 Universal Registration Document |date=2020-03-19 | access-date=2020-05-23 |quote=Since 2010, the Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi alliance has sold over 800,000 100%-electric vehicles}} See pp. 24 and 39. Since the launch of the Renault electric program, the Group has sold more than 252,000 electric vehicles in Europe and more than 273,550 electric vehicles worldwide. Since inception, a total of 181,893 Zoe cars, 48,821 Kangoo Z.E. electric vans and 29,118 Twitzy quadricycles have been sold globally through December 2019. Global sales of the Zoe totaled 48,269 units in 2019, and Kangoo ZE totaled 10,349. Nissan leads global sales within the Alliance, with 1 million cars and vans sold by July 2023, followed by the Groupe Renault with more than 397,000 electric vehicles sold worldwide through December 2020, including its Twizy heavy quadricycle.{{cite web|url= https://www.renaultgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/renault-deu-2020-accessible-version.pdf |title=2020 Universal Registration Document |date=2021-03-15 | access-date=2021-08-31 |quote=Since it launched its electric program, Renault has sold more than 370,000 electric vehicles in Europe and more than 397,000 worldwide: 284,800 ZOE, 59,150 KANGOO Z.E., 11,400 FLUENCE Z.E./SM3 Z.E., 4,600 K-Z.E., 31,100 TWIZY, 770 MASTER Z.E. and 5,100 TWINGO Electric in 2020.}} See pp. 28. {{as of|2023|07}}, global sales totaled over 650,000 units since inception.

Other leading electric vehicles manufacturers are GAC Aion (part of GAC Group, with 962,385 cumulative sales {{as of|2023|12|lc=y}}),{{Cite web |title=【图】快讯_汽车之家 |url=https://www.autohome.com.cn/fastmessage/detail/1292078.html |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=www.autohome.com.cn}} SAIC Motor with 1,838,000 units ({{as of|2023|07|lc=y}}), Geely, and Volkswagen.{{cite web |author=Zentrum für Sonnenenergieund Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg (ZSW) |date=2020-02-26 |title=ZSW analysis shows global number of EVs at 7.9 million |url=https://www.electrive.com/2020/02/26/zsw-analysis-shows-global-number-of-evs-at-7-9-million/ |access-date=2020-05-17 |publisher=electrive.com}} See table: Global cumulative EV registrations (by models){{Cite web|last=Shahan|first=Zachary|date=2021-05-15|title=10 European Countries: Volkswagen ID.4 & ID.3 Top EV Sales List In April, Tesla Model 3 & VW ID.4 In January–April|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/05/15/10-european-countries-volkswagen-id-4-id-3-top-ev-sales-list-in-april-tesla-model-3-vw-id-4-in-january-april/|access-date=2021-08-11|website=CleanTechnica}}{{Cite web |title=World's Top 5 EV Automotive Groups Ranked By Sales: Q1-Q4 2020 |url=https://insideevs.com/news/486325/world-top-ev-automotive-groups-2020/ |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=InsideEVs |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=World's Top 5 EV Automotive Groups Ranked By Sales: 2021 |url=https://insideevs.com/news/564800/world-top-oem-sales-2021/ |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=InsideEVs |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=World's Top 5 EV Automotive Groups Ranked By Sales: Q1-Q4 2022 |url=https://insideevs.com/news/651978/world-top-ev-oem-sales-2022q4/ |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=InsideEVs |language=en}}

The following table lists the all-time best-selling highway-capable all-electric cars with cumulative global sales of over 300,000 units:

{{Main|electric car use by country}}

In the year of 2021, the total number of electric cars on the world's roads went to about 16.5 million. The sales of electric cars in the first quarter of 2022 went up to 2 million.IEA (2022), Global EV Outlook 2022, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2022 China has the largest all-electric car fleet in use, with 2.58 million at the end of 2019, more than half (53.9%) of the world's electric car stock.

All-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids since 2012.{{cite web |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-global-electric-vehicle-market-is-amped-up-and-on-the-rise |title=The global electric-vehicle market is amped up and on the rise |first1=Patrick |last1=Hertzke |first2=Nicolai |last2=Müller |first3=Stephanie |last3=Schenk |first4=Ting |last4=Wu |work=McKinsey |date=May 2018 |access-date=2019-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128083117/https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-global-electric-vehicle-market-is-amped-up-and-on-the-rise |archive-date=28 January 2019 |url-status=live }} See Exhibit 1: Global electric-vehicle sales, 2010-17.[https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer IEA 2024]

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| caption1 = Annual sales of plug-in electric passenger cars in the world's top markets between 2011 and 2023[https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer EIA 2024]{{cite web |url=https://webstore.iea.org/download/direct/2807?fileName=Global_EV_Outlook_2019.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2019: Scaling-up the transition to electric mobility |author=International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=May 2019 |access-date=2020-05-23 |archive-date=13 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513153402/https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-products |url-status=dead }} See Statistical annex, pp. 210–213. The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 5,122,460 units at the end of 2018, of which, 3,290,800 (64.2%) were battery electric cars (See Tables A.1 and A.2)..{{cite web |url= http://energy.gov/eere/vehicles/fact-918-march-28-2016-global-plug-light-vehicle-sales-increased-about-80-2015 |title= Fact #918: March 28, 2016 – Global Plug-in Light Vehicles Sales Increased By About 80% in 2015 |publisher= Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy |author= Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy |date= 2016-03-28 |access-date= 2016-03-29 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402014959/http://energy.gov/eere/vehicles/fact-918-march-28-2016-global-plug-light-vehicle-sales-increased-about-80-2015 |archive-date= 2 April 2016 |url-status= live }}{{cite web |url=https://webstore.iea.org/download/direct/1045?fileName=Global_EV_Outlook_2018.pdf |title=Global EV Outlook 2017: 3 million and counting |author=International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=May 2018 |access-date=2018-10-23 |archive-date=16 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616050109/https://webstore.iea.org/login?ReturnUrl=%2fdownload%2fdirect%2f1045%3ffilename%3dglobal_ev_outlook_2018.pdf&filename=global_ev_outlook_2018.pdf |url-status=dead }} See pp. 9–10, 19–23, 29–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 107–113. The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 3,109,050 units, of which, 1,928,360 were battery electric cars..{{cite web |url=http://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20170201_AFV_Q4_2016_FINAL.PDF |title=New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2016 |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2017-02-01 |access-date=2018-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101062413/https://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20170201_AFV_Q4_2016_FINAL.PDF |archive-date=1 January 2020 |url-status=live }} See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market in the EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2015.{{cite web |url=http://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20180201_AFV_Q4_2017_FINAL.PDF |title=New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2017 |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2018-02-01 |access-date=2018-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225144830/http://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20180201_AFV_Q4_2017_FINAL.PDF |archive-date=25 February 2018 |url-status=live }} See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market in the EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2017 and Q1-Q4 2016.{{cite web |url=https://www.acea.be/uploads/press_releases_files/20200206_PRPC_fuel_Q4_2019_FINAL.pdf |title=New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2019 |author=European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) |publisher=ACEA |date=2020-02-06 |access-date=2020-05-11}} See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market in the EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2018 and 2019.{{cite web| url=http://www.ev-volumes.com/country/total-world-plug-in-vehicle-volumes/ | title=Global Plug-in Vehicle Sales Reached over 3,2 Million in 2020 | first=Roland | last=Irle |publisher=EV-volumes.com | date=2021-01-19 | access-date=2021-01-20}} Plug-in sales totaled 3.24 million in 2020, up from 2.26 million in 2019. Europe, with nearly 1.4 million untits surpassed China as the largest EV market for the first time since 2015.

| image2 = Ratio BEV to PHEV global annual sales since 2011.png

| width2 = 418

| caption2 = Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2024{{cite web|url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2020/01/global-top-20-december-2019.html | title=Global Top 20 - December 2019 | last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com| date=2020-01-31 | access-date=2020-05-10}} "Global sales totaled 2,209,831 plug-in passenger cars in 2019, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 74:26, and a global market share of 2.5%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 300,075 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 367,820 units, followed by BYD with 229,506."{{cite news |url=https://www.ev-volumes.com/dcnews/ |title=Data Center Service News |work=EV-Volumes |access-date=2022-01-28}}{{cite news |url=https://www.ev-volumes.com/country/total-world-plug-in-vehicle-volumes/ |title=Global EV Sales for 2022 |first=Roland |last=Irle |work=EV-Volumes |access-date=2023-05-12}}[https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer IEA 2024]{{cite news |url=https://autovista24.autovistagroup.com/news/what-are-the-global-ev-markets-most-successful-brands/ |title=What are the global EV market's most successful brands? |work=Autovista24 |location=UK |date=17 February 2025 |access-date=2025-05-07}}

}}

File:EV parking lot Oslo 10 2018 3766.jpg]]

{{Main|Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles}}

{{See also|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}

File:4 out of 10 Europeans on average say subsidies for electric cars should be a priority to fight climate change, but there are disparities among countries..svg

Several national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass-market adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. A variety of policies have been established to provide: financial support to consumers and manufacturers; non-monetary incentives; subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure; electric vehicle charging stations in buildings; and long-term regulations with specific targets.{{cite web|author=International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI)|date=June 2020|title=Global EV Outlook 2020: Entering the decade of electric drive?|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2020|access-date=2020-06-15|publisher=IEA Publications}} See Statistical annex, pp. 247–252 (See Tables A.1 and A.12). The global stock of plug-in electric passenger vehicles totaled 7.2 million cars at the end of 2019, of which, 47% were on the road in China. The stock of plug-in cars consist of 4.8 million battery electric cars (66.6%) and 2.4 million plug-in hybrids (33.3%). In addition, the stock of light commercial plug-in electric vehicles in use totaled 378 thousand units in 2019, and about half a million electric buses were in circulation, most of which are in China.{{cite web| url=https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/EV_city_policies_white_paper_fv_20200224.pdf | title=Analyzing Policies to Grow the Electric Vehicle Market in European Cities | first1=Sandra | last1=Wappelhorst | first2= Dale | last2=Hall | first3=Mike | last3=Nicholas | first4=Nic | last4=Lutsey |publisher=International Council on Clean Transportation | date=February 2020| access-date=2020-06-18}}{{Cite web |title=Building Envelopes – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/building-envelopes |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}

Financial incentives for consumers are aiming to make electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the higher upfront cost of electric vehicles. Depending on battery size, there are one-time purchase incentives such as grants and tax credits; exemptions from import duties; exemptions from road tolls and congestion charges; and exemption of registration and annual fees.

Among the non-monetary incentives, there are several perks such allowing plug-in vehicles access to bus lanes and high-occupancy vehicle lanes, free parking and free charging. Some countries or cities that restrict private car ownership (for example, a purchase quota system for new vehicles), or have implemented permanent driving restrictions (for example, no-drive days), have these schemes exclude electric vehicles to promote their adoption.{{cite journal|title=The role of the license plate lottery policy in the adoption of Electric Vehicles: A case study of Beijing |journal=Energy Policy| volume=139 |date=April 2020 |language=en |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111328 |doi-access=free |last1=Zhuge |first1=Chengxiang |last2=Wei |first2=Binru |last3=Shao |first3=Chunfu |last4=Shan |first4=Yuli |last5=Dong |first5=Chunjiao |page=111328|bibcode=2020EnPol.13911328Z |hdl=10397/87860 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite news|url= https://www.economist.com/news/china/21700676-chinese-love-their-cars-do-not-want-pay-more-driving-them-great-crawl?frsc=dg%7Ca |title=The great crawl |newspaper=The Economist |date=2016-06-18 |access-date=2020-06-18}}{{cite news|url= http://www.nacion.com/economia/Carros-hibridos-electricos-Costa-Rica_0_1352064817.html |title=Carros híbridos y eléctricos se abren paso en Costa Rica|language=es|trans-title=Hybrid and electric cars make their way in Costa Rica |first=Camila |last=Salazar |work=La Nación (San José)|date=2013-07-06|access-date=2013-07-06}}{{cite web|url= http://www.alcaldiabogota.gov.co/sisjur/normas/Norma1.jsp?i=55963 |title=Decreto 575 de 2013 Alcalde Mayor |language=es|trans-title=Major's Decree 575 of 2013|publisher=Alcaldía de Bogotá |date=2014-12-18|access-date=2020-06-18}}{{cite web | url=https://www.vehiculoselectricos.co/aprobada-ley-que-da-beneficios-a-propietarios-de-vehiculos-electricos-en-colombia/ | title=Sancionada ley que da beneficios a propietarios de vehículos eléctricos en Colombia | language=es | trans-title=Went into effec law that gives benefits to owners of electric vehicles in Colombia | first=Felipe | last=Vallejo Uribe | publisher=Revista Movilidad Eléctrica Sostenible | date=2019-07-13 | access-date=2020-06-19 | archive-date=19 June 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619235909/https://www.vehiculoselectricos.co/aprobada-ley-que-da-beneficios-a-propietarios-de-vehiculos-electricos-en-colombia/ | url-status=dead }}{{cite news|url= http://www.automotivebusiness.com.br/noticia/19727/eletricos-e-hibridos-sao-paulo-aprova-lei-de-incentivo|title=Elétricos e híbridos: São Paulo aprova lei de incentivo|language=pt|trans-title=All-electric and hybrids: São Paulo approves incentives law|work=Automotive Business |date=2014-05-28|access-date=2014-09-21}} Several countries, including England and India, are introducing regulations that require electric vehicle charging stations in certain buildings.{{Cite web |title=Approved Document S: Infrastructure for the charging of electric vehicles |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1057375/AD_S.pdf |website=GOV.UK}}{{Cite web |title=Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles (EV) |url=https://powermin.gov.in/sites/default/files/webform/notices/Final_Consolidated_EVCI_Guidelines_January_2022_with_ANNEXURES.pdf |website=Government of India Ministry of Power}}

Some government have also established long term regulatory signals with specific targets such as zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandates, national or regional {{CO2}} emission regulations, stringent fuel economy standards, and the phase out of internal combustion engine vehicle sales. For example, Norway set a national goal that by 2025 all new car sales should be ZEVs (battery electric or hydrogen).{{cite web |url= https://elbil.no/english/norwegian-ev-policy/#:~:text=The%20Norwegian%20Parliament%20has%20decided,cars%20(BEVs)%20in%20Norway |title= Norwegian EV policy |publisher=Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association)|access-date=2020-06-18}}{{cite news |url= http://www.hybridcars.com/norway-aiming-for-100-percent-zero-emission-vehicle-sales-by-2025/ | title=Norway Aiming For 100-Percent Zero Emission Vehicle Sales By 2025 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-03-08 |access-date=2020-06-18}} While these incentives aim to facilitate a quicker transition from internal combustion cars, they have been criticized by some economists for creating excess deadweight loss in the electric car market, which may partially counteract environmental gains.{{Cite journal |last1=Holland |first1=Stephen |last2=Mansur |first2=Erin |last3=Muller |first3=Nicholas |last4=Yates |first4=Andrew |date=June 2015 |title=Environmental Benefits from Driving Electric Vehicles? |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w21291.pdf |journal=National Bureau of Economic Research |language=en |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=w21291 |doi=10.3386/w21291|s2cid=108921625 }}{{Cite journal |last=Fitzgerald, Christopher |date=2022-04-27 |title=Learning From Diesel's Failure: Government and Producer Policy Surrounding Hybrid and Electric Vehicles |url=https://zenodo.org/record/6496339 |language=en |doi=10.5281/ZENODO.6496339}}{{Cite journal |last=IRVINE |first=IAN |date=2017 |title=Electric Vehicle Subsidies in the Era of Attribute-Based Regulations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90001503 |journal=Canadian Public Policy |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=50–60 |doi=10.3138/cpp.2016-010 |jstor=90001503 |s2cid=157078916 |issn=0317-0861|url-access=subscription }}

{{Clear}}

{{Multiple issues|section=|

{{Update section|date=April 2024}}

{{Globalize|section|date=August 2021|2=outside China}}

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Electric vehicles (EVs) have gained significant traction as an integral component of the global automotive landscape in recent years. Major automakers from around the world have adopted EVs as a critical component of their strategic plans, indicating a paradigm shift toward sustainable transportation.

Total global EV sales in 2030 were predicted to reach 31.1 million by Deloitte.{{cite web |last1=Walton |first1=Bryn |last2=Hamilton |first2=Jamie |last3=Alberts |first3=Geneviève |title=Electric vehicles: Setting a course for 2030 |url=https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/focus/future-of-mobility/electric-vehicle-trends-2030.html#:~:text=reaching%2031.1%20million%20by%202030 |website=Deloitte.com |publisher=Deloitte |access-date=31 July 2021 |date=28 July 2020 |quote=Our global EV forecast is for a compound annual growth rate of 29 per cent achieved over the next ten years: Total EV sales growing from 2.5 million in 2020 to 11.2 million in 2025, then reaching 31.1 million by 2030.}} The International Energy Agency predicted that the total global stock of EVs would reach almost 145 million by 2030 under current policies, or 230 million if Sustainable Development policies were adopted.{{cite web |title=Prospects for electric vehicle deployment |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021/prospects-for-electric-vehicle-deployment#:~:text=145%20million%20vehicles%20by%202030 |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency |access-date=31 July 2021 |date=April 2021}}

As of 2024, there are approximately 600 million people in sub-Saharan Africa without access to electricity, representing 83% of the world's unelectrified population.{{cite web |title=Connecting Millions to Electricity in Africa With "Mission 300" |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2024/09/19/five-ways-the-world-bank-will-achieve-mission-300 |website=www.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank Group |access-date=7 November 2024 |date=19 September 2024}} The World Bank Group and the African Development Bank plan to provide access to electricity to 300 million people in that region by 2030. At this time, there are just over 20,000 electric vehicles and less than 1,000 charging stations in Africa.{{cite web |first=Oliver |last=August |title=Whisper it quietly, but Africa is starting to mass-manufacture electric vehicles |url=https://www.climateandcapitalmedia.com/whisper-it-quietly-but-africa-is-starting-to-mass-manufacture-electric-vehicles/ |website=www.climateandcapitalmedia.com |publisher=Climate & Capital Media |access-date=7 November 2024 |date=21 June 2024}} However, EV manufacturers have already built or are planning to build production plants in 21 African countries.

{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}

• Electric vehicle
• Battery electric vehicle
• Plug-in electric vehicle
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
• Electric bus
• Electric rickshaw
• Solar car
• Electric car energy efficiency
• Electric motorcycles and scooters
• Electric vehicle warning sounds - vehicle sounds for pedestrian safety
• Electric motorsport
• Eco Grand Prix
• Formula E
• List of electric cars currently available
• Vehicle-to-everything (V2X)
• Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
• Personal electric vehicle (PEV)

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{subject bar|auto=y|d=y|b=Electric Vehicle Conversion/Technologies|wikt=y|Cars|History of science|Energy|Environment}}

• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SAxXUIre28 How an electric car works]
• Wikiversity:Can electric cars significantly help humanity get off fossil fuels?
• [https://hourglassnow.com/electric-cars-range-list-and-comparisons/ Electric cars range in 2022: table with 100 different models]

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