Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles

{{Climate change mitigation}}

{{Further|Environmental impact of the petroleum industry|Environmental aspects of the electric car}}

Reasons for banning the further sale of fossil fuel vehicles include: reducing health risks from pollution particulates, notably diesel PM10s, and other emissions, notably nitrogen oxides;{{cite web|date=19 August 2020|title=Diesel car pollution is significantly higher in London suburbs|url=https://airqualitynews.com/2020/08/19/diesel-car-pollution-is-significantly-higher-in-london-suburbs/|access-date=13 September 2020|website=Air Quality News|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919012721/https://airqualitynews.com/2020/08/19/diesel-car-pollution-is-significantly-higher-in-london-suburbs/|url-status=live}} meeting national greenhouse gas, such as CO₂, targets under international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement; or energy independence. The intent to ban vehicles powered by fossil fuels is attractive to governments as it offers a simpler compliance target,{{cite web|last=Weaver|first=R. Kent|title=Target Compliance: The Final Frontier of Policy Implementation|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/0930_compliance_weaver.pdf|website=Brookings Institution|access-date=22 October 2017|archive-date=13 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813114227/https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/0930_compliance_weaver.pdf|url-status=live}} compared with a carbon tax or phase-out of fossil fuels.{{cite web|date=December 2017|title=International Trade Governance and Sustainable Transport: The Expansion of Electric Vehicles|url=https://www.ictsd.org/sites/default/files/research/international-trade-governance-and-sustainable-transport-mahesh-sugathan.pdf|website=International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development|access-date=5 December 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731234300/https://www.ictsd.org/sites/default/files/research/international-trade-governance-and-sustainable-transport-mahesh-sugathan.pdf|url-status=dead}}

File:BMW i3 AMS 12 2016 0372.jpg being charged in Amsterdam. Electric cars had a world market share of around 5% in 2021.{{cite web|title=Trends and developments in electric vehicle markets – Global EV Outlook 2021 – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021/trends-and-developments-in-electric-vehicle-markets|access-date=4 October 2021|website=IEA|language=en-GB|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726133330/https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021/trends-and-developments-in-electric-vehicle-markets|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Electric vehicle sales surge in 2021|url=https://www.power-technology.com/news/electric-vehicle-sales-surge-in-2021/|access-date=4 October 2021|website=power-technology.com|date=15 September 2021|language=en-GB|archive-date=4 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004113107/https://www.power-technology.com/news/electric-vehicle-sales-surge-in-2021/|url-status=live}}]]

The automotive industry is working to introduce electric vehicles to adapt to bans with varying success and it is seen by some in the industry as a possible source of money in a declining market. A 2020 study from the Eindhoven University of Technology showed that the manufacturing emissions of batteries of new electric cars are much smaller than what was assumed in the 2017 IVL study{{#tag:ref|Romare, M. & Dahllöf, L. The Life Cycle Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Batteries. 58 (2017). "IVL" stands for Institutet för Vatten- och Luftvårdsforskning (Institute of Water and Air Navigation Research).|group="note"}} (around 75 kg {{CO2}}/kWh) and that the lifespan of lithium batteries is also much longer than previously thought (at least 12 years with a mileage of 15,000 km annually): they are cleaner than internal combustion cars powered by diesel or petrol.{{cite news|author=Heleen Ekker|date=1 September 2020|title=Nieuwe studie: elektrische auto gaat langer mee dan gedacht|language=nl|trans-title=New study: electric car lasts longer than earlier thought|work=NOS|url=https://nos.nl/artikel/2346236-nieuwe-studie-elektrische-auto-gaat-langer-mee-dan-gedacht.html|access-date=11 September 2020|archive-date=4 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904230922/https://nos.nl/artikel/2346236-nieuwe-studie-elektrische-auto-gaat-langer-mee-dan-gedacht.html|url-status=live}}

There is some opposition to simply moving from fossil-fuel-powered cars to electric cars, as they would still require a large proportion of urban land.{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/16/our-cities-need-fewer-cars-not-cleaner-cars-electric-green-transport|title=Our cities need fewer cars, not cleaner cars|first=Venkat Sumantran, Charles Fine and David|last=Gonsalvez|date=16 October 2017|website=The Guardian|access-date=9 October 2021|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627143540/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/16/our-cities-need-fewer-cars-not-cleaner-cars-electric-green-transport|url-status=live}} On the other hand, there are many types of (electric) vehicles that take up little space, such as (cargo) bicycles and electric motorcycles and scooters.{{cite web |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/13968/we-dont-just-need-electric-cars-we-need-fewer-cars/ |title=We don't just need electric cars, we need fewer cars |author=Richard Casson |publisher=Greenpeace |date=25 January 2018 |access-date=17 September 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107075309/https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/13968/we-dont-just-need-electric-cars-we-need-fewer-cars/ |url-status=live }} Making cycling and walking over short distances, especially in urban areas, more attractive and feasible with measures such as removing roads and parking spaces and improving cycling infrastructure and footpaths (including pavements), provides a partial alternative to replacing all fossil-fuelled vehicles with electric vehicles.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200429-are-we-witnessing-the-death-of-the-car |title=How cities are clamping down on cars |author=Francesca Perry |work=BBC Future Planet |date=30 April 2020 |access-date=17 September 2020 |archive-date=17 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917214752/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200429-are-we-witnessing-the-death-of-the-car |url-status=live }} Although there are as yet very few completely carfree cities (such as Venice), several are banning all cars in parts of the city, such as city centers.{{cite web|title=Urban Mobility – Do We Want or Need Car-Free Cities?|url=https://www.provizsports.com/en-us/blog/urban-mobility/|access-date=19 September 2020|website=provizsports.com|language=en|archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922065754/https://www.provizsports.com/en-us/blog/urban-mobility/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|last=Peters|first=Adele|date=30 January 2020|title=Here are 11 more cities that have joined the car-free revolution|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90456075/here-are-11-more-neighborhoods-that-have-joined-the-car-free-revolution|access-date=19 September 2020|website=Fast Company|language=en-US|archive-date=18 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818055256/https://www.fastcompany.com/90456075/here-are-11-more-neighborhoods-that-have-joined-the-car-free-revolution|url-status=live}}

The banning of fossil-fuelled vehicles of a defined scope requires authorities to enact legislation that restricts them in a certain way. Proposed methods include:

• A prohibition on further sales or registration of new vehicles powered with specific fuels from a certain date in a certain area. At the date of implementation, existing vehicles would remain legal to drive on public highways.{{cite news|date=4 February 2020|title=How will the petrol and diesel car ban work?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-40726868|access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929044750/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-40726868|url-status=live}}
• A prohibition on the importation of new vehicles powered with specific fuels from a certain date into a certain area. This is planned in countries such as Denmark and Israel; however, some countries, such as Israel, have no legislation on the subject.{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-israel-pledges-to-stop-using-fossil-fuels-by-2050-1.9367763|title=Israel Pledges to Stop Using Fossil Fuels by 2050|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=2 October 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002120529/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-israel-pledges-to-stop-using-fossil-fuels-by-2050-1.9367763|url-status=live}}
• A prohibition on any use of certain vehicles powered with specific fuels from a certain date within a certain area. Restrictions such as these are already in place in many European cities, usually in the context of their low-emission zones (LEZs).{{cite web |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/TE%20Air%20Quality%20Report_FINAL_12032018%20NEW.pdf |title=How to get rid of dirty diesels on city roads |publisher=Transport & Environment |date=March 2018 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107131847/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/TE%20Air%20Quality%20Report_FINAL_12032018%20NEW.pdf |url-status=live }}

Fuel cell (electric) vehicles (FCVs or FCEVs) also allow running on (some) non-fossil fuels (i.e., hydrogen, ethanol,{{cite web|title=Researchers develop new composite membrane for direct ethanol fuel cells|url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/05/20200505-defc.html|access-date=19 September 2020|website=Green Car Congress|archive-date=29 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029101446/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/05/20200505-defc.html|url-status=live}} methanol,{{cite web|title=Element 1, CO-WIN road testing medium-duty fuel cell truck with onboard methanol-based hydrogen generation|url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/09/20200917-e1.html|access-date=19 September 2020|website=Green Car Congress|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919234447/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/09/20200917-e1.html|url-status=live}} ).

Cities generally use the introduction of low-emission zones (LEZs) or zero-emission zones (ZEZs), sometimes with an accompanying air quality certificate sticker such as Crit'air (France), to restrict the use of fossil-fuelled cars in some or all of its territory. These zones are growing in number, size, and strictness.{{cite web|last=Frank|date=9 August 2021|title=Europe's tightening city bans: a complex (and simple) story|url=https://www.fleeteurope.com/en/new-energies/europe/features/europes-tightening-city-bans-complex-and-simple-story|access-date=10 October 2021|website=Fleet Europe|language=en}} Some city bans in countries such as Italy, Germany, and Switzerland are only temporarily activated during particular times of the day, during winter, or when there is a smog alert (for example, in Italy in January 2020); these do not directly contribute to the phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles, but they make owning and using such vehicles less attractive as their utility is restricted and the cost of driving them increases.{{cite web |url=https://www.adac.de/verkehr/abgas-diesel-fahrverbote/fahrverbote/fahrverbote-ausland/ |title=Zufahrtsbeschränkungen in Europa |publisher=ADAC |date=18 February 2020 |access-date=16 September 2020 |language=de |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927113323/https://www.adac.de/verkehr/abgas-diesel-fahrverbote/fahrverbote/fahrverbote-ausland/ |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-first_banning-dirty-cars-to-help-fight-geneva-s-smog/45353700 |title=Banning dirty cars to help fight Geneva's smog |author=Susan Misicka |work=Swissinfo |date=7 November 2019 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116090007/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-first_banning-dirty-cars-to-help-fight-geneva-s-smog/45353700 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-pollution/rome-bans-all-diesel-cars-in-battle-to-curb-pollution-idUSKBN1ZD1MZ |title=Rome bans all diesel cars in battle to curb pollution |work=Reuters |date=14 January 2020 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=3 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903094602/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-pollution/rome-bans-all-diesel-cars-in-battle-to-curb-pollution-idUSKBN1ZD1MZ |url-status=live }}

Some countries have given consumers various incentives such as subsidies or tax breaks to stimulate the purchase of electric vehicles, while fossil-fuelled vehicles are taxed increasingly heavily.

Helped by government incentives, Norway became the first country to have the majority of new vehicles sold in 2021 be electric. In January 2022, 88 per cent of new vehicles sold in the country were electric.{{cite news |last=Ummelas |first=Ott |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-02-01/ev-sales-hit-record-in-norway-with-fossil-engines-soon-gone |title=EV Sales Hit Record in Norway With Fossil Engines Soon Gone |work=Bloomberg News |date=1 February 2022 |access-date=7 February 2022 }}

{{Dynamic list}}

At the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Glasgow multiple governments and companies signed a non-legally-binding declaration to accelerate the transition to 100% zero emission cars and vans (the Glasgow Declaration). They wanted all new cars and vans to not emit any greenhouse gas at the tailpipe by 2035 in leading markets and by 2040 globally.{{Cite web |title=Signatories – Views {{!}} Accelerating to Zero Coalition |url=https://acceleratingtozero.org/signatories-views/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=acceleratingtozero.org}}{{Cite web |title=COP26 declaration on accelerating the transition to 100% zero emission cars and vans |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2021/11/20211111-cop26zevs.html |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=Green Car Congress}} The United States and China (the biggest car markets) did not sign and neither did Germany (the biggest car market in the EU). Also absent from the list of signatories were major car manufacturers Volkswagen, Toyota, Renault-Nissan and Hyundai-Kia.{{Cite news |last=Espiner |first=Tom |date=2021-11-10 |title=COP 26: Four major carmakers fail to back zero emissions pledge |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-59236613 |access-date=2023-02-23}}

In 2018, Denmark proposed an EU-wide prohibition on petrol and diesel cars, but that turned out to be contrary to EU regulations. In October 2019, Denmark made a proposal for phasing out fossil fuel vehicles on the member state level by 2030 which was supported by 10 other EU member states.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-autos-denmark-idUSKBN1WJ1YW |title=Denmark calls for EU strategy to phase out diesel and petrol cars from 2030 |author=Jonas Ekblom |work=Reuters |date=4 October 2019 |access-date=14 September 2020 |archive-date=4 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904185348/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-autos-denmark-idUSKBN1WJ1YW |url-status=live }}

In July 2021, France opposed a ban on combustion-powered cars and in particular on hybrid vehicles.{{cite news |last1=Ania Nussbaum |last2=Tara Patel |title=France Pushes Back Against EU Banning Combustion Cars by 2035 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-07-12/france-pushes-back-against-eu-banning-combustion-cars-by-2035 |access-date=4 October 2021 |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=12 July 2021 |quote=France is resisting the European Union effectively phasing out combustion-engine car sales by 2035, advocating for a more lenient target for the end of the decade and a longer leash for plug-in hybrid models |archive-date=4 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004221803/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-07-12/france-pushes-back-against-eu-banning-combustion-cars-by-2035 |url-status=live }}

In July 2021, the European Commission proposed a 100% reduction of emissions for new sales of cars and vans as of 2035.{{cite web|title=COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 'Fit for 55': delivering the EU's 2030 Climate Target on the way to climate neutrality|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0550|url-status=live|access-date=29 July 2021|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729092049/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0550}}{{cite web|title=Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL amending Regulation (EU) 2019/631 as regards strengthening the CO2 emission performance standards for new passenger cars and new light commercial vehicles in line with the Union's increased climate ambition|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52021PC0556|url-status=live|access-date=29 July 2021|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729092039/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52021PC0556}} On 8 June 2022, the European Parliament voted in favour of the proposal of the European Commission, but agreement with the European Union member states was necessary before a final law could be passed.{{Cite news |last=Abnett |first=Kate |date=8 June 2022 |title=EU lawmakers back ban on new fossil-fuel cars from 2035 |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/eu-lawmakers-support-effective-ban-new-fossil-fuel-cars-2035-2022-06-08/ |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608204018/https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/eu-lawmakers-support-effective-ban-new-fossil-fuel-cars-2035-2022-06-08/?taid=62a0dcad7385bc0001a54f04 |archive-date=8 June 2022}} On 22 June 2022, German Finance Minister Christian Lindner stated that his government would refuse to agree on the ban.{{Cite web |date=22 June 2022 |title=Germany refuses to agree to EU ban on new fossil fuel cars from 2035 |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/06/22/germany-refuses-to-agree-to-eu-ban-on-new-fossil-fuel-cars-from-2035 |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=euronews |language=en}} But on 29 June 2022, after 16 hours of negotiations, all climate ministers of the 27 EU member states agreed to the commission's proposal (part of the 'Fit for 55' package) to effectively ban the sale of new internal combustion vehicles by 2035 (through '[introducing] a 100% {{CO2}} emissions reduction target by 2035 for new cars and vans').{{Cite web |title=Fit for 55 package: Council reaches general approaches relating to emissions reductions and their social impacts |work=European Council |date=29 June 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022 |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/06/29/fit-for-55-council-reaches-general-approaches-relating-to-emissions-reductions-and-removals-and-their-social-impacts/ |quote=The Council also agreed to introduce a 100% {{CO2}} emissions reduction target by 2035 for new cars and vans.}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jun/29/eu-countries-reach-climate-crisis-deal-after-late-night-talks |title=EU countries reach climate crisis deal after late-night talks |agency=Reuters |work=The Guardian |date=29 June 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022 |quote=After more than 16 hours of negotiations, environment ministers from the 27 member states agreed their joint positions on five laws, (...) including a law requiring new cars sold in the EU to emit zero {{CO2}} from 2035. That would make it impossible to sell internal-combustion engine cars.}}{{Cite news |url=https://nos.nl/artikel/2434589-het-einde-van-de-diesel-en-benzineauto-is-in-zicht |title=Het einde van de diesel- en benzineauto is in zicht |trans-title=The end of the diesel and petrol car is in sight |work=NOS.nl |date=29 June 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022 |language=nl |quote=Vannacht spraken de Europese klimaatministers af dat vanaf 2035 nieuwe auto's met een verbrandingsmotor niet meer mogen worden verkocht in Europa. Alle nieuwe auto's moeten vanaf dan elektrisch zijn.}} Germany backed the 2035 target, asking the Commission whether hybrid vehicles or {{CO2}}-neutral fuels could also comply with the proposal; Frans Timmermans responded that the Commission kept an "open mind", but at the time 'hybrids did not deliver sufficient emissions cuts and alternative fuels were prohibitively expensive.' The law for "zero CO₂ emissions for new cars and vans in 2035" was approved by the European Parliament on 14 February 2023.{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20230210IPR74715/fit-for-55-zero-co2-emissions-for-new-cars-and-vans-in-2035|title=Fit for 55: zero CO2 emissions for new cars and vans in 2035|website=europarl.europa.eu|publisher=European Parliament|date=14 February 2023}}

In September 2024, Italy's industry minister called on the EU to reassess its 2035 ban on petrol and diesel cars, suggesting an earlier review for clarity. The Italian government pushed for greater flexibility in achieving decarbonization goals and a more gradual transition from combustion engines.{{Cite news|last1=Pollina|first1= Elvira|date=7 September 2024 |title=Italy calls for early review of EU combustion engine ban |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/italy-calls-early-review-eu-combustion-engine-ban-2024-09-07/ |access-date=8 September 2024}}

Countries with proposed bans or implementing 100% sales of zero-emissions vehicles include China (including Hong Kong and Macau), Japan, Singapore, the UK, South Korea, Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Slovenia, Germany, Italy, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, Canada, the 12 U.S. states that adhered to California's Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Program, Sri Lanka, Cabo Verde, and Costa Rica.{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2020 |title=Global EV Outlook 2020: Entering the decade of electric drive? |author=International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=June 2020 |access-date=15 June 2020 |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910135242/https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2020 |url-status=live }} See Table 2.1

[[File:Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles.svg|upright=3|center|thumb|Map of proposed bans:

{{legend|#008000|2020s}}

{{legend|#00FF00|2030s}}

{{legend|#00FFFF|2040s}}

{{legend|#0000FF|2050s}}]]

Some politicians in some countries have made broad announcements{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-petrol-diesel-car-ban-gasoline-production-sales-electric-cabinet-official-state-media-a7938726.html|title=China to ban all petrol and diesel cars|date=10 September 2017|website=The Independent|access-date=7 February 2019|archive-date=9 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209183106/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-petrol-diesel-car-ban-gasoline-production-sales-electric-cabinet-official-state-media-a7938726.html|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-aims-to-eliminate-use-of-coal-gasoline-and-diesel-by-2030/|title=Israel aims to eliminate use of coal, gasoline and diesel by 2030|author=Shoshanna Solomon|work=The Times of Israel|date=27 February 2018|access-date=16 September 2020|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001093118/https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-aims-to-eliminate-use-of-coal-gasoline-and-diesel-by-2030/|url-status=live}} but have implemented no legislation and therefore there is no phase-out and no binding legislation.{{cite news |author1=Chris Randall |title=Austria considers combustion ban for 2030 |url=https://www.electrive.com/2021/07/19/austria-considers-combustion-ban-for-2030/ |access-date=2 October 2021 |work=Elecdrive |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719094323/https://www.electrive.com/2021/07/19/austria-considers-combustion-ban-for-2030/ |archive-date=19 July 2021 |quote=the "Mobility Master Plan 2030" is not binding}} Ireland, for example, had made announcements but ultimately did not ban diesel nor petrol vehicles.{{cite web |last1=George |first1=Lee |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2020/1007/1169885-climate-action-bill/ |publisher=RTÉ News |access-date=16 April 2021 |title=Ban on sale of petrol, diesel cars from 2030 not in new Climate Action Bill |date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=6 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210406094914/https://www.rte.ie/news/2020/1007/1169885-climate-action-bill/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web|url=https://www.radiokerry.ie/news/kerry-motor-dealers-welcome-omission-car-ban-climate-bill-222862|title=Kerry motor dealers welcome omission of car ban from Climate Bill|website=RadioKerry.ie|access-date=2 October 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002125840/https://www.radiokerry.ie/news/kerry-motor-dealers-welcome-omission-car-ban-climate-bill-222862|url-status=live}}

The International Energy Agency predicted in 2021 that 70% of India's new car sales will be fossil powered in 2030,{{cite web|url=https://inc42.com/infocus/electric-vehicles-this-week/electric-vehicles-this-week-assessing-indias-2030-electric-mobility-goals-more/|title=Electric Vehicles This Week: Assessing India's 2030 Electric Mobility Goals & More|date=29 April 2021|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003145730/https://inc42.com/infocus/electric-vehicles-this-week/electric-vehicles-this-week-assessing-indias-2030-electric-mobility-goals-more/|url-status=live}} despite earlier government announcements that were discarded in 2018.{{cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/auto/car-news/government-finally-wakes-up-sets-a-realistic-goal-of-30-electric-vehicles-by-2030-from-existing-100-target/1091075/|title=Government finally wakes up: Sets a realistic goal of 30% electric vehicles by 2030 from existing 100% target|date=8 March 2018|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003145731/https://www.financialexpress.com/auto/car-news/government-finally-wakes-up-sets-a-realistic-goal-of-30-electric-vehicles-by-2030-from-existing-100-target/1091075/|url-status=live}} In November 2021, the Indian government was amongst 30 national governments and six major automakers who pledged to phase out the sale of all new petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040 worldwide, and by 2035 in "leading markets".

{{Further|Low-emission zone|European emission standards}}

{{See also|Air pollution#Governing urban air pollution}}

Some cities or territories have planned or taken measures to partially or entirely phase out fossil fuel vehicles earlier than their national governments. In some cases, this is achieved through local or regional government initiatives, in other cases through legal challenges brought on by citizens or civil organisations enforcing partial phase-outs based on the right to clean air.

Some cities listed have signed the Fossil Fuel Free Streets Declaration, committing to banning emitting vehicles by 2030,{{cite web|url=https://www.c40.org/other/fossil-fuel-free-streets-declaration|title=C40 : Fossil-Fuel-Free Streets Declaration|website=c40.org|access-date=23 January 2019|archive-date=24 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124002115/https://www.c40.org/other/fossil-fuel-free-streets-declaration|url-status=live}} but this does not necessarily have the force of law in those jurisdictions. The bans typically apply to a select number of streets in the urban centre of the city where most people live, not to its entire territory. Some cities take a gradual approach to prohibit the most polluting categories of vehicles first, then the next-most polluting, all the way up to a complete ban on all fossil-fuel vehicles; some cities have not yet set a deadline for a complete ban, and/or are waiting for the national government to set such a date.

In California, emissions requirements for automakers to be permitted to sell any vehicles in the state were expected to force 15% of new vehicles offered for sale between 2018 and 2025 to be zero emission. Much cleaner emissions and increased efficiency in petrol engines mean this will be met with just 8% of ZEV vehicles.{{cite news|title=What Will It Not as Much as You Might Think|work=Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://blog.ucsusa.org/dave-reichmuth/what-will-it-take-for-automakers-to-meet-californias-ev-requirements-not-as-much-as-you-might-think|access-date=24 January 2019|archive-date=25 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125073506/https://blog.ucsusa.org/dave-reichmuth/what-will-it-take-for-automakers-to-meet-californias-ev-requirements-not-as-much-as-you-might-think|url-status=live}} The "Ditching Dirt Diesel" law SB 44 sponsored by Nancy Skinner and adopted on 20 September 2019 requires the California Air Resources Board (CARB) to "create a comprehensive strategy for deploying medium- and heavy-duty vehicles" to make California meet federal ambient air quality standards, and 'establish goals and spur technology advancements for reducing GHG emissions from the medium- and heavy-duty vehicle sectors by 2030 and 2050'. It stops short of directly requiring a phase-out of all diesel vehicles by 2050 (as the original bill did), but it would be the most obvious means of achieving the reduction goals.{{cite web |url=https://sd09.senate.ca.gov/news/20190920-gov-newsom-signs-sb-44-%E2%80%9Cditching-dirty-diesel%E2%80%9D |title=Gov. Newsom Signs SB 44, "Ditching Dirty Diesel" |publisher=Senate of California |date=20 September 2019 |access-date=17 September 2020 |archive-date=29 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829061720/https://sd09.senate.ca.gov/news/20190920-gov-newsom-signs-sb-44-%E2%80%9Cditching-dirty-diesel%E2%80%9D |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=https://www.ccjdigital.com/california-tightens-truck-emissions-regs-with-two-new-laws/ |title=New California laws further tighten state's emissions standards for trucks |author=Matt Cole |work=CCJ Digital |date=23 September 2019 |access-date=17 September 2019 |archive-date=3 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003224439/https://www.ccjdigital.com/california-tightens-truck-emissions-regs-with-two-new-laws/ |url-status=live }} In August 2022, California Governor Gavin Newsom signed off on a new EV mandate. The plan's targets are 35% ZEV market share by 2026, 68% by 2030, and 100% by 2035.{{Cite web |date=2022-08-25 |title=California Enacts World-Leading Plan to Achieve 100 Percent Zero-Emission Vehicles by 2035, Cut Pollution |url=https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/08/25/california-enacts-world-leading-plan-to-achieve-100-percent-zero-emission-vehicles-by-2035-cut-pollution/ |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=California Governor |language=en}} This plan is accompanied by supporting funding for infrastructure and ZEV rebates totaling $10 billion. Newsom has stated his commitment to keep California at the forefront of zero-emission transportation.

In the European Union, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management and Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality form the legal basis for EU citizens' right to clean air.{{cite web |url=https://www.right-to-clean-air.eu/fileadmin/Redaktion/Downloads/Right-to-Clean-Air_Europe_Backgroundpaper_EN.pdf |title=Legal Actions for Clean Air |work=Right to Clean Air |publisher=Deutsche Umwelthilfe |date=25 November 2019 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230023613/https://www.right-to-clean-air.eu/fileadmin/Redaktion/Downloads/Right-to-Clean-Air_Europe_Backgroundpaper_EN.pdf |url-status=live }} On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled that under Directive 96/62/EC{{cite web|last=Europa (1996)|title=Summaries of EU legislation – Management and quality of ambient air|url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/other/l28031a_en.htm|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228061002/http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/other/l28031a_en.htm|url-status=live}} citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short-term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.{{cite web|last=European Court of Justice|first=CURIA (2008)|title=PRESS RELEASE No 58/08 Judgment of the Court of Justice in Case C-237/07|url=http://curia.europa.eu/en/actu/communiques/cp08/aff/cp080058en.pdf|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-date=25 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125235112/http://curia.europa.eu/en/actu/communiques/cp08/aff/cp080058en.pdf|url-status=live}} The ruling of the German Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig on 5 September 2013 significantly strengthened the right of environmental associations and consumer protection organisations to sue local authorities to enforce compliance with air quality limits throughout an entire city. The Administrative Court of Wiesbaden declared on 30 June 2015 that financial or economic aspects were not a valid excuse to refrain from taking measures to ensure that the limit values were observed, the Administrative Court of Düsseldorf ruled on 13 September 2016 that driving bans on certain diesel vehicles were legally possible to comply with the limit values as quickly as possible, and on 26 July 2017, the Administrative Court of Stuttgart ordered the state of Baden-Württemberg to consider a year-round ban on diesel-powered vehicles. By mid-February 2018, citizens in the EU member states the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, and the United Kingdom were suing their governments for violating the limit of 40 micrograms per cubic meter of breathable air as stipulated in the Ambient Air Quality Directive.{{cite news|url=https://www.faz.net/1.5457894|title=Fahrverbot-Kommentar: Der Diesel, die Luft und das Verbot|last=Gropp|first=Martin|date=21 February 2018|work=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung|access-date=23 February 2018|language=de|issn=0174-4909}}

A landmark ruling by the German Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig on 27 February 2018 declared that the cities of Stuttgart and Düsseldorf were allowed to legally prohibit older, more polluting diesel vehicles from driving in zones worst affected by pollution, rejecting appeals made by German states against the bans imposed by the two cities' local courts. The case was strongly influenced by the ongoing Volkswagen emissions scandal (also known as Dieselgate), which in 2015 revealed that many Volkswagen diesel engines were deceptively tested and marketed as much cleaner than they were. The decision was predicted to set a precedent for other places in the country and in Europe.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-43211946 |title=Diesel ban approved for German cities to cut pollution |work=BBC News |date=27 February 2018 |access-date=14 September 2020 |archive-date=2 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902040053/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-43211946 |url-status=live }} Indeed, the ruling triggered a wave of dozens of local diesel restrictions, brought about by Environmental Action Germany (DUH) suing city authorities and winning legal challenges across Germany.{{cite news |url=https://www.duitslandnieuws.nl/blog/2018/12/11/in-deze-duitse-steden-komt-in-2019-een-dieselverbod/ |title=In deze Duitse steden komt in 2019 een dieselverbod |work=Duitslandnieuws.nl |date=11 December 2018 |access-date=16 September 2020 |language=nl |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041403/https://www.duitslandnieuws.nl/blog/2018/12/11/in-deze-duitse-steden-komt-in-2019-een-dieselverbod/ |url-status=live }} While some groups and parties such as the AfD again tried to overturn them, others such as the Greens advocated for a national phaseout of diesel cars by 2030.{{cite news |url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/04/25/germany-s-diesel-car-ban-revs-up-political-debate |title=Germany's diesel car ban revs up political debate |author=Sandor Zsiros & Damon Embling |work=Euronews |date=25 April 2019 |access-date=14 September 2020 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030170948/https://www.euronews.com/2019/04/25/germany-s-diesel-car-ban-revs-up-political-debate |url-status=live }}{{cite news |date=15 November 2018 |title=Factbox: German cities ban older diesel cars |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-emissions-factbox-idUSKCN1NK28L |access-date=15 September 2020}} {{cbignore|bot=medic}} On 13 December 2018, the European Court of Justice overturned a 2016 European Commission relaxation of car {{NOx}} emission limits to 168 mg/km, which the Court declared illegal. This allowed the cities of Brussels, Madrid, and Paris, who had filed the complaint, to proceed with their plans to also reject Euro 6 diesel vehicles from their urban centres, based on the original 80 mg/km limit set by EU law.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/dec/13/eu-relaxation-of-diesel-emission-limits-was-illegal-court-rules |title=EU relaxation of diesel emission limits was illegal, court rules |author=Sandra Laville |work=The Guardian |date=13 December 2018 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=16 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916195248/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/dec/13/eu-relaxation-of-diesel-emission-limits-was-illegal-court-rules |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/newsroom/blog/eu-must-withdraw-carmakers%E2%80%99-%E2%80%98license-pollute%E2%80%99-data-shows-new-cars-meet-limits |title=EU must withdraw carmakers' "license to pollute" as data shows new cars meet limits |author=Anna Krajinska |work=Transport & Environment |date=8 May 2019 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921184806/https://www.transportenvironment.org/newsroom/blog/eu-must-withdraw-carmakers%E2%80%99-%E2%80%98license-pollute%E2%80%99-data-shows-new-cars-meet-limits |url-status=live }}{{#tag:ref|The 80 mg/km limit is defined in Regulation (EC) No 692/2008, Table 2 of Annex XVII and Footnote 1 of Annex XI.{{cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32008R0692 |title=Commission Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 of 18 July 2008 implementing and amending Regulation (EC) No 715/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council on type-approval of motor vehicles with respect to emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 5 and Euro 6) and on access to vehicle repair and maintenance information |work=Official Journal of the European Union |publisher=Eur-Lex |date=18 July 2008 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116022650/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32008R0692 |url-status=live }} The European Court of Justice ruled that the European Commission illegally circumvented this limit by introducing a 'temporary conformity factor of 2,1 (...) to allow manufacturers to gradually adapt to the RDE [Real Driving Emissions] rules' in Regulation (EU) 2016/646, Preamble 10 and Annex II '2.1.2 Temporary conformity factors'. This meant 2.1 times 80 mg/km = 168 mg/km.{{cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32016R0646 |title=Commission Regulation (EU) 2016/646 of 20 April 2016 amending Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 as regards emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 6) |work=Official Journal of the European Union |publisher=Eur-Lex |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107021434/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32016R0646 |url-status=live }}|group="note"}}

{{Seealso|List of manufacturers by motor vehicle production}}

File:2015- Passenger electric vehicle (EV) annual sales - BloombergNEF.svg

In 2017, Volvo announced plans to phase out internal combustion-only vehicle production by 2019, after which all new cars manufactured by Volvo will either be fully electric or electric hybrids.{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/5/15921208/volvo-all-electric-by-2019|title=Volvo to end gas-only cars by 2019|first=Thomas|last=Ricker|date=5 July 2017|website=The Verge|access-date=15 February 2021|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220172103/https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/5/15921208/volvo-all-electric-by-2019|url-status=live}} In 2020, the Volvo Group with other truck makers including DAF Trucks, Daimler AG, Ford, Iveco, MAN SE, and Scania AB pledged to end diesel truck sales by 2040.{{cite web|url=https://industryeurope.com/api/content/18bdc9da-3e05-11eb-917a-1244d5f7c7c6/|title=Truckmaker alliance pledges to end diesel sales by 2040|first=Steven|last=Gislam|date=14 December 2020|website=Industry Europe}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

In 2018, Volkswagen Group's strategy chief said "the year 2026 will be the last product start on a combustion engine platform" for its core brand, Volkswagen.{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-volkswagen-emissions-combustion-idUSKBN1O32O6|title=Volkswagen says last generation of combustion engines to be launched in 2026|work=Reuters |date=4 December 2018 |access-date=15 February 2021|archive-date=16 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216212028/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-volkswagen-emissions-combustion-idUSKBN1O32O6|url-status=live}}

In 2021, General Motors announced plans to go fully electric by 2035.{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/business/autos/gm-go-all-electric-2035-phase-out-gas-diesel-engines-n1256055|title=GM to go all-electric by 2035, phase out gas and diesel engines|first=Paul A. EisensteinPaul A. Eisenstein is an NBC News contributor who covers the auto|last=industry|date=29 January 2021 |publisher=NBC News|access-date=15 February 2021|archive-date=16 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216093656/https://www.nbcnews.com/business/autos/gm-go-all-electric-2035-phase-out-gas-diesel-engines-n1256055|url-status=live}} In the same year, the CEO of Jaguar Land Rover, Thierry Bolloré also claimed it would "achieve zero tailpipe emissions by 2036" and that its Jaguar brand would be electric-only by 2025.{{cite news |last1=Jolly |first1=Jasper |title=JLR to make Jaguar brand electric-only by 2025 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/feb/15/jlr-to-make-jaguar-brand-electric-only-by-2025 |access-date=15 February 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=15 February 2021 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215121831/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/feb/15/jlr-to-make-jaguar-brand-electric-only-by-2025 |url-status=live }} By March, Volvo Cars announced that by 2030 it "intends to only sell fully electric cars and phase out any car in its global portfolio with an internal combustion engine, including hybrids".{{cite press release|url=https://www.media.volvocars.com/global/en-gb/media/pressreleases/277409/volvo-cars-to-be-fully-electric-by-2030|title=Volvo Cars to be fully electric by 2030|date=2 March 2021|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302080701/https://www.media.volvocars.com/global/en-gb/media/pressreleases/277409/volvo-cars-to-be-fully-electric-by-2030|url-status=live}} In April 2021, Honda announced that it will stop selling gas-powered vehicles by 2040.{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/23/22399212/honda-gas-car-phase-out-2040-electric-vehicle|title=Honda will phase out gas-powered cars by 2040|first=Andrew J.|last=Hawkins|date=23 April 2021|website=The Verge|access-date=8 June 2021|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608004843/https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/23/22399212/honda-gas-car-phase-out-2040-electric-vehicle|url-status=live}} In July 2021, Mercedes-Benz announced that its new vehicle platforms will be EV-only by 2025.{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/greggardner/2021/07/22/mercedes-benz-to-spend-47-billion-to-speed-conversion-to-electric-only-production/|title=Mercedes-Benz To Spend $47 Billion To Speed Conversion To Electric-Only Lineup|first=Greg|last=Gardner|website=Forbes|access-date=6 August 2021|archive-date=6 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806230732/https://www.forbes.com/sites/greggardner/2021/07/22/mercedes-benz-to-spend-47-billion-to-speed-conversion-to-electric-only-production/|url-status=live}} In Oct 2021, Rolls-Royce announced that it will be fully electric by 2030.{{cite web|url=https://www.press.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/rolls-royce-motor-cars-pressclub/article/detail/T0346152EN/a-prophecy-fulfilled-a-promise-kept-a-remarkable-undertaking-underway-rolls-royce-motor-cars-announces-first-fully-electric-car?language=en|title=A PROPHECY FULFILLED, A PROMISE KEPT, A REMARKABLE UNDERTAKING UNDERWAY. ROLLS-ROYCE MOTOR CARS ANNOUNCES FIRST FULLY ELECTRIC CAR|website=press.rolls-roycemotorcars.com|access-date=2 October 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002164918/https://www.press.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/rolls-royce-motor-cars-pressclub/article/detail/T0346152EN/a-prophecy-fulfilled-a-promise-kept-a-remarkable-undertaking-underway-rolls-royce-motor-cars-announces-first-fully-electric-car?language=en|url-status=live}} In November 2021, at 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, car manufacturers including BYD Auto, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Jaguar, Land Rover, Mercedes-Benz and Volvo have committed to "work towards all sales of new cars and vans being zero emission globally by 2040, and by no later than 2035 in leading markets".{{cite news |title=COP26: Deal to end car emissions by 2040 idles as motor giants refuse to sign |url=https://www.ft.com/content/8c4a1809-902f-4582-a29e-1c83a97b9dff |work=Financial Times |date=8 November 2021 |access-date=14 November 2021 |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114145317/https://www.ft.com/content/8c4a1809-902f-4582-a29e-1c83a97b9dff |url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=COP26: Every carmaker that pledged to stop selling fossil-fuel vehicles by 2040 |url=https://www.carexpert.com.au/car-news/cop26-every-carmaker-that-pledged-to-stop-selling-fossil-fuel-vehicles-by-2040 |work=CarExpert |date=11 November 2021 |access-date=14 November 2021 |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114145318/https://www.carexpert.com.au/car-news/cop26-every-carmaker-that-pledged-to-stop-selling-fossil-fuel-vehicles-by-2040 |url-status=live}}

In 2022, Maserati announced its plans to offer full-electric variants of all its models by 2025 and its intention to halt production of combustion engine vehicles by 2030.{{Cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/maseratti-plans-to-go-fully-electric-by-2025-165704355.html|title=Maserati plans to go fully electric by 2025|date=17 March 2022|website=Engadget}}

In 2023, Nissan announced the commitment to end combustion engine vehicle sales in Europe by 2030.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66915440|title=Nissan to go all-electric by 2030 despite petrol ban delay|date=25 September 2023|via=www.bbc.com}}

The following table shows manufacturer pledges of the top global automaker corporations.

The sale of 5% electric vehicles is commonly regarded as a "tipping point" at which sales are likely to continually increase on a standard "S curve" pattern. At the end of 2023, 31 countries (including most EU countries, China and the US) had reached well over 5% of the market as electric, 15 countries were over 20%, and two were over 50%. However, Japan, India, Brazil, Mexico and Indonesia, which are among the 15 largest car markets, notably had not reached 5%.

{{main|List of countries by railway electrification}}

• Germany: While railway electrification is often pursued for reasons unrelated to the emissions caused by fossil fuels, there has been an increased push in the 21st century in countries such as Germany to replace diesel locomotives with alternatives such as battery electric multiple units,{{cite web |url=https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/schleswig-holstein/Akku-Zuege-kommen-Ende-2022-in-SH-aufs-Gleis,akkuzug102.html |title=Akku-Züge kommen Ende 2022 in SH aufs Gleis {{pipe}} NDR.de – Nachrichten – Schleswig-Holstein |publisher=NDR.de |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121144651/https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/schleswig-holstein/Akku-Zuege-kommen-Ende-2022-in-SH-aufs-Gleis,akkuzug102.html |url-status=live }} hydrogen fuel trains like the Alstom Coradia iLint or overhead wire electrification.{{cite news |url=https://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article230480863/Wasserstoffzuege-Siemens-und-Alstom-arbeiten-an-der-Technologie.html |title=Wasserstoffzüge: Siemens und Alstom arbeiten an der Technologie – WELT |newspaper=Die Welt |date=19 April 2021 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121144144/https://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article230480863/Wasserstoffzuege-Siemens-und-Alstom-arbeiten-an-der-Technologie.html |url-status=live |last1=Hegmann |first1=Gerhard }}
• Switzerland: pursued electrification because importing coal for steam locomotives had proven difficult during the World Wars but Switzerland has plenty of domestic hydropower resources to power electric trains.{{cite web |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/ger/wissen-technik/geschichte_unter-strom---wie-die-schweiz-elektrifiziert-wurde/44217906 |title=Unter Strom – wie die Schweiz elektrifiziert wurde – SWI |date=8 July 2018 |language=de |publisher=Swissinfo.ch |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121145258/https://www.swissinfo.ch/ger/wissen-technik/geschichte_unter-strom---wie-die-schweiz-elektrifiziert-wurde/44217906 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/de/articles/013845/ |title=Elektrifizierung |language=de |trans-title=Electrification |date=9 September 2009 |website=hls-dhs-dss.ch |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211221234004/https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/de/articles/013845/2010-09-09/ |archive-date=21 December 2021}}
• Israel: Israel Railways which had no electrified mainline rail services prior to 2018 when the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem railway became the first line to see electric train operation, plans to electrify most{{notetag|There is still no clear decision whether the old Jaffa-Jerusalem railway is to be electrified, shut down, kept as a heritage railway or converted to hydrogen fuel or battery-electric operation}} or all of its network{{cite web |url=https://db-engineering-consulting.com/en/projects/israel-railways-railway-electrification-program/ |title=Railway electrification program, Israel {{pipe}} DB Engineering & Consulting |publisher=Db-engineering-consulting.com |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121152503/https://db-engineering-consulting.com/en/projects/israel-railways-railway-electrification-program/ |url-status=live }} and to phase out diesel locomotives and diesel multiple units.{{cite web |last=Halavy |first=Dror |url=https://hamodia.com/2018/07/26/israel-railways-announces-plans-electrification/ |title=Israel Railways Announces Plans for Electrification |publisher=Hamodia.com |date=26 July 2018 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121152548/https://hamodia.com/2018/07/26/israel-railways-announces-plans-electrification/ |url-status=live }} The project was further accelerated in 2020 as the temporary shutdown of rail traffic due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Israel allowed faster construction{{Cite news |url=https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-tel-aviv-railway-electrification-work-speeds-up-1001323882 |title=Tel Aviv railway electrification work speeds up |newspaper=Globes |date=30 March 2020 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121153305/https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-tel-aviv-railway-electrification-work-speeds-up-1001323882 |url-status=live }} and ERTMS level 2 was being rolled out.{{cite web |url=https://railpage.com.au/news/s/israel-electrification-programme-accelerated-as-etcs-level-2-tested |title=Israel electrification programme accelerated as ETCS Level 2 tested / News / News / Railpage |publisher=Railpage.com.au |date=11 April 2020 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121151046/https://railpage.com.au/news/s/israel-electrification-programme-accelerated-as-etcs-level-2-tested |url-status=live }} However, in 2019 Israel Railways ordered diesel powered rolling stock to replace the ageing IC3 trains with media reports citing delays in the electrification program as the main reason.{{Cite news |url=https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-israel-railways-to-buy-carriages-engines-for-nis-24b-1001281527 |title=Israel Railways to buy diesel rolling stock for NIS 2.4b |newspaper=Globes |date=4 August 2019 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121153015/https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-israel-railways-to-buy-carriages-engines-for-nis-24b-1001281527 |url-status=live }}
• United States: In the San Francisco Bay Area, the Caltrain Electrification program approved in 2016 is nearing completion.{{Cite web |last=Caltrain |title=Electrification {{!}} Caltrain |url=https://www.caltrain.com/projects/electrification |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=www.caltrain.com |language=en}} Caltrain is the commuter rail line generally connecting San Francisco to San Jose through San Mateo County. Despite having no electric locomotives previously, Caltrain's infrastructure has successfully implemented electric support. Funding was awarded in 2018, and train assembly and testing completed in 2022. In a multi-stage phase out plan, the new electric train cars will supplement and eventually replace diesel powered locomotives by 2024.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
• Netherlands: Most railway lines in the Netherlands were equipped with overhead wires just before or just after World War II, allowing electric trains to start running. Many regional railway lines did not receive such overhead wires, so diesel trains still run there today. As of April 2024, three regional railway lines are being electrified; a further 400 kilometres of rail is still transporting passengers with diesel locomotives.{{Cite web |title=Einde van de dieseltrein iets dichterbij: twee spoorlijnen krijgen bovenleiding |trans-title=End of diesel train a little closer: two railway lines get overhead wires |author=Jorn Kompeer |work=NOS.nl |date=14 April 2024 |access-date=25 April 2024 |url= https://nos.nl/artikel/2516894-einde-van-de-dieseltrein-iets-dichterbij-twee-spoorlijnen-krijgen-bovenleiding |language=nl}}

{{Expand section|Needs more information regarding fuels like methanol and ammonia and conservation techniques like slow steaming and Flettner rotors|date=April 2022}}

{{See also|Mobility transition#Measures in freight transport|MARPOL 73/78|Environmental effects of shipping|Regulation of ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in Europe}}

Emissions will be banned from Norway's World Heritage Sites Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord from 2026.{{cite news |date=28 January 2021 |title=Fording the fjords |work=SKF Marine News |url=https://engineeringatsea.skf.com/fording-the-fjords/ |access-date=4 October 2021 |language=en-US |archive-date=4 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004125022/https://engineeringatsea.skf.com/fording-the-fjords/ |url-status=live}}

Besides boats driven by batteries or indeed trolley boats, there have been several attempts to adapt nuclear marine propulsion which has been a part of the military naval forces of many countries for decades in the form of nuclear submarines, nuclear aircraft carriers and nuclear icebreakers to civilian uses. While prototypes like Otto Hahn (ship) (German) NS Savannah (American) and RV Mirai (Japan) were built, the only non-icebreaker nuclear powered ship to remain in civilian service is the Russian Sevmorput built in the late 1980s by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union and its successor state Russia also maintains a fleet of nuclear icebreakers to keep the Northern Sea Route open.

Sail ships and oars rely on renewable resources rather than fossil fuels (wind and human muscle-power respectively) but have disadvantages in terms of speed and labour-costs and have thus been phased out of virtually all commercial uses. There are some attempts to use wind-powered ships for commercial purposes, but as of 2022 they have remained marginal.{{cite news | url=https://www.spiegel.de/panorama/gesellschaft/tres-hombres-einziger-frachtsegler-auf-dem-atlantik-a-942679.html | title="Tres Hombres": Einziger Frachtsegler auf dem Atlantik | newspaper=Der Spiegel | date=11 January 2014 | last1=Leurs | first1=Rainer }}{{cite web | url=https://timbercoast.com/de/ | title=HOME }}{{cite web | url=https://www.energiezukunft.eu/mobilitaet/emissionsfrei-ueber-die-weltmeere/ | title=Segelfrachter "Oceanbird": Emissionsfrei über die Weltmeere }}

{{Further|Electric aircraft|Aviation taxation and subsidies}}

Norway, and possibly some other Scandinavian countries, are aiming for all domestic flights to be emission-free by 2040.{{cite web|last1=Nilsen|first1=Thomas|last2=Observer|first2=The Independent Barents|date=15 March 2021|title=Norwegian airline Widerøe aims to launch all-electric plane by 2026|url=https://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2021/03/15/norwegian-airline-wideroe-aims-to-launch-all-electric-plane-by-2026/|access-date=4 October 2021|website=Eye on the Arctic|language=en-CA|archive-date=4 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004130317/https://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2021/03/15/norwegian-airline-wideroe-aims-to-launch-all-electric-plane-by-2026/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|date=13 December 2020|title=Nordic States Set Electric-Planes Pace After Green-Cars Push|language=en|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-12-13/nordic-nations-set-pace-in-electric-planes-after-green-cars-push|access-date=4 October 2021|archive-date=9 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209061853/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-12-13/nordic-nations-set-pace-in-electric-planes-after-green-cars-push|url-status=live}} A major obstacle to decarbonising air travel is the low energy density of current and foreseeable battery technology.{{Cite web |url=https://aviationbenefits.org/faqs/electric-aircraft/ |title=When will commercial electric aircraft become a reality? |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121172341/https://aviationbenefits.org/faqs/electric-aircraft/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last=Hawkins |first=Andrew J. |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/8/14/17686706/electric-airplane-flying-car-battery-weight-green-energy-travel |title=Electric flight is coming, but the batteries aren't ready |publisher=The Verge |date=14 August 2018 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121172338/https://www.theverge.com/2018/8/14/17686706/electric-airplane-flying-car-battery-weight-green-energy-travel |url-status=live }} Thus alternatives to electric planes such as so called sustainable aviation fuels{{cite web |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/sustainable-aviation-fuel-an-important-step-in-international-trade/ |title=Sustainable aviation fuel: An important step in international trade |work=The Seattle Times |date=5 October 2021 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121172958/https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/sustainable-aviation-fuel-an-important-step-in-international-trade/ |url-status=live }} or e-fuels (fuels derived from electrochemical conversion of substances like water and carbon dioxide into hydrocarbons) are also proposed as a future replacement of current jet fuels.{{cite web |author=Petro Industry News |url=https://www.petro-online.com/news/analytical-instrumentation/11/breaking-news/what-are-e-fuels/53168 |title=What Are E-Fuels? Petro Online |publisher=Petro-online.com |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121173010/https://www.petro-online.com/news/analytical-instrumentation/11/breaking-news/what-are-e-fuels/53168 |url-status=live }}{{cite web| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/can-e-fuels-save-the-combustion-engine-11621037390| title = Can E-Fuels Save the Combustion Engine? – WSJ| access-date = 21 November 2021| archive-date = 21 November 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211121172958/https://www.wsj.com/articles/can-e-fuels-save-the-combustion-engine-11621037390| url-status = dead}}{{cite web |url=https://stay-grounded.org/e-fuels-a-realistic-alternative-for-powering-aviation/ |title=E-Fuels: A Realistic Alternative for Powering Aviation? |publisher=Stay Grounded |date=8 September 2020 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121173120/https://stay-grounded.org/e-fuels-a-realistic-alternative-for-powering-aviation/ |url-status=live }} In 2021 the first production scale plant for e-fuels to be used in aviation opened in northern Germany. Production capacity is planned to reach 8 barrels a day by 2022.{{cite web|title=Aviation: Germany opens world's first plant for clean jet fuel|url=https://www.dw.com/en/sustainable-aviation-fuel-power-to-liquid/a-59398405|access-date=23 November 2021|publisher=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123105514/https://www.dw.com/en/sustainable-aviation-fuel-power-to-liquid/a-59398405|url-status=live}} Lufthansa will be among the chief users of the synthetic fuel produced in the new facility.{{cite web |url=https://www.aircargonews.net/policy/environment/kn-and-lufthansa-cargo-partner-on-ptl-aviation-fuel/ |title=K+N and Lufthansa Cargo partner on PTL aviation fuel |website=aircargonews.net |date=4 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121180521/https://www.aircargonews.net/policy/environment/kn-and-lufthansa-cargo-partner-on-ptl-aviation-fuel/ |archive-date=21 November 2021 |url-status=}} Germany's plan to transform aviation to net zero carbon emissions relies heavily on e-fuels.{{cite web |url=https://www.greenairnews.com/?p=1116 |title=E-fuels development for aviation gets a boost with Germany's new PtL roadmap – GreenAir News |date=27 May 2021 |publisher=Greenairnews.com |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121174633/https://www.greenairnews.com/?p=1116 |url-status=live }}

Besides the need to rapidly scale up currently minuscule production capacity, the main obstacles to wider deployment of sustainable aviation fuels and e-Fuels are their much higher cost in the absence of meaningful carbon pricing in aviation.{{cite web|last=Furness|first=Dyllan|date=11 November 2021|title=Low-carbon aviation fuels are on the horizon. But for now, activists say we need to stay grounded|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/11/low-carbon-aviation-fuels-activists-stay-grounded|access-date=14 December 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=21 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121180108/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/11/low-carbon-aviation-fuels-activists-stay-grounded|url-status=live}} Furthermore, with current CORSIA regulations for sustainable aviation fuels allowing up to 90% of emissions compared to conventional fuels, even those options are currently far from carbon neutral.{{cite web |url=https://www.evalueserve.com/how-germanys-ptl-roadmap-for-aviation-fuel-outlines-its-larger-green-plans/ |title=How Germany's PtL Roadmap For Aviation Fuel Outlines Larger Green Plans |publisher=Evalueserve.com |date=4 December 2021 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121175610/https://www.evalueserve.com/how-germanys-ptl-roadmap-for-aviation-fuel-outlines-its-larger-green-plans/ |url-status=live }}

There were attempts at building nuclear-powered aircraft during the Cold War, which unlike nuclear marine propulsion never got very far and were always only proposed for military uses. As of 2022 no country or private enterprise is seriously pursuing nuclear propulsion for passenger aircraft.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

However, short haul, low demand routes can be easily flown using electric aircraft, and manufacturers such as Heart Aerospace are planning to introduce them with United Airlines in 2026.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

{{Main|Used car}}

{{Further|Effects of the car on societies|Road ecology}}

From the European Union, there is already an export market which includes millions of used cars which are sent to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, Central Asia and Africa.{{cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/opinion/147236|title=[Opinion] Second-hand cars flaw in EU Green Deal|website=EUobserver|date=24 January 2020 |access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927202253/https://euobserver.com/opinion/147236|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |title=Used vehicle background overview, see page 19 |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121115803/https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |url-status=live }} According to UNECE, the global on-road vehicle fleet is to double by 2050 (from 1.2 billion to 2.5 billion,{{Cite web |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |title=Used vehicle background overview |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121115803/https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |url-status=live }} see introduction), with most future car purchases taking place in developing countries. Some experts predict that the number of vehicles in developing countries will increase by 4 or 5-fold by 2050 (compared to current car use levels), and that the majority of these will be second-hand.{{cite web|url=https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/media/45362/wp7_regulation_for_2nd-hand_vehicles-lr.pdf|title=Regulation for 2nd hand vehicles|access-date=21 September 2020|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024171726/https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/media/45362/wp7_regulation_for_2nd-hand_vehicles-lr.pdf|url-status=live}} There are currently no global or even regional agreements that rationalise and govern the flow of second-hand vehicles.{{cite web|url=https://www.devex.com/news/geneva-meeting-on-used-cars-exporting-pollution-to-developing-countries-89976|title=Geneva meeting on used cars exporting pollution to developing countries|date=11 April 2017 |access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928132125/https://www.devex.com/news/geneva-meeting-on-used-cars-exporting-pollution-to-developing-countries-89976|url-status=live}} Others say that new electric 2-wheelers may sell widely in developing countries as they are affordable.{{Cite journal|last1=Rajper|first1=Sarmad Zaman|last2=Albrecht|first2=Johan|year=2020|title=Prospects of Electric Vehicles in the Developing Countries: A Literature Review|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|page=1906|doi=10.3390/su12051906|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020Sust...12.1906R |hdl=1854/LU-8659450|hdl-access=free}}

Internal combustion engine cars that may no longer comply to local environmental standards are exported to developing countries, where legislation on vehicle emissions is often less strict. In addition, in some developing countries, such as Uganda, the average age of a car imported is already 16.5 years and it will likely be driven for another 20 years. In such cases, fuel efficiency levels of these vehicles become worse as they age.{{Cite web |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |title=Used vehicle background overview, see page 5 |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121115803/https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |url-status=live }} In addition, national vehicle inspection requirements vary widely depending on the country.

• Export prohibitions: Some propose that the European Union could implement a rule that does not allow the most polluting cars to leave the EU. The European Union itself is of the opinion that it "should stop exporting its waste outside of the EU" and it will therefore "revisit the rules on waste shipments and illegal exports".{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/european-green-deal-communication_en.pdf|title=European Green Deal Communication|access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024175024/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/european-green-deal-communication_en.pdf|url-status=live}}
• Import prohibitions: This includes used vehicle bans, used vehicle import age limits, taxation and inspection tests as a precondition to vehicle registration.{{Cite web |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |title=Used vehicle background overview, see page 23 |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121115803/https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2017/itc/UNEP-ITC_Background_Paper-Used_Vehicle_Global_Overview.pdf |url-status=live }}
• Convert fossil fuel vehicles to electric: {{As of|2021}}, this is expensive, so it tends to only be done for classic cars.{{cite news|date=3 October 2021|title=The classic cars being converted to electric vehicles|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58578061|access-date=4 October 2021|archive-date=4 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004114205/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58578061|url-status=live}}
• Mandatory recycling: The European Commission is considering plans to introduce rules on mandatory recycled content in specific product groups for packaging, vehicles, construction materials and batteries, for instance.{{cite web|url=https://www.euwid-recycling.com/news/policy/single/Artikel/european-commission-presents-green-deal.html|title=Commission's "Green Deal" could lead to ban on EU waste exports {{pipe}} EUWID Recycling and Waste Management|website=www.euwid-recycling.com|date=11 December 2019 |access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=23 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023083615/https://www.euwid-recycling.com/news/policy/single/Artikel/european-commission-presents-green-deal.html|url-status=live}} The EU announced a new Circular Economy Action Plan in March 2020,{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/topics/circular-economy/first-circular-economy-action-plan_en|title=First circular economy action plan|publisher=European Commission|access-date=9 October 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009131700/https://ec.europa.eu/environment/topics/circular-economy/first-circular-economy-action-plan_en|url-status=live}} and it mentioned that the Commission will also propose to revise the rules on end-of-life vehicles with a view to promoting more circular business models.{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2020%3A98%3AFIN|title=EUR-Lex – 52020DC0098 – EN – EUR-Lex|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|access-date=9 October 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009131712/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2020:98:FIN|url-status=live}}
• Scrappage programs: Governments can offer a premium to owners to have their fossil fuel vehicles voluntarily scrapped and to buy a cleaner vehicle from that money (if they so choose). For example, the city of Ghent offers a scrapping premium of €1,000 for diesel vehicles and €750 for petrol vehicles; as of December 2019, the city had allocated €1.2 million for this purpose to the scrapping fund.{{cite news |url=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2019/12/09/vervuilende-auto-s-mogen-gent-niet-meer-binnen-vanaf-1-januari-2/ |title=Meest vervuilende auto's mogen Gent niet meer binnen vanaf 1 januari 2020: hoe zal het in zijn werk gaan? |author=Sandra Stacius |work=VRT NWS |date=9 December 2019 |access-date=19 September 2020 |language=nl |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122035456/https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2019/12/09/vervuilende-auto-s-mogen-gent-niet-meer-binnen-vanaf-1-januari-2/ |url-status=live }}

{{main article|Mobility transition}}

In Germany, activists have coined the term Verkehrswende (mobility transition, analogous to "Energiewende", energy transition) for a project of not only changing the motive power of cars (from fossil fuels to renewable power sources) but the entire mobility system to one of walkability, complete streets, public transit, electrified railways and bicycle infrastructure.

There is similar research being done in the United States around the term mobility justice.{{Cite journal |last=Everuss |first=Louis |date=2019-01-02 |title=Mobility Justice: a new means to examine and influence the politics of mobility |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23800127.2019.1576489 |journal=Applied Mobilities |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=132–137 |doi=10.1080/23800127.2019.1576489 |s2cid=159235121 |issn=2380-0127}} Geologist Dr. Jason Henderson of University of California, San Francisco argues that supporting electric vehicles while neglecting compact city design and public transportation will lead to car-oriented city design.{{Cite journal |last=Henderson |first=Jason |date=2020-05-04 |title=EVs Are Not the Answer: A Mobility Justice Critique of Electric Vehicle Transitions |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2020.1744422 |journal=Annals of the American Association of Geographers |volume=110 |issue=6 |pages=1993–2010 |doi=10.1080/24694452.2020.1744422 |bibcode=2020AAAG..110.1993H |s2cid=218917140 |issn=2469-4452}} This comes with numerous sustainability issues that disproportionately affect disadvantaged communities such as environmental gentrification, less low-income housing, and unequal access to the benefits of electric vehicle adoption. In addition, the production of electric vehicles can come at the price of laborers in other countries, and the environmental costs there are seldom taken into account when calculating the environmental benefits of electric vehicles.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} According to mobility justice critiques, relying primarily on electric vehicles for the phase out of fossil fuels comes at an opportunity cost of investing in other types of sustainable transportation such as bike lanes, safe walking spaces, electric trains, and electric buses.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

• Fuel substitution: central lever to be deployed in decarbonising transport{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/expert-groups-register/screen/index.cfm?do=groupDetail.groupDetailDoc&id=34596&no=1|title=Register of Commission expert groups and other similar entities|publisher=European Commission|access-date=9 October 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009131701/https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/expert-groups-register/screen/index.cfm?do=groupDetail.groupDetailDoc&id=34596&no=1|url-status=live}}
• Alternative fuel vehicle: many of which use an internal combustion engine
• Directive 2008/50/EC, a 2010 EU directive limiting NO₂ emissions, which is the subject of many legal challenges across Europe
• Electric vehicle conversion: removing the engine of an internal combustion-powered vehicle and replacing it with an electric motor, creating reduced manufacturing emissions (as most car parts are reused) and costs compared to manufacturing/buying a new one
• Electrofuel: a type of synthetic fuel made from electricity (e.g., made using wind, water or solar power), many of which can be burnt in internal combustion engines
• Environmental impact of aviation
• Flexible-fuel vehicle and dual-fuel vehicle: have an internal combustion engine and can run on multiple fuels, sometimes even combining renewable/bio fuels and fossil fuels
• Fossil fuel lobby
• Fuel cell vehicle: vehicles that generate electricity using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen
• Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle: burns hydrogen in an internal combustion engine
• Leapfrogging
• Smart mobility
• Short-haul flight ban
• Coal phase-out
• Fossil fuel phase-out
• Phase-out of gas boilers
• Plastic bans

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Category:Energy-related lists

Category:Health-related lists

Category:Low-carbon economy

Category:Technological change

Category:Technological phase-outs

Category:2020s in transport

Category:Electric vehicles

Category:Fossil fuels

Category:Fossil fuel phase-out