Helen of Troy#Birth

File:Les Amours de Pâris et d'Hélène (painting by Jacques-Louis David).jpg (oil on canvas, 1788, Louvre, Paris)]]

The etymology of Helen's name continues to be a problem for scholars. In the 19th century, Georg Curtius related Helen ({{lang|grc|Ἑλένη}}) to the moon (Selene; {{lang|grc|Σελήνη}}). But two early dedications to Helen in the Laconian dialect of ancient Greek spell her name with an initial digamma (Ϝ, probably pronounced like a w), which rules out any etymology originally starting with simple *s-.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|last=West|first=M. L.|year=2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|page=231|language=en}}

In the early 20th century, Émile Boisacq considered Ἑλένη to derive from the well-known noun {{lang|grc|ἑλένη}} meaning "torch".{{LSJ|e(le/nh|ἑλένη|ref}}. It has also been suggested that the λ of {{lang|grc|Ἑλένη}} arose from an original ν, and thus the etymology of the name would be connected with the root of Venus. Linda Lee Clader, however, says that none of the above suggestions offers much satisfaction.Clader, Helen, 63 f.; Skutsch, Helen, 191.{{efn|If the name has an Indo-European etymology, it is possibly a suffixed form of a Proto-Indo-European root *wel- "to turn, roll"The American Heritage Dictionary, "Indo-European roots: wel^₂". (or from that root's sense "to cover, enclose" – compare the theonyms Varuna, Veles),{{Citation needed|date=April 2013|reason=The source which proposes that "Helen" derives from that sense should be indicated; the AHD is not it.}} or of *sel- "to flow, run".{{Citation needed|date=April 2013|reason=There should be a source here showing not merely whether the root *sel- exists, but naming who derives "Helen" from *sel-.}} The latter possibility would allow comparison to the Vedic Sanskrit Saraṇyū, a character who is abducted in Rigveda 10.17.2. This parallel is suggestive of a Proto-Indo-European abduction myth. Saraṇyū means "swift" and is derived from the adjective saraṇa ("running, swift"), the feminine of which is saraṇā; this is in every sound cognate with {{lang|grc|Ἑλένα}}, the form of her name that has no initial digamma.The name of Helen as worshipped at Sparta and Therapne began with a digamma. On the other hand, at Corinth, there is evidence of Helen without a digamma. Skutsch (Helen, 189 f. and passim) suggests that we have to make do "with two different names, two different mythological Helens". The possible connection of Helen's name to ἑλένη ("torch"), as noted above, may also support the relationship of her name to Vedic svaranā ("the shining one").Compare Proto-Indo-European *sa(e)wol, whence Greek helios, Latin sol, Sanskrit suryah, ultimately from *sawel "to shine". The relation with Selene is quite possible.Scutsch, Helen, 190 ff.}}

More recently, Otto Skutsch has advanced the theory that the name Helen might have two separate etymologies, which belong to different mythological figures respectively, namely *Sṷelenā (related to Sanskrit svaraṇā "the shining one") and *Selenā, the first a Spartan goddess, connected to one or the other natural light phenomenon (especially St. Elmo's fire) and sister of the Dioscuri, the other a vegetation goddess worshiped in Therapne as Ἑλένα Δενδρῖτις ("Helena of the Trees").Skutsch, Otto. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-hellenic-studies/article/helen-her-name-and-nature/9A8D5272553FB463DCB59F93F0AB8E41 "Helen, her Name and Nature."] In: Journal of Hellenic Studies 107 (1987), pp. 188–193.

Others have connected the name's etymology to a hypothetical Proto-Indo-European sun goddess, noting the name's connection to the word for "sun" in various Indo-European cultures{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/meaningofhelenin0000meag|url-access=registration|title=The Meaning of Helen: In Search of an Ancient Icon|last=Meagher|first=Robert E.|date=2002|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers|isbn=978-0-86516-510-6|pages=46ff|language=en}} including the Greek proper word and god for the sun, Helios.Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q., Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997, {{ISBN|1-884964-98-2}}, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA164 164]Euripides, Robert E. Meagher, Helen, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1986O'Brien, Steven. "Dioscuric Elements in Celtic and Germanic Mythology". Journal of Indo-European Studies 10:1 & 2 (Spring–Summer, 1982), 117–136 In particular, her marriage myth may be connected to a broader Indo-European "marriage drama" of the sun goddess, and she is related to the divine twins, just as many of these goddesses are.{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|year=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} Martin L. West has thus proposed that Helena ("mistress of sunlight") may be constructed on the PIE suffix -nā ("mistress of"), connoting a deity controlling a natural element.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|last=West|first=M. L.|year=2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|page=137|language=en}}

File:Homeric Greece-en.svg; Menelaus and Helen reign over Laconia]]

Helen first appears in the poems of Homer, after which she became a popular figure in Greek literature. These works are set in the final years of the Age of Heroes, a mythological era which features prominently in the canon of Greek myth. Because the Homeric poems are known to have been transmitted orally before being written down, some scholars speculate that such stories were passed down from earlier Mycenaean Greek tradition, and that the Age of Heroes may itself reflect a mythologized memory of that era.Meagher, The Meaning of Helen, 11–18; Thompson, The Trojan War, 20

Recent archaeological excavations in Greece suggest that modern-day Laconia was a distinct territory in the Late Bronze Age, while the poets narrate that it was a rich kingdom. Archaeologists have unsuccessfully looked for a Mycenaean palatial complex buried beneath present-day Sparta.Hughes, Helen of Troy, 29 Modern findings suggest the area around Menelaion in the southern part of the Eurotas valley seems to have been the center of Mycenaean Laconia.{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40960624 | publisher=British School at Athens |title=The Mycenaean Presence in the Southeastern Eurotas Valley: Vouno Panagias and Ayios Georgios | volume=16 | pages=77–84|accessdate=January 16, 2023 | author=Banou, Emilia| journal=British School at Athens Studies | year=2009 | jstor=40960624 }}

Helen and Menelaus had a daughter, Hermione. Hesiod says she was "a child unlooked for,"Hesiod. Catalogue of Women. and Homer writes she was Helen's first and only child.Homer. The Odyssey Bk 4. Different sources say she was also the mother of one or more sons, named Aethiolas, Nicostratus, Megapenthes and Pleisthenes. Still, according to others, these were instead illegitimate children of Menelaus and various lovers.Apollodorus. Library, [https://topostext.org/work/150#3.11.1 3.11.1].Pausanias. Description of Greece, [https://topostext.org/work/213#2.18.6 2.18.6].

According to other sources that also contradict Homer, Helen and Paris had three sons, Bunomus, Aganus, Idaeus, and a daughter also called Helen.{{Cite book|last=Graves, Robert|title=The Greek Myths - The Complete and Definitive Edition|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|year=2017|isbn=9780241983386|page=637}} The three sons died during the Trojan War when an earthquake caused the roof of the room where they slept to collapse.Dictys Cretensis. Trojan War Chronicle, [https://topostext.org/work/152#5.5 5.5]

File:Leda and the Swan 1505-1510.jpg ({{circa|1506}}–1510, Wilton). The artist has been intrigued by the idea of Helen's unconventional birth; she and Clytemnestra are shown emerging from one egg; Castor and Pollux from another.]]

File:Antonio Canova-Helen of Troy-Victoria and Albert Museum.jpg]]

In most sources, including the Iliad and the Odyssey, Helen is the daughter of Zeus and of Leda, the wife of the Spartan king Tyndareus.Homer, Iliad, III, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D191 199], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D381 418], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D421 426]; Odyssey, IV, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D183 184], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D219 219]; XXIII, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D23%3Acard%3D181 218].
* Gantz, Early Greek Myth, 318–9 Euripides' play Helen, written in the late 5th century BC, is the earliest source to report the most familiar account of Helen's birth: that, although her putative father was Tyndareus, she was actually Zeus' daughter. In the form of a swan, the king of gods was chased by an eagle, and sought refuge with Leda. The swan gained her affection, and the two mated. Leda then produced an egg, from which Helen emerged.Euripides, Helen [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0100 16–21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410015050/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0100 |date=2016-04-10 }}, [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0100&layout=&loc=257 257–59] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410015052/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0100&layout=&loc=257 |date=2016-04-10 }} The First Vatican Mythographer introduces the notion that two eggs came from the union: one containing Castor and Pollux; one with Helen and Clytemnestra. Nevertheless, the same author earlier states that Helen, Castor and Pollux were produced from a single egg.First Vatican Mythographer, VM I 204.
* Gantz, Early Greek Myth, 320–321; Hughes, Helen of Troy, 350; Moser, A Cosmos of Desire, 443–444 Fabius Planciades Fulgentius also states that Helen, Castor and Pollux are born from the same egg.{{Cite book|last=Whitbread|first=Leslie George|title=Fulgentius the Mythographer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73mJIuYfmzEC|year=1972|publisher=Ohio State University Press|page=78|isbn=9780814201626}} Pseudo-Apollodorus states that Leda had intercourse with both Zeus and Tyndareus the night she conceived Helen.Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, III, 10.[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022&layout=&loc=3.10.7 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410015055/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022&layout=&loc=3.10.7 |date=2016-04-10 }}

On the other hand, in the Cypria, part of the Epic Cycle, Helen was the daughter of Zeus and the goddess Nemesis.Cypria, fr. 9 PEG. The date of the Cypria is uncertain, but it is generally thought to preserve traditions that date back to at least the 7th century BC. In the Cypria, Nemesis did not wish to mate with Zeus. She therefore changed shape into various animals as she attempted to flee Zeus, finally becoming a goose. Zeus also transformed himself into a goose and raped Nemesis, who produced an egg from which Helen was born.Athenaeus 8.334b-d, quoting the Cypria; Cypria, fr. 10 PEG. Presumably, in the Cypria, this egg was somehow transferred to Leda.In the 5th century comedy "Nemesis" by Cratinus, Leda was told to sit on an egg so that it would hatch, and this is no doubt the egg that was produced by Nemesis (Cratinus fr. 115 PCG; Gantz, Early Greek Myth, ibid). Later sources state either that it was brought to Leda by a shepherd who discovered it in a grove in Attica, or that it was dropped into her lap by Hermes.Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, III, 10.[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022&layout=&loc=3.10.7 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410015055/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022&layout=&loc=3.10.7 |date=2016-04-10 }}
* Hard & Rose, The Roudledge Handbook, 438–439

Asclepiades of Tragilos and Pseudo-Eratosthenes related a similar story, except that Zeus and Nemesis became swans instead of geese.Asclepiades 12F11, Pseudo-Eratosthenes Catast. 25. Timothy Gantz has suggested that the tradition that Zeus came to Leda in the form of a swan derives from the version in which Zeus and Nemesis transformed into birds.Gantz, Early Greek Myth, ibid

Pausanias states that in the middle of the 2nd century AD, the remains of an egg-shell, tied up in ribbons, were still suspended from the roof of a temple on the Spartan acropolis. People believed that this was "the famous egg that legend says Leda brought forth". Pausanias traveled to Sparta to visit the sanctuary, dedicated to Hilaeira and Phoebe, in order to see the relic for himself.Pausanias, 3.16.[http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.16.1 1]
* Hughes, Helen of Troy, 26–27

Pausanias also says that there was a local tradition that Helen's brothers, "the Dioscuri" (i.e. Castor and Pollux), were born on the island of Pefnos, adding that the Spartan poet Alcman also said this,Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D26%3Asection%3D2 3.26.2] while the poet Lycophron's use of the adjective "Pephnaian" (Πεφναίας) in association with Helen, suggests that Lycophron may have known a tradition which held that Helen was also born on the island.Hornblower, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NprxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 p. 142]; Lycophron, 87

File:Theseus pursuit Louvre G423.jpg pursuing a woman, probably Helen. Side A from an Attic red-figure bell-krater, c. 440–430 BC (Louvre, Paris).]]

Two Athenians, Theseus and Pirithous, thought that since they were sons of gods, they should have divine wives; they thus pledged to help each other abduct two daughters of Zeus. Theseus chose Helen, and Pirithous vowed to marry Persephone, the wife of Hades. Theseus took Helen and left her with his mother Aethra or his associate Aphidnus at Aphidnae or Athens. Theseus and Pirithous then traveled to the underworld, the domain of Hades, to kidnap Persephone. Hades pretended to offer them hospitality and set a feast, but, as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Helen's abduction caused an invasion of Athens by Castor and Pollux, who captured Aethra in revenge, and returned their sister to Sparta.The most complete accounts of this narrative are given by Apollodorus, Diodorus 4.63.1–3, and Plutarch, Theseus 31–34. For a collection of ancient sources narrating Helen's abduction by Theseus, see Hughes, Helen, 357; Mills, Theseus, 7–8 In Goethe's Faust, Centaur Chiron is said to have aided the Dioscuri brothers in returning Helen home.

In most accounts of this event, Helen was quite young; Hellanicus of Lesbos said she was seven years old and Diodorus makes her ten years old.Hellanicus, 4F134; Diodorus Siculus, 4.63.1–3 On the other hand, Stesichorus said that Iphigenia was the daughter of Theseus and Helen, which implies that Helen was of childbearing age.Stesichorus, fr. 191 PMG. In most sources, Iphigenia is the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, but Duris of Samos and other writers, such as Antoninus Liberalis, followed Stesichorus' account.Gantz, pp. 289, 291.

Ovid's Heroides give us an idea of how ancient and, in particular, Roman authors imagined Helen in her youth: she is presented as a young princess wrestling naked in the palaestra, alluding to a part of girls' physical education in classical (not Mycenaean) Sparta. Sextus Propertius imagines Helen as a girl who practices arms and hunts with her brothers:Ovid, Heroides, 16.[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ovid/ovid.her16.shtml 149–152]; Propertius, [http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/PropertiusBkThree.htm#_Toc201112469 3.14]
* Cairns, Sextus Propertius, 421–422; Hughes, Helen of Troy, 60; Pomeroy, Spartan Women, 28: "In the Roman period, because Sparta was a destination for tourists, the characteristics that made Sparta distinctive were emphasized. The athleticism of women was exaggerated."

{{blockquote|[...] or like Helen, on the sands of Eurotas, between Castor and Pollux, one to be victor in boxing, the other with horses: with naked breasts she carried weapons, they say, and did not blush with her divine brothers there.}}

{{Main|Suitors of Helen}}

File:Maerten van Heemskerck - Panorama with the Abduction of Helen Amidst the Wonders of the Ancient World - Walters 37656.jpg Helen, queen of the Greek city-state Sparta, is abducted by Paris, a prince of Troy in Asia Minor.{{cite web |publisher= The Walters Art Museum

|url=http://art.thewalters.org/detail/21286

|title= Panorama with the Abduction of Helen Amidst the Wonders of the Ancient World}} The Walters Art Museum.]]

When it was time for Helen to marry, many kings and princes from around the world came to seek her hand, bringing rich gifts with them or sent emissaries to do so on their behalf. During the contest, Castor and Pollux had a prominent role in dealing with the suitors, although the final decision was in the hands of Tyndareus.In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women fr. 198.7–8, and 199.0–1, they are the recipients of the bridal presents. For further details, see A Catalog within a Catalog, 133–135 Menelaus, her future husband, did not attend but sent his brother, Agamemnon, to represent him. He was chosen as he had the most wealth.Hesiod. [https://archive.org/details/hesiod-the-shield.-catalogue-of-women.-other-fragments-loeb/page/223/mode/1up Catalogue of Women, Bk 5.]

Tyndareus was afraid to select a husband for his daughter, or send any of the suitors away, for fear of offending them and giving grounds for a quarrel. Odysseus was one of the suitors, but had brought no gifts because he believed he had little chance to win the contest. He thus promised to solve the problem, if Tyndareus in turn would support him in his courting of Penelope, the daughter of Icarius. Tyndareus readily agreed, and Odysseus proposed that, before the decision was made, all the suitors should swear a most solemn oath to defend the chosen husband against whoever should quarrel with him. After the suitors had sworn not to retaliate, Menelaus was chosen to be Helen's husband because he was the "greatest in possessions" and had offered the most gifts.[https://www.theoi.com/Text/HesiodCatalogues.html Catalogue of Women, frag. 68] As a sign of the importance of the pact, Tyndareus sacrificed a horse.Hesiod, Catalogs of Women and Eoiae, fr. 204; Hyginus, Fables, [http://www.theoi.com/Text/HyginusFabulae2.html#78 78]; Pausanias, 3.20.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+3.20.9&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 9]; Apollodorus, 3.10.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D10%3Asection%3D9 9]
* Cingano, A Catalog within a Catalog, 128; Hughes, Helen of Troy, 76 Helen and Menelaus became rulers of Sparta, after Tyndareus and Leda abdicated. Menelaus and Helen rule in Sparta for at least ten years; they have a daughter, Hermione, and (according to some myths) three sons: Aethiolas, Maraphius, and Pleisthenes.

The marriage of Helen and Menelaus marks the beginning of the end of the age of heroes. Concluding the catalog of Helen's suitors, Hesiod reports Zeus' plan to obliterate the race of men and the heroes in particular. The Trojan War, caused by Helen's elopement with Paris, is going to be his means to this end.Cypria, fr. 1; Hesiod, Catalogs of Women and Eoiae, fr. 204.96–101
* Edmunds, Helen's Divine Origins, 7–8

{{See also|Judgement of Paris}}

File:Casa degli Amorini Dorati (Pompei) WLM 020.JPG, the House of the Golden Cupids]]

Paris, a Trojan prince, came to Sparta to claim Helen, in the guise of a supposed diplomatic mission. Before this journey, Paris had been appointed by Zeus to judge the most beautiful goddess; Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite. In order to earn his favour, Aphrodite promised Paris the most beautiful woman in the world. Swayed by Aphrodite's offer, Paris chose her as the most beautiful of the goddesses, earning the wrath of Athena and Hera.

Although Helen is sometimes depicted as being forcibly abducted by Paris, most Ancient Greek sources, following Homer, believed that Helen fell in love with the Trojan prince, and went to Troy willingly.Grimal, s.v. Helen. In Homer, Helen herself says she followed Paris,Homer. Iliad, Bk 3. or that she was led to Troy by Aphrodite.Homer. Odyssey, Bk 4. Herodotus, who says Paris "carried off" (ἁρπάσαντος) Helen,Herodotus, [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.3.2 1.3.2]. states Paris "got her to fly" with him.Herodotus, [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:2.115.5 2.115.5]. The Cypria simply mentions that after giving Helen gifts, "Aphrodite brings the Spartan queen together with the Prince of Troy."Cypria, fr. 1; Herodotus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+2.113&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 2.113–119], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:2.115 215]. Apollodorus says Paris persuaded Helen to leave with him,Apollodorus. Library, [https://topostext.org/work/837#e.3.3 e.3.3.] and Sappho argues that Helen willingly left behind Menelaus and their daughter, Hermione, to be with Paris:

{{blockquote|

Some say a host of horsemen, others of infantry and others

of ships, is the most beautiful thing on the dark earth

but I say, it is what you love

Full easy it is to make this understood of one and all: for

she that far surpassed all mortals in beauty, Helen her

most noble husband

Deserted, and went sailing to Troy, with never a thought for

her daughter and dear parents.|Sappho, fragment 16 (Voigt)Sappho, fr. 16. See an analysis of the poem by Gumpert, Grafting Helen, 92 }}

Dio Chrysostom gives a completely different account of the story, questioning Homer's credibility: after Agamemnon had married Helen's sister, Clytemnestra, Tyndareus sought Helen's hand for Menelaus for political reasons. However, Helen was sought by many suitors, who came from far and near, among them Paris who surpassed all the others and won the favor of Tyndareus and his sons. Thus he won her fairly and took her away to Troia, with the full consent of her natural protectors.Dio Chrysostom, Discourses, 1.[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/11*.html 37–53]
* Hughes, Helen of Troy, 128–129 Cypria narrate that in just three days Paris and Helen reached Troy. Homer narrates that during a brief stop-over in the small island of Kranai, according to Iliad, the two lovers consummated their passion. On the other hand, Cypria note that this happened the night before they left Sparta.Cypria, fr. 1; Homer, Iliad, III, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D421 443–445]
* Cyrino, "Helen of Troy", 133–134

Girolamo Genga L'enlèvement d'Hélène.JPG|The Abduction of Helen, painting by Girolamo Genga, circa 1510 (Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg).

File:Francesco Primaticcio 003.jpg|In western painting, Helen's journey to Troy is usually depicted as a forced abduction. The Rape of Helen by Francesco Primaticcio (c. 1530–1539, Bowes Museum) is representative of this tradition.

File:Enlèvement d'Hélène, Reni (Louvre INV 539) 09.jpg|In Guido Reni's painting (1631, Louvre, Paris), however, Paris holds Helen by her wrist (as he already did in Genga's painting shown here on the left), and they leave together for Troia.

File:Tintoretto Rape of Helen.jpg|The Rape of Helen by Tintoretto (1578–1579, Museo del Prado, Madrid); Helen languishes in the corner of a land-sea battle scene.{{cite journal |first=Michael |last=Kimmelman | title=Lights! Darks! Action! Cut! Maestro of Mise-en-Scène |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/01/arts/design/01tint.html |journal=The New York Times |date=March 1, 2007 |access-date=July 11, 2009}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Schjeldahl |first=Peter|date=February 12, 2007 |title=Venetial Brass |magazine=The New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/artworld/2007/02/12/070212craw_artworld_schjeldahl |access-date=July 11, 2009}}

File:Enrique Simonet - El Juicio de Paris.jpg|El Juicio de Paris by Enrique Simonet, c. 1904. This painting depicts Paris' judgement. He is inspecting Aphrodite, who is standing naked before him. Hera and Athena watch nearby.

In her book Helen of Troy: Myth, Beauty, Devastation, Ruby Blondell posits, "Though [Helen's] departure is typically referred to as an 'abduction', none of our sources claims that Paris took Helen by force against her will. Her complicity is essential to her story".Blondell, Ruby (2013). [https://archive.org/details/helenoftroybeaut0000blon. Helen of Troy: Beauty, Myth, Devastation.] {{ISBN|9780199731602}}.

At least three Ancient Greek authors denied that Helen ever went to Troy; instead, they suggested, Helen stayed in Egypt during the Trojan War. Those three authors are Euripides, Stesichorus, and Herodotus.Allan, Introduction, 18–28[https://public.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/mythology/helen.html HELEN] wsu.edu In the version put forth by Euripides in his play Helen, Hera fashioned a likeness (eidolon, εἴδωλον) of Helen out of clouds at Zeus' request, Hermes took her to Egypt, and Helen never went to Troy, but instead spent the entire war in Egypt. An eidolon is also present in Stesichorus' account, but not in Herodotus' rationalizing version of the myth. In addition to these accounts, Lycophron (822) states that Hesiod was the first to mention Helen's eidolon.{{Cite journal|last=Smoot|first=Guy|year=2012|title=Did the Helen of the Homeric Odyssey ever go to Troy?|url=https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/4643|journal=Washington, D.C.: Center for Hellenic Studies|via=The Center for Hellenic Studies|access-date=2018-11-04|archive-date=2018-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105012352/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/4643|url-status=dead}} This may mean Hesiod stated this in a literary work, or that the idea was widely known/circulated in early archaic Greece during the time of Hesiod and was consequently attributed to him.

Herodotus adds weight to the "Egyptian" version of events by putting forward his own evidence—he traveled to Egypt and interviewed the priests of the temple (Foreign Aphrodite, ξείνη Ἀφροδίτη) at Memphis. According to these priests, Helen had arrived in Egypt shortly after leaving Sparta, because strong winds had blown Paris's ship off course. King Proteus of Egypt, appalled that Paris had seduced his host's wife and plundered his host's home in Sparta, disallowed Paris from taking Helen to Troy. Paris returned to Troy without a new bride, but the Greeks refused to believe that Helen was in Egypt and not within Troy's walls. Thus, Helen waited in Memphis for ten years, while the Greeks and the Trojans fought. Following the conclusion of the Trojan War, Menelaus sailed to Memphis, where Proteus reunited him with Helen.Herodotus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+2.113&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 113–120]; Kim, Homer, poet and historian, 30–35; Allan, Introduction, 22–24; Lindsay, Helen in the Fifth Century, 135–138

When he discovered that his wife was missing, Menelaus called upon all the other suitors to fulfill their oaths, thus beginning the Trojan War.

The Greek fleet gathered in Aulis, but the ships could not sail for lack of wind. Artemis was enraged by a sacrilege, and only the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter, Iphigenia, could appease her. In Euripides Iphigenia in Aulis, Clytemnestra, Iphigenia's mother and Helen's sister, begs her husband to reconsider his decision, calling Helen a "wicked woman". Clytemnestra tries to warn Agamemnon that sacrificing Iphigenia for Helen's sake is, "buying what we most detest with what we hold most dear".{{cite book |author=Euripides |title=Iphigenia in Aulis |at= 1166–1170 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0108%3Acard%3D1146}}{{cite book |author=Hughes |title=Helen of Troy |pages=195–196}}

File:Leighton Helen of Troy.jpg|Helen on the Ramparts of Troy was a popular theme in late 19th-century art – seen here a depiction by Frederick Leighton.

File:Helen Moreau.jpg|In a similar fashion to Leighton, Gustave Moreau depicts an expressionless Helen; a blank or anguished face.

File:Often she would stand upon the walls of Troy.jpg|Lithographic illustration by Walter Crane

File:Hélène.jpg|Paul Dujardin after Gustave Moreau, Hélène, photogravure, 1880

Before the opening of hostilities, the Greeks dispatched a delegation to the Trojans under Odysseus and Menelaus; they endeavored without success to persuade Priam to hand Helen back. A popular theme, The Request of Helen (Helenes Apaitesis, Ἑλένης Ἀπαίτησις), was the subject of a drama by Sophocles, now lost.Ancient writers do not agree on whether the embassy was dispatched before the gathering of the Greek army in Aulis or after it reached Tenedos or Troia. In Herodotus' account the Trojans swore to the Greek envoys that Helen was in Egypt, not in Troy; but the Greeks did not believe them, and laid siege to the city, until they took it.
{{cite book |title=Cypria |at=fr. 1}}
{{cite book |author=Herodotus |title=Histories |at=II, 118: 2–4 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D118%3Asection%3D2}}
{{cite book |author=Homer |title=Iliad |at=III, 205 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D191}}
{{cite book |author=Pseudo-Appolodorus |title=Epitome |at=28–29 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DEpitome%3Abook%3DE%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D28}}About Euripides' lost drama, see {{cite book |author=Hughes |title=Helen of Troy |page=191}}

Homer paints a poignant, lonely picture of Helen in Troy. She is filled with self-loathing and regret for what she has caused; by the end of the war, the Trojans have come to hate her. When Hector dies, she is the third mourner at his funeral, and she says that, of all the Trojans, Hector and Priam alone were always kind to her:{{cite book |author=Hughes |title=Helen of Troy |page=219}}{{cite book |author=Redfold |title=The Tragedy of Hector |page=122}}

{{blockquote|

Wherefore I wail alike for thee and for my hapless self with grief at heart;

for no longer have I anyone beside in broad Troy that is gentle to me or kind;

but all men shudder at me.{{cite book |author=Homer |title=Iliad |at=XXIV, 773–775 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D24%3Acard%3D746}}}}

These bitter words reveal that Helen gradually realized Paris' weaknesses, and decided to ally herself with Hector. There is an affectionate relationship between the two, and Helen has harsh words for Paris when she compares the two brothers:{{cite book |author=Suzuki |title=Metamorphoses of Helen |page=36}}{{blockquote|

Howbeit, seeing the gods thus ordained these ills,

would that I had been wife to a better man,

that could feel the indignation of his fellows and their many revilings. [...]

But come now, enter in, and sit thee upon this chair, my brother,

since above all others has trouble encompassed thy heart

because of shameless me, and the folly of Alexander.{{cite book |author=Homer |title=Iliad |at=VI, 349–351, 354–356 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D24%3Acard%3D746}}|sign=|source=}}

After Paris was killed in combat, there was some dispute among the Trojans about which of Priam's surviving sons she should remarry: Helenus or Deiphobus, but she was given to the latter.

File:Helen Menelaus Louvre G424.jpg and Aphrodite (on the left) watch the scene. Detail of an Attic red-figure krater c. 450–440 BC (Paris, Louvre)]]

File:Ajax drags Cassandra from Palladium.jpg drags Cassandra from Palladium before eyes of Priam, fresco from the Casa del Menandro, Pompeii]]

During the fall of Troy, Helen's role is ambiguous. In Virgil's Aeneid, Deiphobus gives an account of Helen's treacherous stance: when the Trojan Horse was admitted into the city, she feigned Bacchic rites, leading a chorus of Trojan women, and, holding a torch among them, she signaled to the Greeks from the city's central tower. In the Odyssey, however, Homer narrates a different story: Helen circled the Horse three times, and she imitated the voices of the Greek women left behind at home—she thus tortured the men inside (including Odysseus and Menelaus) with the memory of their loved ones, and brought them to the brink of destruction.Homer, Odyssey, IV, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D265 277–289]; Virgil, Aeneid, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D494 515–519].
* Hughes, Helen of Troy, 220; Suzuki, Metamorphoses of Helen, 99–100.

After the deaths of Hector and Paris, Helen became the paramour of their younger brother, Deiphobus; but when the sack of Troy began, she hid her new husband's sword, and left him to the mercy of Menelaus and Odysseus. In Aeneid, Aeneas meets the mutilated Deiphobus in Hades; his wounds serve as a testimony to his ignominious end, abetted by Helen's final act of treachery.Virgil, Aeneid [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D494 494–512]
* Suzuki, Metamorphoses of Helen, 101–102.

However, Helen's portraits in Troy seem to contradict each other. From one side, we read about the treacherous Helen who simulated Bacchic rites and rejoiced over the carnage of Trojans. On the other hand, there is another Helen, lonely and helpless; desperate to find sanctuary, while Troy is on fire. Stesichorus narrates that both Greeks and Trojans gathered to stone her to death.Stesichorus, fr. 201 PMG. When Menelaus finally found her, he raised his sword to kill her. He had demanded that only he should slay his unfaithful wife; but, when he was ready to do so, she dropped her robe from her shoulders, and the sight of her beauty caused him to let the sword drop from his hand.According to the ancient writers, it was the sight of Helen's face or breasts that made Menelaus drop his sword. See, inter alia, Aristophanes, Lysistrata, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0242%3Acard%3D130 155]; Little Iliad, fr. 13 EGF.
* Maguire, Helen of Troy, 52 Electra wails:Euripides, Orestes [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0116%3Acard%3D1286 1286]

{{blockquote|Alas for my troubles! Can it be that her beauty has blunted their swords?}}

Helen returned to Sparta and lived with Menelaus, where she was encountered by Telemachus in Book 4 of The Odyssey. As depicted in that account, she and Menelaus were seemingly reconciled and had a harmonious married life—he holding no grudge at her having run away with a lover and she feeling no restraint in telling anecdotes of her life inside besieged Troy.

According to another version, used by Euripides in his play Orestes, Helen had been saved by Apollo from OrestesEuripides and the Gods, Mary R. Lefkowitz and was taken up to Mount Olympus almost immediately after Menelaus' return. She was then made a sea goddess, who watches over sailors alongside her brothers, Castor and Pollux.Eurypides, Orestes, lines 1635-1637. A curious fate is recounted by Pausanias the geographer (3.19.11–13), which has Helen share the afterlife with Achilles.Blondell, Helen of Troy [https://books.google.com/books?id=6uEC_Uh-MBIC&pg=PA46 46]

Pausanias also has another story (3.19.9–10): "The account of the Rhodians is different. They say that when Menelaus was dead, and Orestes still a wanderer, Helen was driven out by Nicostratus and Megapenthes and came to Rhodes, where she had a friend in Polyxo, the wife of Tlepolemus. For Polyxo, they say, was an Argive by descent, and when she was already married to Tlepolemus, shared his flight to Rhodes. At the time she was queen of the island, having been left with an orphan boy. They say that this Polyxo desired to avenge the death of Tlepolemus on Helen, now that she had her in her power. So she sent against her when she was bathing handmaidens dressed up as Furies, who seized Helen and hanged her on a tree, and for this reason the Rhodians have a sanctuary of Helen of the Tree."{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D19%3Asection%3D10 |title=Pausanias, Description of Greece |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2014-03-13}} There are other traditions concerning the punishment of Helen. For example, she is offered as a sacrifice to the gods in Tauris by Iphigeneia, or Thetis, enraged when Achilles dies because of Helen, kills her on her return journey.Pierre Grimal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, s.v. "Helene p. 241"

Tlepolemus was a son of Heracles and Astyoche. Astyoche was a daughter of Phylas, King of Ephyra who was killed by Heracles. Tlepolemus was killed by Sarpedon on the first day of fighting in the Iliad. Nicostratus was a son of Menelaus by his concubine Pieris, an Aetolian slave. Megapenthes was a son of Menelaus by his concubine Tereis, with no further origin.

In Euripides's tragedy The Trojan Women, Helen is shunned by the women who survived the war and is to be taken back to Greece to face a death sentence. This version is contradicted by two of Euripides' other tragedies, Electra, which predates The Trojan Women, and Helen, as Helen is described as being in Egypt during the events of the Trojan War in each.

File:Zeuxis et les filles de Crotone.jpg, 1789, Paris, Louvre). The scene tells the story of the painter Zeuxis who was commissioned to produce a picture of Helen for the temple of Hera at Agrigentum, Sicily. To realize his task, Zeuxis chose the five most beautiful maidens in the region.Pliny, National History, 35.[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/35*.html 64–66]. Cicero (De Inventione, 2.[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml 1–3]) sets the story in Croton.]]

File:Fresco depicting the meeting of Helen and Alexandros (Paris), Black Room, Pompeii.jpg. Helen is depicted here with red hair.]]

From Antiquity, depicting Helen would be a remarkable challenge. The story of Zeuxis deals with this exact question: how would an artist immortalize ideal beauty?Mansfield, Too Beautiful to Picture, 29 He eventually selected the best features from five virgins. The ancient world starts to paint Helen's picture or inscribe her form on stone, clay and bronze by the 7th century BC.Hughes, Helen of Troy 1–2 Homer attributes her with white skin,Homer. Iliad. 3.146 (3.121 in Loeb Classical Library). while Sappho describes her as "xanthe",Sappho. Fragment 23. which is translated as "golden" and is used towards individuals with light hair, which includes blond, red and brown hair,{{cite book|last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |year=1940 |title=A Greek-English Lexicon |editor-last1=Jones |editor-first1=Henry Stuart |editor-last2=McKenzie |editor-first2=Roderick |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=canqo/s |chapter=ξανθός}}{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Bettany |title=Helen of Troy: Goddess, Princess, Whore |publisher=Pimlico |year=2006 |isbn=9781446419144 |pages=127, 190 note 10}} and Euripides says she had "gold [xanthes] curls".Euripides. Helen 1224.{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Bettany |title=Helen of Troy: Goddess, Princess, Whore |publisher=Pimlico |year=2006 |isbn=9781446419144 |page=190 note 10}} Her eyes were described as "κυάνεος" (kuaneos), which is usually translated as "dark"{{cite book |last1=Ormand |first1=Kirk |title=The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women and Archaic Greece |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139547352 |pages=181-216}} or "dark-blue".Quintus Smyrnaeus. The Fall of Troy 14.39-70. Translation A.S. Way. However, scholarly interpretation holds that "κυάνεος" likely denoted brown eyes, contrasting with "γλαυκός" (glaukos), the term used for gray or blue eyes.{{cite book |last1=Irwin |first1=Eleanor |title=Colour terms in Greek Poetry |date=1974 |publisher=Toronto, Hakkert |pages=96-97 |url=https://archive.org/details/colourtermsingre0000irwi/page/96/mode/2up?q=brown}} A later Latin account, probably from the fifth century CE, falsely attributed to Dares Phrygius, describes Helen as "She was beautiful, ingenuous, and charming. Her legs were the best; her mouth the cutest. There was a beauty-mark between her eyebrows"; she was said to resemble her brothers Castor and Pollux, who according to the account were "blond haired, large eyed, fair complexioned",Dares of Phrygia. History of the Fall of Troy 12. A short prose work which purports to be a first hand account of the Trojan War by Dares, a Trojan priest of Hephaestus in the Iliad. while Ovid mentions their mother Leda was famed for her black hair.{{Cite book |last=Ovid |url=https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/AmoresBkII.php#anchor_Toc520535836 |title=The Amores. Book II Elegy IV}} Bettany Hughes notes that Helen and other Homeric heroes tend to be described and depicted by ancient Greeks as being xanthos ("golden-haired"), and she argues that such look was linked with the connections of ancient heroes and heroines to the gods, as light-haired individuals were less common in ancient Mediterranean than dark-haired ones.{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Bettany |title=Helen of Troy: Goddess, Princess, Whore |publisher=Pimlico |year=2006 |isbn=9781446419144 |pages=127-128}}

Helen is frequently depicted on Athenian vases as being threatened by Menelaus and fleeing from him. This is not the case, however, in Laconic art: on an Archaic stele depicting Helen's recovery after the fall of Troy, Menelaus is armed with a sword but Helen faces him boldly, looking directly into his eyes; and in other works of Peloponnesian art, Helen is shown carrying a wreath, while Menelaus holds his sword aloft vertically. In contrast, on Athenian vases of c. 550–470, Menelaus threateningly points his sword at her.Pomeroy, Spartan Women, 169

File:Casa dell'Efebo 0058 (cropped).jpg]]

The abduction by Paris was another popular motif in ancient Greek vase-painting; definitely more popular than the kidnapping by Theseus. In a famous representation by the Athenian vase painter Makron, Helen follows Paris like a bride following a bridegroom, her wrist grasped by Paris' hand.Anderson, The Fall of Troy, 257; Matheson, Polygnotos and Vase Painting, 225 The Etruscans, who had a sophisticated knowledge of Greek mythology, demonstrated a particular interest in the theme of the delivery of Helen's egg, which is depicted in relief mirrors.Caprino, Etruscan Italy, 66–71

In Renaissance painting, Helen's departure from Sparta is usually depicted as a scene of forcible removal (rape) by Paris. This is not, however, the case with certain secular medieval illustrations. Artists of the 1460s and 1470s were influenced by Guido delle Colonne's Historia destructionis Troiae, where Helen's abduction was portrayed as a scene of seduction. In the Florentine Picture Chronicle Paris and Helen are shown departing arm in arm, while their marriage was depicted into Franco-Flemish tapestry.David, Narrative in Context, 136; Hughes, Helen of Troy, 181–182

{{anchor|facethatlaunched}}

In Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus (1604), Faust conjures the shade of Helen. Upon seeing Helen, Faustus speaks the famous line: "Was this the face that launch'd a thousand ships, / And burnt the topless towers of Ilium." (Act V, Scene I.) Helen is also conjured by Faust in Goethe's Faust.

In William Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida, Helen is a minor character who adores Troilus.

In Pre-Raphaelite art, Helen is often shown with shining curly hair and ringlets. Other painters of the same period depict Helen on the ramparts of Troy, and focus on her expression: her face is expressionless, blank, inscrutable.Maguire, Helen of Troy, 39–43, 47 In Gustave Moreau's painting, Helen will finally become faceless; a blank eidolon in the middle of Troy's ruins.

The major centers of Helen's cult were in Laconia. At Sparta, the urban sanctuary of Helen was located near the Platanistas, so called for the plane trees planted there. Ancient sources associate Helen with gymnastic exercises or/and choral dances of maidens near the Evrotas River. This practice is referenced in the closing lines of Lysistrata, where Helen is said to be the "pure and proper" leader of the dancing Spartan women. Theocritus conjures the song epithalamium Spartan women sung at Platanistas commemorating the marriage of Helen and Menelaus:Theocritus, The Epithalamium of Helen, [http://www.theoi.com/Text/TheocritusIdylls3.html#18 43–48]
* Edmunds, Helen's Divine Origins, 12

{{Blockquote|

We first a crown of low-growing lotus

having woven will place it on a shady plane-tree.

First from a silver oil-flask soft oil

drawing we will let it drip beneath the shady plane-tree.

Letters will be carved in the bark, so that someone passing by

may read in Doric: "Reverence me. I am Helen's tree."}}

Helen's worship was also present on the opposite bank of Eurotas at Therapne, where she shared a shrine with Menelaus and the Dioscuri. The shrine has been known as the Menelaion (the shrine of Menelaus), and it was believed to be the spot where Helen was buried alongside Menelaus. Despite its name, both the shrine and the cult originally belonged to Helen; Menelaus was added later as her husband.Herodotus, Histories, VI, 61.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D61%3Asection%3D3 3]
* Hughes, Helen of Troy, 30–31; Lynn Budin, The Ancient Greeks, 286 In addition, there was a festival at the town, which was called Meneleaeia (Μενελάεια) in honour of Menelaus and Helen.{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:alphabetic+letter=M:entry+group=2:entry=menelaeia-cn|title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), MACELLUM, MATRA´LIA, MENELAEIA|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}

Isocrates writes that at Therapne Helen and Menelaus were worshiped as gods, and not as heroes. Clader argues that, if indeed Helen was worshiped as a goddess at Therapne, then her powers should be largely concerned with fertility,Isocrates, Helen, 63;
Clader, Helen, 70;
Jackson, The Transformations of Helen, 52.
For a criticism of the theory that Helen was worshiped as a goddess in Therapne, see Edmunds, Helen's Divine Origins, 20–24. or as a solar deity.Euripides, Helen, translated by Robert E. Meagher, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst 1986. There is also evidence for Helen's cult in Hellenistic Sparta: rules for those sacrificing and holding feasts in their honor are extant.Pausanias, Description of Greece, III, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D15%3Asection%3D3 15.3], and [https://books.google.com/books?id=DhfmgSz1eR4C&dq=helen,+cult,+Platanistas&pg=PA193 19.9];
Allan, Introduction, 14 ff.;
Calame, Choruses of Young Women, 192–197;
Pomeroy, Spartan Women, 114–118.

Helen was also worshiped in Attica along with her brothers, and on Rhodes as Helen Dendritis (Helen of the Trees, Έλένα Δενδρῖτις); she was a vegetation or a fertility goddess.A shared cult of Helen and her brothers in Attica is alluded to in Euripides, Helen, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0100%3Acard%3D1642 1666–1669]. See also Edmunds, Helen's Divine Origins, 26–29. Concerning Helen Dendritis, Gumpert (Grafting Helen, 96), and Skutsch (Helen, 109) support that she was a vegetation goddess. Meagher (The Meaning of Helen, 43 f.) argues that her cult in Rhodes reflects an ancient fertility ritual associated with Helen not only on Rhodes but also at Dendra, near Sparta. Edmunds (Helen's Divine Origins, 18) notes that it is unclear what an ancient tree cult might be. Martin P. Nilsson has argued that the cult in Rhodes has its roots to the Minoan, pre-Greek era, when Helen was allegedly worshiped as a vegetation goddess.Cited by Gumpert, Grafting Helen, 96, Edmunds, Helen's Divine Origins, 15–18, and Skutsch, Helen, 109. See critical remarks on this theory by Edmunds, Helen's Divine Origins, 16. Claude Calame and other scholars try to analyze the affinity between the cults of Helen and Artemis Orthia, pointing out the resemblance of the terracotta female figurines offered to both deities.Calame, Choruses of Young Women, 201;
Eaverly, Archaic Greek Equestrian Sculpture, 9;
Pomeroy, Spartan Women, 162 f.

File:Christopher Marlowe.jpg's (this 1585 portrait is disputed) play The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (1604) is the source of the famous quote "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships / And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?", although the line is ultimately derived from a quotation in Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead.]]

Helen frequently appeared in Athenian comedies of the fifth century BC as a caricature of Pericles's mistress Aspasia.{{cite book|last1=Blondell|first1=Ruby|title=Helen of Troy: Beauty, Myth, Devastation|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-973160-2|pages=247–249|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_l6oYzGt1AC&q=Helen+dialogues+of+the+Dead&pg=PR15}} In Hellenistic times, she was associated with the moon due to the similarity of her name to the Greek word Σελήνη (Selēnē), meaning "Moon, goddess of the moon". One Pythagorean source claimed that Helen had originally come from a colony on the moon, where people were larger, stronger, and "fifteen times" more beautiful than ordinary mortals. She is one of the eponymous women the tragedy The Trojan Women produced in 415 BC by the Greek playwright Euripides.

Dio Chrysostom absolved Helen of guilt for the Trojan War by making Paris her first, original husband and claiming that the Greeks started the war out of jealousy. Virgil, in his Aeneid, makes Aeneas the one to spare Helen's life, rather than Menelaus, and instead portrays the act as a lofty example of self-control. Meanwhile, Virgil also makes Helen more vicious by having her betray her own husband Deiphobos and give him over to Menelaus as a peace offering. The satirist Lucian of Samosata features Helen in his famous Dialogues of the Dead, in which he portrays her deceased spirit as aged and withered.

In the early Middle Ages, after the rise of Christianity, Helen was seen as a pagan equivalent to Eve from the Book of Genesis. Helen was so beloved by early medieval Christians that she even took on some of the roles of the Virgin Mary.

During the Renaissance, the French poet Pierre de Ronsard wrote 142 sonnets addressed to a woman named Hélène de Surgères, in which he declared her to be the "true", French Helen, rather than the "lie" of the Greeks.

Dante's Inferno has Helen tormented in the circle of lust alongside Paris.[https://archive.org/details/The_Divine_Comedy/Inferno The Divine Comedy], Dante Alighieri.

Helen appears in various versions of the Faust myth, including Christopher Marlowe's 1604 play The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, in which Faustus famously marvels, "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships / And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?" upon seeing a demon impersonating Helen.{{cite book|last1=Maguire|first1=Laurie|title=Helen of Troy: From Homer to Hollywood|date=2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|location=Chichester, England|isbn=978-1-4051-2634-2|pages=160–163|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccjIPayRmvMC&q=Was+this+the+face+that+launched+a+thousand+ships+and+burnt+the+topless+towers+of+Ilium&pg=PA160}} The line, which is frequently quoted out of context, is a paraphrase of a statement from Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead.{{cite book|last=Casson|first=Lionel|title=Selected Satires of Lucian, Edited and Translated by Lionel Casson|date=1962|publisher=W. W. Norton and Company|location=New York City, New York}} It is debated whether the phrase conveys astonishment at Helen's beauty, or disappointment that she is not more beautiful. Helen appears in Marlowe's play as a voiceless image conjured by Mephistopheles. Helen first appears displayed to scholars as a vision to admire. Her second appearance is when Faustus calls for her in despair. Not speaking herself, Faustus shows she is an object of desire and destruction. She walks about to parade her beauty silently, tempting Faustus.{{Cite book |last=Marlowe |first=Christopher |title=Doctor Faustus: a two-text edition (A-text, 1604; B-text, 1616) contexts and sources criticism |last2=Kastan |first2=David Scott |date=2005 |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-393-97754-7 |edition=4. Aufl |location=New York}} In connection to the myth of Helen of Troy, Helen is often blamed with causing the Trojan War; Marlowe's portrayal of Helen may function as a test of Faustus’ damnation. It is undetermined if the Helen in Doctor Faustus is the real Helen or merely a disguised entity that mimicks her beauty, blurring the lines of blame for Faustus' temptation.{{Cite journal |last=Craik |first=T. W. |date=1969 |title=Faustus' Damnation Reconsidered |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41917045 |journal=Renaissance Drama |volume=2 |pages=189–196 |issn=0486-3739}} Marlowe's portrayal of Helen blurs the line between a beautiful, angel-like figure and an evil, dangerously tempting figure, allowing her to be ambiguous in regard to her role in Faustus' damned fate.{{cite journal |last1=Rose |first1=Mary Beth |title=“A Waste of Shame: The Heroics of Marriage in English Renaissance Tragedy.” The Expense of Spirit: Love and Sexuality in English Renaissance Drama |journal=Cornell University Press |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt207g7fw.7}}{{cite journal |last1=Grimmett |first1=Roxanne |title=‘By Heaven andHell’: Re-evaluating Representations of Women and the Angel/Whore Dichotomy in Renaissance Revenge Tragedy |journal=Journal of International Women's Studies |volume=6 |issue=3 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48829105.pdf}}

The German poet and polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe re-envisioned the meeting of Faust and Helen. In Faust: The Second Part of the Tragedy, the union of Helen and Faust becomes a complex allegory of the meeting of the classical-ideal and modern worlds.

In 1803, when French zoologist François Marie Daudin was to name a new species of beautifully colored snake, the trinket snake (Coelognathus helena), he chose the specific name helena in reference to Helen of Troy.Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Helena", p. 120).

File:Helen of Troy.jpg by Evelyn De Morgan (1898, London); Helen admiringly displays a lock of her hair, as she gazes into a mirror decorated with the nude Aphrodite.]]

In 1864, Paris saw the premiere of the operetta La belle Hélène by Jacques Offenbach.

Helen of Troy is a minor character in the opera Mefistofele by Arrigo Boito, which received its premiere in Milan in 1868.

In 1881, Oscar Wilde published a poem entitled "The New Helen", in which he declared his friend Lillie Langtry to be the reincarnation of Helen of Troy. Wilde portrays this new Helen as the antithesis of the Virgin Mary, but endows her with the characteristics of Jesus Christ himself. The Irish poet William Butler Yeats compared Helen to his muse, Maude Gonne, in his 1916 poem "No Second Troy".{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/147/36.html |title=36. No Second Troy. Yeats, W. B. 1916. Responsibilities and Other Poems |publisher=Bartleby.com |access-date=2014-03-13}} The anthology The Dark Tower by C. S. Lewis includes a fragment entitled "After Ten Years". In Egypt after the Trojan War, Menelaus is allowed to choose between the real, disappointing Helen and an ideal Helen conjured by Egyptian magicians.

The English Pre-Raphaelite painter Evelyn De Morgan portrayed a sexually assertive Helen in her 1898 painting Helen of Troy. Salvador Dalí was obsessed with Helen of Troy from childhood and saw his wife Gala Dalí and the surrealist character Gradiva as the embodiments of Helen. He dedicates his autobiography Diary of a Genius to "my genius Gala Gradiva, Helen of Troy, Saint Helen, Gala Galatea Placida."

Minor planet 101 Helena discovered by James Craig Watson in 1868, is named after Helen of Troy.

John Erskine's 1925 bestselling novel The Private Life of Helen of Troy portrayed Helen as a "sensible, bourgeois heroine", but the 1927 silent film of the same name, directed by Alexander Korda, transformed Helen into "a shopaholic fashion maven".

In 1928, Richard Strauss wrote the German opera Die ägyptische Helena (The Egyptian Helena), which is the story of Helen and Menelaus's troubles when they are marooned on a mythical island.{{cite journal |last=Baxter |first=Richard |title=Die ägyptische Helena. Richard Strauss (recording review) |journal=The Opera Quarterly |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=643–647 |year=2002 |doi=10.1093/oq/18.4.643}}

The 1938 short story, "Helen O'Loy", written by Lester del Rey, details the creation of a synthetic woman by two mechanics. The title is wordplay that combines "Helen of Troy" with "alloy".

The 1951 Swedish film Sköna Helena is an adapted version of Offenbach's operetta, starring Max Hansen and Eva Dahlbeck. In 1956, a Franco-British epic titled Helen of Troy was released, directed by Oscar-winning director Robert Wise and starring Italian actress Rossana Podestà in the title role. It was filmed in Italy, and featured well-known British character actors such as Harry Andrews, Cedric Hardwicke, and Torin Thatcher in supporting roles.

The 1971 film The Trojan Women was an adaptation of the play by Euripides in which Irene Papas portrayed (a non-blonde) Helen of Troy.

In the 1998 TV series Hercules, Helen appears as a supporting character at Prometheus Academy as a student. Helen is caring and enthusiastic. She was the most popular girl in the academy and Adonis' girlfriend. Helen tries her best to keep Adonis from behaving stupidly, but mostly fails. She likes Hercules, but as a friend. She is a princess as in the myth but is not a half-sister of Hercules in the series. She was voiced by Jodi Benson.

A 2003 television version of Helen's life up to the fall of Troy, Helen of Troy, in which she was played by Sienna Guillory. In this version, Helen is depicted as unhappy in her marriage and willingly runs away with Paris, with whom she has fallen in love, but still returns to Menelaus after Paris dies and Troy falls.

Helen was portrayed by Diane Kruger in the 2004 film Troy. In this adaptation, as in the 2003 television version, she is unhappily married to Menelaus and willingly leaves with Paris, whom she loves. However, in this version she does not return to Sparta with Menelaus (who is killed by Hector), but escapes Troy with Paris and other survivors when the city falls.

Inspired by the line, "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships...?" from Marlowe's Faustus, Isaac Asimov jocularly coined the unit "millihelen" to mean the amount of beauty that can launch one ship.{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120614180101/http://asimovhumanists.org/AboutIsaacAssimov2.htm The Humanism of Isaac Asimov]}} Canadian novelist and poet Margaret Atwood re-envisioned the myth of Helen in modern, feminist guise in her poem "Helen of Troy Does Countertop Dancing".{{cite web|url=http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/helen-of-troy-does-countertop-dancing |title=Helen of Troy Does Countertop Dancing by Margaret Atwood |date=20 January 2003 |publisher=Poemhunter.com |access-date=2014-03-13}}

In the Legends of Tomorrow episode "Helen Hunt", Helen is portrayed by Israeli-American model and actress Bar Paly. In the episode, Helen is an anachronism appearing in 1930s Hollywood. She lands a job as an actress and unintentionally starts a war between two film studios. The Legends travel to the 1930s and try to get Helen back to the Bronze Age. She regretfully goes along, telling the team she wishes to stay away due to men constantly fighting and dying over her. After analyzing historical records of Helen's impact on history, Zari Tomaz finds the best time to take her away from the fighting of her time and takes her to Themyscira.{{Cite news|url=http://dclegendstv.com/2017/10/26/legends-of-tomorrow-spoilers-helen-hunt/|title=Legends of Tomorrow Spoilers: "Helen Hunt"|date=October 26, 2017|publisher=DCLegendsTV|language=en-US|access-date=November 14, 2017}} Helen reappears in the season three finale, "The Good, the Bad and the Cuddly", as an Amazon warrior who assists the Legends in defeating the demon Mallus's army.{{cite web|last1=Burlingame|first1=Russ|title='Legends of Tomorrow' Season Finale Will Feature Helen of Troy As An Amazon|url=https://comicbook.com/dc/2018/04/03/legends-of-tomorrow-season-finale-will-feature-helen-of-troy-as-/|website=comicbook.com|date=3 April 2018 |access-date=12 April 2018}}

• Astyanassa
• Simon Magus and Helen

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• Aristophanes, Lysistrata. For an English translation see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0242%3Acard%3D1 Perseus Project].
• Cicero, De inventione II.1.1–2
• Cypria, fragments 1, 9, and 10. For an English translation see the [http://mcllibrary.org/Hesiod/cypria.html Medieval and Classical Literature Library].
• Dio Chrysostom, Discourses. For an English translation, see [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/11*.html Lacus Curtius].
• Euripides, Helen. For an English translation, see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0100 Perseus Project].
• Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis. For an English translation, see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0108 Perseus project].
• Euripides, Orestes. For an English translation, see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0116 Perseus Project].
• Herodotus, Histories, Book II. For an English translation, see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Perseus Project].
• Hesiod, Catalogs of Women and Eoiae. For an English translation see the [http://mcllibrary.org/Hesiod/catalogs.html Medieval and Classical Literature Library].
• Homer, Iliad, Book [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D191 III]; Odyssey, Books [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D183 IV], and [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D23%3Acard%3D181 XXIII].
• Hyginus, Fables. Translated in English by [http://www.theoi.com/Text/HyginusFabulae1.html Mary Grant].
• Isocrates, Helen. For an English translation, see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0144%3Aspeech%3D10%3Asection%3D1 Perseus Project].
• Servius, In Aeneida I.526, XI.262
• Lactantius Placidus, Commentarii in Statii Thebaida I.21.
• Little Iliad, fragment 13. For an English translation, see the [http://mcllibrary.org/Hesiod/iliad.html Medieval and Classical Literature Library].
• Ovid, Heroides, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ovid/ovid.her16.shtml XVI.Paris Helenae]. For an English translation, see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0085&query=poem%3D%2316 Perseus Project].
• Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book III. For an English translation, see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Perseus Project].
• Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, Book [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 III]; [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0022%3atext%3dEpitome Epitome].
• Sappho, fragment 16.
• Sextus Propertius, Elegies, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/prop3.html#14 3.14]. Translated in English by [http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/PropertiusBkThree.htm#_Toc201112469 A.S. Kline].
• Theocritus, Idylls, XVIII (The Epithalamium of Helen). Translated in English by [http://www.theoi.com/Text/TheocritusIdylls3.html#18 J. M. Edmonds].
• Virgil, Aeneid. Book [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D1 VI]. For an English translation see the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D1 Perseus Project].

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book |title=Euripides: Helen.|last=Allan|first=William|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83690-6|chapter=Introduction}}
• {{cite book |title=The Fall of Troy in early Greek Poetry and Art |last=Anderson|first=Michael John|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-815064-4|chapter=Further Directions}}
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• {{cite book |title=Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Gercque|last=Chantraine|first=Pierre|year=2000|publisher=Klincksieck|isbn=2-252-03277-4|chapter=Ἐλένη|language=fr}}
• {{cite book |title=The Hesiodic Catalog of Women|editor=Hunter, Richard L.|last=Cingano|first=Ettore|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-83684-0|chapter=A Catalog within a Catalog: Helen's Suitors in the Hesiodic Catalog of Women}}
• {{cite book |title=Helen |last=Clader |first=Linda Lee |year=1976 |publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=90-04-04721-2}}
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• {{cite book |title=Renaissance Siena|editor=Jenkens, Lawrence A.|last=David|first=Benjamin|year=2005|publisher=Truman State University|isbn=1-931112-43-6|chapter=Narrative in Context}}
• {{cite book |title=Archaic Greek Equestrian Sculpture|last=Eaverly|first=Mary Ann|year=1995|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-10351-2|chapter=Geographical and Chronological Distribution}}
• {{cite journal |last=Edmunds |first=Lowell |date=May 2007 |title=Helen's Divine Origins|journal=Electronic Antiquity: Communicating the Classics |volume=X |issue=2 |pages=1–44 |url=http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V10N2/ |access-date=2009-07-07}}
• {{cite book |title=Griechisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch|last=Frisk|first=Hjalmar|year=1960|volume=I|publisher=French & European Pubns|chapter=Ἐλένη|language=de}}
• {{cite book |title=Early Greek Myth|last=Gantz|first=Timothy|year=2004|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, MD and London|isbn=0-8018-5362-1}}
• Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-631-20102-1}}. [https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofclas0000grim/page/n3/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive].
• {{cite book |title=Grafting Helen|last=Gumpert|first=Matthew|year=2001 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=0-299-17124-8|chapter=Helen in Greece}}
• {{cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology|last1=Hard|first1=Robin|last2=Rose|first2=Herbert Jennings|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|chapter=the Trojan War|isbn=0-415-18636-6}}
• {{cite book |title=Lycophron: Alexandra: Greek Text, Translation, Commentary, & Introduction |last=Hornblower |first=Simon |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199576708}}
• {{cite book |title=Helen of Troy: Goddess, Princess, Whore|url=https://archive.org/details/helenoftroygodde00bett|url-access=registration|last=Hughes|first=Bettany|author-link=Bettany Hughes |year=2005 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=0-224-07177-7}}
• {{cite book|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|year=2000|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=0-395-82517-2|chapter=Indo-European roots: wel^₂|author=Executive ed.: Joseph P. Pickert...|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7}}
• {{cite book|title=The Transformations of Helen|last=Jackson|first=Peter|year=2006|publisher=J.H.Röll Verlag|chapter=Shapeshifting Rape and Xoros}}
• {{cite book |title=Homer Between History and Fiction in Imperial Greek Literature|last=Kim|first=Lawrence|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-19449-5|chapter=Homer, poet and historian}}
• {{cite book |title=Helen of Troy: Woman and Goddess|last=Lindsay|first=Jack|year=1974|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield|isbn=0-87471-581-4|chapter=Helen in the Fifth Century}}
• {{cite book|title=The Ancient Greeks|last=Lynn Badin|first=Stephanie|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-57607-814-0|chapter=Religion and Ideology}}
• {{cite book |title=Helen of Troy|last=Maguire|first=Laurie|year=2009|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-2635-9|chapter=Beauty}}
• {{cite book |title=Too Beautiful to Picture|last=Mansfield|first=Elizabeth|year=2007|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-4749-1|chapter=Helen's Uncanny Beauty}}
• {{cite book |title=Polygnotos and Vase Painting in Classical Athens |last=Matheson|first=Susan B.|year=1996|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=0-299-13870-4|chapter=Heroes}}
• {{cite book|title=The Meaning of Helen|last=Meagher|first=Robert E.|year=2002|publisher=Bolchazy–Carducci Publishers|isbn=0-86516-510-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/meaningofhelenin0000meag}}
• {{cite book |title=Theseus, Tragedy, and the Athenian Empire |last=Mills |first=Sophie |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-815063-6|chapter=Theseus and Helen}}
• {{cite book |title=A Cosmos of Desire |last=Moser |first=Thomas C. |year=2004 |publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-11379-8}}
• {{cite book |title=The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology|last=Nilsson|first=Martin Persson|year=1932 |publisher=Forgotten Books|isbn=1-60506-393-2|chapter=Mycenaean Centers and Mythological Centers}}
• {{cite book |title=Spartan Women|last=Pomeroy|first=Sarah B.|author-link=Sarah B. Pomeroy |year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-513067-7|chapter=Education}}
• {{cite book |title=The Tragedy of Hector|last=Redfield|first=James|year=1994|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=0-8223-1422-3|chapter=The Hero}}
• Rozokoki, Alexandra. "The Significance of the Ancestry and Eastern Origins of Helen of Sparta". Quaderni Urbinati Di Cultura Classica, New Series, 98, no. 2 (2011): 35–69. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/23048961 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ANCESTRY AND EASTERN ORIGINS OF HELEN OF SPARTA].
• {{cite journal |last=Skutsch |first=Otto |year=1987|title=Helen, her Name and Nature |journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies |volume=107 |pages=188–193 |jstor=630087|doi=10.2307/630087|s2cid=161933465 }}
• {{cite book|title=Metamorphoses of Helen|last=Suzuki|first=Mihoko|year=1992|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-8080-9|chapter=The Iliad|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/metamorphosesofh0000suzu_j4d7}}
• {{cite book |title=The Trojan War|last=Thompson|first=Diane P.|year=2004|publisher=McFarland|isbn=0-7864-1737-4|chapter=The Fall of Troy – The Beginning of Greek History}}
• {{cite book |title=Sparta|last=Whitby|first=Michael|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0-415-93957-7|chapter=Introduction}}

{{refend}}

{{Commons category|Helen}}

{{EB1911 poster|Helen}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070810194036/http://whitedragon.org.uk/articles/troy.htm An analysis of the legend including historical evidence of worship as a goddess.]
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7bKwTQf25o&t=9s Helen of Troy:history and facial reconstruction] on [https://www.youtube.com/@RoyaltyNowStudios Royalty Now Studios]
• {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Helen |short=x}}
• {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Helen |short=x}}

{{Characters in the Iliad}}

{{Characters in the Odyssey}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Princesses in Greek mythology

Category:Queens in Greek mythology

Category:Children of Zeus

Category:Women of the Trojan war

Category:Characters in the Odyssey

Category:Kidnapped people

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Category:Mythological Laconians

Category:Deeds of Aphrodite

Category:Divine twins

Category:Ancient Spartan queens consort

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