History of Sindh#Modern era

The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great referred to the Indus River as Indós, hence the modern Indus. The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind.{{cite web |author=Choudhary Rahmat Ali |date=28 January 1933 |title=Now or Never. Are we to live or perish forever? |url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Now_or_Never;_Are_We_to_Live_or_Perish_Forever%3F}}{{cite book |author=S. M. Ikram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7q9EubOYZmwC&pg=PA177 |title=Indian Muslims and partition of India |date=1 January 1995 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-7156-374-6 |pages=177– |author-link=S. M. Ikram |access-date=23 December 2011}} The word Sind is a Persian derivative of the Sanskrit term Sindhu, meaning "river" - a reference to Indus River.{{sfn|Phiroze Vasunia|2013|p=6}} Southworth suggests that the name Sindhu is in turn derived from Cintu, a Dravidian word for date palm, a tree commonly found in Sindh.Southworth, Franklin. [https://www.academia.edu/7336735/The_Reconstruction_of_Prehistoric_South_Asian_Language_Contact The Reconstruction of Prehistoric South Asian Language Contact] (1990) p. 228Burrow, T. [https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/burrow_query.py?qs=īntu&searchhws=yes Dravidian Etymology Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301115537/https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/burrow_query.py?qs=%C4%ABntu&searchhws=yes |date=1 March 2021 }} p. 227

The previous spelling "Sind" (from the Perso-Arabic {{lang|ar|سند}}) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in Sindh Assembly,{{cite news |date=12 February 2013 |title=Sindh, not Sind |work=The Express Tribune |publisher=Web Desk |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/506227/sind-not-sindh/ |access-date=16 October 2015}} and is now spelt "Sindh."

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| caption1 = The "Priest King" sculpture is carved from steatite.

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| caption4 = Excavated ruins of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh

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{{Main|Indus Valley Civilization}}

Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization. There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that of Mohenjo Daro. Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilisation or Harappan culture, with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewerage systems.{{Cite book |author=Sanyal, Sanjeev |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/855957425 |title=Land of the seven rivers : a brief history of India's geography |date=10 July 2013 |isbn=978-0-14-342093-4 |oclc=855957425}} It was one of the world's earliest major cities, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete, and Caral-Supe. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.{{cite web |title=Mohenjo-Daro: An Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis |url=http://www.mohenjodaro.net/mohenjodaroessay.html}} The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.{{Cite news |date=2012-06-26 |title=Mohenjo Daro: Could this ancient city be lost forever? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18491900 |access-date=2022-08-22}}

The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and metallurgy.{{efn|These covered carnelian products, seal carving, work in copper, bronze, lead, and tin.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|pp=115–125}}}} Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,{{harvnb|Dyson|2018|p=29}} "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people." and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence.{{Sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=387|ps=: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."}} A gradual drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|name="Note-Brooke"|{{harvp|Brooke|2014|p=296}}. "The story in Harappan India was somewhat different (see Figure 111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the Indus Valley are some-thing of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful monsoon rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all, and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanisation" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for 300 to 400 years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scattered villages in the eastern range of their territories, into the Punjab and the Ganges Valley....' 17 (footnote):

(a) {{harvp|Giosan|Clift|Macklin|Fuller|2012}};

(b) {{harvp|Ponton|Giosan|Eglinton|Fuller|2012}};

(c) {{harvp|Rashid|England|Thompson|Polyak|2011}};

(d) {{harvp|Madella|Fuller|2006}};
Compare with the very different interpretations in

(e) {{harvp|Possehl|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA239 237–245]}}

(f) {{harvp|Staubwasser|Sirocko|Grootes|Segl|2003}}}}

{{Main|Sindhu-Sauvīra}}

File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png in the Post Vedic period]]

Sindhu-Sauvīra (Sanskrit: {{transliteration|sa|Sindhu-Sauvīra}}; Pāli: {{transliteration|pi|Sindhu-Sovīra}}) was an ancient Indo-Aryan kingdom of western South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The inhabitants of Sindu were called the Saindhavas, and the inhabitants of Sauvīra were called Sauvīrakas.

The territory of Sindhu-Sauvīra covered the lower Indus Valley,{{cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hemchandra |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of Gupta Dynasty |date=1953 |publisher=University of Calcutta |isbn= |location= |page=197 |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri}} with its southern border being the Indian Ocean and its northern border being the Punjab around Multan.{{sfn|Jain|1974|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 209]-[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 210]}}

Sindhu was the name of the inland area between the Indus River and the Sulaiman Mountains, while Sauvīra was the name for the coastal part of the kingdom as well as the inland area to the east of the Indus river as far north as the area of modern-day Multan.{{sfn|Jain|1974|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 209]-[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 210]}}

The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to the mediaeval Arohṛ and the modern-day Rohṛī.{{sfn|Jain|1974|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 209]-[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 210]}}{{sfn|Sikdar|1964|p=501-502}}{{cite book |author=H.C. Raychaudhuri |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft |publisher=University of Calcutta |isbn=978-1-4400-5272-9 |year=1923}}

{{Main|Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley}}

Achaemenid empire may have controlled parts of present-day Sindh as part of the province of Hindush. The territory may have corresponded to the area covering the lower and central Indus basin (present day Sindh and the southern Punjab regions of Pakistan).M. A. Dandamaev. "A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire" p 147. BRILL, 1989 {{ISBN|978-9004091726}} To the north of Hindush was Gandāra (spelt as Gaⁿdāra by the Achaememids). These areas remained under Persian control until the invasion by Alexander.Rafi U. Samad, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA33 The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys.] Algora Publishing, 2011, p. 33 {{ISBN|0875868592}}

Alternatively, some authors consider that Hindush may have been located in the Punjab area."Hidus could be the areas of Sindh, or Taxila and West Punjab." in {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nNDpPqeDjo0C&pg=PA204|title=Cambridge Ancient History|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521228046|page=204|language=en}}

{{Main|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great}}

File:AlexanderIndiaMap.jpg below Alexandria on the Indus|left]]

Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his general Peithon as governor. The ancient city of Patala was located at the mouth of the Indus River. The Indus parted into two branches at the city of Patala before reaching the sea, and the island thus formed was called Patalene, the district of Patala. Alexander constructed a harbour at Patala.{{sfn|Dani|1981|p=37}}{{sfn|Eggermont|1975|p=13}}

Some scholars identify Patala with Thatta, a one-time capital of Sindh.Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, A Geographical Illustration of the Map of India, Translated by William Herbert, London, 1759, p.19; "Tatta est non seulement un ville, mais encore une province de l'Inde, selon les voyageurs modernes. La ville ainsi nommée a pris la place de l'ancienne Patala ou Pattala, qui donnoit autrefois le nom à terrain renfermé entre les bouches de l’Indus." Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, Eclaircissements géographiques sur la carte de l'Inde, Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 1753, p.39. [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1794_Anville_Map_of_the_Ancient_World_-_Geographicus_-_AncientWorld-anville-1794.jpg D'Anville, Orbis Veteribus Notus]Alexander Burnes, Travels into Bokhara: Containing the Narrative of a Voyage on the Indus, London, Murray, 1839, Vol.I, p.27. William Robertson, An Historical Disquisition concerning Ancient India, Basel, Tourneisen, 1792, pp.20: “Patala (the modern Tatta)”; p.40: “Pattala (now Tatta).” William Vincent, The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean, London, Cadell and Davies, 1807, p.138. “Tatta, the Páttala of the ancients.” Cf. M. Nisard, Pomponius Méla, oeuvres complètes, Paris, Dubochet et Le Chevalier, 1850, p.656: "Cette région [Patalène], qui tirait son nom de Patala, sa principale ville, est comprise aujourd'hui dans ce qu'on appelle le Sindh y, qui avait autrefois pour capitale Tatta, ville de douze à quinze mille âmes, qui occupe l'emplacement de l'antique Patala". But the identity of Patala is much debated among scholars.

Siltation has caused the Indus to change its course many times since the days of Alexander the Great, and the site of ancient Patala has been subject to much conjecture.A.H. Dani and P. Bernard, “Alexander and His Successors in Central Asia”, in János Harmatta, B.N. Puri and G.F. Etemadi (editors), History of civilizations of Central Asia (Paris, UNESCO, 1994) II: 85. Herbert Wilhelmy has pointed out that siltation had caused the Indus to change its course many times over the centuries and that in Alexander’s time it bifurcated at the site of Bahmanabad, 75 kilometres to the north east of Hyderabad, which John Watson McCrindle had considered to occupy the site of ancient Patala: Herbert Wilhelmy, “Verschollene Städte im Indusdelta“, Geographische Zeitschrift, 56: 4 (1968): 256-294, n.b. 258-63; McCrindle (1901): 19, 40, 124, 188; idem, The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, Westminster, Constable, 1893, pp.356-7.

{{Main|Maurya empire}}

Chandragupta Maurya had established his empire around 320 BC. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Janapadas of Punjab and Sindh, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West. He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus I Nicator, when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus River and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.{{sfn|Thorpe|2009|p=33}}

{{Main|Indo-Greek kingdom}}

Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BC, the region came under the Indo-Greeks. According to Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, the Indo-Greek territory of Sindh was known as Sigerdis."The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis." Strabo 11.11.1 ([https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.11.1 Strabo 11.11.1])

{{Main|Indo-Scythians}}

File:Banbhore site.jpg port city dates from 1st century BC, from Scytho-Parthian era.|left]]

The Indo Scythians ruled Sindh with its capital at Minnagara.{{Cite book |last=Rawlinson |first=H. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmMnh1XKJjQC |title=Intercourse Between India and the Western World: From the Earliest Times of the Fall of Rome |date=2001 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1549-6 |pages=114 |language=en}} It was located on the Indus river, north of the coastal city of Barbaricum, or along the Narmada river, upstream of Barygaza. There were two cities named Minnagara, one on Indus River delta near Karachi and the other at Narmada River delta near modern Bharuch.[https://books.google.com/books?id=dMgNAAAAQAAJ&dq=Minnagara&pg=PA392 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians] The Ptolemy world map, as well as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention prominently, the country of Scythia on the Indus Valley, as well as Roman Tabula Peutingeriana.[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 38] The Periplus states that Minnagara was the capital of Scythia, and that Parthian Princes from within it were fighting for its control during the 1st century CE.

{{Main article|Gupta Empire}}

File:Brahma mirpur khas.jpg]] Sindh came under the Gupta Empire, which reached its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, covering much of the Indian subcontinent. Hindu art and culture flourished during this era'. The Famous bronze of Hindu god Brahma has been excavated from Mirpur Khas. Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala calls it "an exceptionally good specimen of the art of metal-casting in this period".Indian Art - Volume 2, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Prithivi Prakashan, 1977, Page 43 S. R. Goyal and Śaṅkara Goyala term is "true memorial of Gupta metalsmith's artistic genius".Indian Art of the Gupta Age: From Pre-classical Roots to the Emergence of Medieval Trends, Editors Śrīrāma Goyala, Śaṅkara Goyala, Kusumanjali Book World, 2000, p. 85 It is said to the best example of Gupta art in Sindh.Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D., Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Anant Sadashiv Altekar, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1967, p. 435 The object suggests that Sindh was a major centre of metalworking.Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter, Finbarr Barry Flood, Princeton University Press, 2009, p. 50 The Brahma from Mirpur Khas has been widely used by art historians for comparison with other artwork of historical significance.South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the Third International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris, J. E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw

BRILL, 1979. The image of the Brahma from Mirpur Khas is on the cover. [https://books.google.com/books?id=H2GW1PTHQ1YC link]{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013809/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/Gupta_Dynasty.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead}} The Kahu-Jo-Darro stupa is an ancient Buddhist stupa found at the Mirpurkhas archaeological site from the western Satraps era.{{cite book |last1=Harle |first1=James C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC&pg=PA117 |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5 |page=117 |language=en}}[https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O168373/relief-panel-unknown/ Relief Panel: 5th century - 6th Century from Mirpur Khas Pakistan], Victoria & Albert Museum, UK{{cite book |last=MacLean |first=Derryl N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWaEuE6ucR0C |title=Religion and Society in Arab Sind |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1989 |isbn=978-90-04-08551-0 |pages=53–60, 71 with footnotes}} Early estimates placed the site in the 4th to 5th-century. The stupa is now dated between the 5th to early 6th-century, because its artwork is more complex and resembles those found in the dated sites such as the Ajanta and Bhitargaon in India.{{cite book |last=Schastok |first=S.L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh1fF8HvJmMC |title=The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India |publisher=Brill |year=1985 |isbn=978-90-04-06941-1 |pages=30–31}}{{cite book |last=MacLean |first=Derryl N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWaEuE6ucR0C |title=Religion and Society in Arab Sind |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1989 |isbn=978-90-04-08551-0 |pages=7–20 with footnotes}} The Prince of Wales Museum describes the style of Mirpur Khas stupa as a conflation of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and Gupta art:

{{blockquote|"The terracotta figures of Mirpur Khas represent the Gupta Empire as it flourished in Sindh. (...) In the terracottas of Mirpur Khas, of which the Museum has a most representative collection, one may see the synthesis of Gandhara and Gupta traditions . Here the old sacrosanct forms of Gandhara are moulded in the Gupta character of nobility, restraint and spirituality and the result is very pleasing. The figures of the Buddha from Mirpur Khas show transformation from the Gandhara to Gupta idiom, which the figures of the donor and Kubera show well developed Gupta types."|Prince of Wales Museum of Western India{{cite book |title=Indian Art |publisher=Prince of Wales Museum of Western India |pages=2–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNAMAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}}}

{{main|Hind (Sasanian province)}}

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| footer = Gold coins of Sasanian Empire ruler Shapur III (r. 383–388), minted in Sindh, modern Pakistan. Obverse: portrait of Shapur III, Brahmi script character Śrī 8px ("Lord") in front of the King. Degraded Pahlavi legend around. Reverse: fire altar with attendants.{{cite journal |last1=Senior |first1=R.C. |title=Some unpublished ancient coins |journal=Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter|date=2012 |volume=170 |issue=Winter |page=17 |url=https://www.orientalnumismaticsociety.org/archive/ONS_170.pdf}}

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Sasanian rulers from the reign of Shapur I claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions. Shapur I installed his son Narseh as "King of the Sakas" in the areas of Eastern Iran as far as Sindh.{{cite journal|last1=Senior|first1=R.C.|date=1991|title=The Coinage of Sind from 250 AD up to the Arab Conquest|url=http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf|journal=Oriental Numismatic Society|volume=129|issue=June–July 1991|pages=3–4|access-date=20 January 2021|archive-date=26 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926175600/http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf|url-status=dead}} Two inscriptions during the reign of Shapur II mention his control of the regions of Sindh, Sakastan and Turan.{{cite book|last1=Daryaee|first1=Touraj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LU0BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17|title=Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire|date=2014|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9780857716668|page=17|language=en|author-link1=Touraj Daryaee}} Still, the exact term used by the Sasanian rulers in their inscription is Hndy, similar to Hindustan, which cannot be said for sure to mean "Sindh".{{cite book|last1=Schindel|first1=Nikolaus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqONDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127|title=The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: adaptation and expansion|last2=Alram|first2=Michael|last3=Daryaee|first3=Touraj|last4=Pendleton|first4=Elizabeth|date=2016|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=9781785702105|pages=126–129|language=en}} Al-Tabari mentioned that Shapur II built cities in Sind and Sijistan.{{cite book|last1=Daryaee|first1=Touraj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LU0BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|title=Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire|date=2014|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9780857716668|page=18|language=en}}{{cite book|last1=Rezakhani|first1=Khodadad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjRWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|title=ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity|date=2017|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=9781474400305|page=83|language=en}}

{{Main|Rai dynasty}}

File:Map of Sindh (Rais).png, circa 550–600 CE{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0226742210 |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (i)}}]]

The Rai dynasty of Sindh was the first dynasty of Sindh and at its height of power ruled much of the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The dynasty reigned for a period of 144 years, c. 489 – 632 AD, concurrent with the Huna invasions of North India.{{cite book|last=Wink|first=Andre|title=Al Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World|publisher=BRILL|year=1996|isbn=90-04-09249-8|pages=133, 152–153}} The names of rulers might have been corruptions of Sanskrit names — Devaditya, Harsha, and SInhasena.{{Cite book|last=Mirchandani|first=B. D.|title=Glimpses of Ancient Sind: A Collection of Historical Papers|publisher=Saraswati M. Gulrajani|year=1985|location=Sindh|pages=25, 53–56}} The origins of the dynasty, caste status, and how they rose to power remains unknown. They apparently had familial ties with other rulers of South Asia including Kashmir, Kabul, Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc. — Aror is noted to be the capital of both Hind and Sindh.{{harvp|Asif|2016|pp=65, 81-82, 131-134}} Alexander Cunningham had proposed an alternate chronology (? – >641 AD) — primarily on the basis of numismatic and literary evidence{{Efn|The end-date arrived as a result of equating Sindhu with the Sin tu kingdom, described in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions during 641 A.D. Modern scholars reject this claim.}} — identifying the first two Rais as Hunas and the later three as rulers of Zabulistan and Khorasan.{{efn|Diwaji and Sahiras were respectively Toramana and Mihirakula. Rai Sahasi was held to be Tegin Shah, Rai Sahiras II to be {{URL|1=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG200795|2=Vasudeva}}, and Rai Sahasi II, an anonymous successor.}} However, there exists little historical evidence to favor the proposition of Hunas ever making to Sindh and the individual bases of his hypothesis stands discredited in modern scholarship. Chintaman Vinayak Vaidya supported Cunningham's chronology (? – >641 AD) but held the Rais to be descendants of Mauryas and Shudra, by caste.{{Efn|This descent from Mauryas was proposed on the basis of Rai Mahrit, then ruler of Chittor claiming to be Sahasi II's brother. Rulers of pre-Sisodia Rajasthan usually claimed a descent from Mauryas and this identification went perfectly with Xuanzang's noting the King of Sin-tu to be a Sudra.}}

Harshacharitta, a biography written by Banabhatta mentions King Harsha badly defeated the ruler of Sindh and took possession of his fortunes.{{Cite book|last=Krishnamoorthy|first=K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LZXldPqbIkUC&q=banabhatta+harsha+sindh&pg=PA26|title=Banabhatta (Sanskrit Writer)|date=1982|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-7201-674-6|language=en}}

{{Main|Brahman dynasty}}

File:Map of the Chachas circa 650 CE.png circa 600–650 CE{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183 |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0226742210 |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (b)}}]]

The Brahmin dynasty of Sindh ({{Circa|632 – 712}}),{{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC |title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2 |date=1991 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004095098 |pages=152–153 |language=en}} also known as the Chacha dynasty,{{Cite book |last1=Rao |first1=B. S. L. Hanumantha |title=Indian History and Culture |last2=Rao |first2=K. Basaveswara |date=1958 |publisher=Commercial Literature Company |pages=337 |language=en}} were the Brahmin Hindu ruling family of the Chacha Empire. The Brahmin dynasty were successors of the Rai dynasty. The dynasty ruled on the Indian subcontinent which originated in the region of Sindh, present-day Pakistan. Most of the information about its existence comes from the Chach Nama, a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty.

After the Chacha Empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under the Umayyad Caliphate's Caliphal province of Sind. These rulers include Hullishāh and Shishah.

{{Main|Arab Sindh}}

File:Umayyad Caliphate coinage temp Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik al-Hind (possibly Multan) mint. Dated AH 97 (AD 715-6).jpg coinage of Sind, minted in "al-Hind" (India; possibly at Multan), dated 97 AH ({{circa|715 CE}}), per obverse circular legend: In the name of Allah, struck this dirham in al-Hind {{nowrap|(File:India in Abd al-Malik al-Hind coin 715 CE.jpg)}} in the year seven and ninety|left]]

After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond Persia. An initial expedition in the region launched because of the Sindhi pirate attacks on Arabs in 711–12, failed.{{citation|last1=El Hareir|first1=Idris|last2=Mbaye|first2=Ravane|title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&pg=PA602|year=2012|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-104153-2|page=602}}{{Cite web|url=http://indiansaga.com/history/arab_invasion.html|title=History of India|website=indiansaga.com|access-date=2020-02-03}}

The first clash with the Hindu kings of Sindh took place in 636 (15 A.H.) under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab with the governor of Bahrain, Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas, dispatching naval expeditions against Thane and Bharuch under the command of his brother, Hakam. Another brother of his, al-Mughira, was given the command of the expedition against Debal.{{citation|last1=El Hareir|first1=Idris|last2=Mbaye|first2=Ravane|title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&pg=PA601|year=2012|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-104153-2|pages=601–2}} Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention the results of other two raids. However, the Chach Nama states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids.{{citation|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra |author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|title=Readings in political history of India, ancient, mediaeval, and modern|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvggAAAAMAAJ|year=1976|publisher=B.R. Pub. Corp., on behalf of Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies|page=216}}

These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships.{{sfn|Tripathi|1967|p=337}} Uthman was warned by Umar against it who said "O brother of Thaqif, you have put the worm on the wood. I swear, by Allah that if they had been smitten, I would have taken the equivalent (in men) from your families." Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign of Uthman.{{sfn|Asif|2016|p=35}}

In 712, when Mohammed Bin Qasim invaded Sindh with 8000 cavalry while also receiving reinforcements, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf instructed him not to spare anyone in Debal. The historian al-Baladhuri stated that after conquest of Debal, Qasim kept slaughtering its inhabitants for three days. The custodians of the Buddhist stupa were killed and the temple was destroyed. Qasim gave a quarter of the city to Muslims and built a mosque there.{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=203}} According to the Chach Nama, after the Arabs scaled Debal's walls, the besieged denizens opened the gates and pleaded for mercy but Qasim stated he had no orders to spare anyone. No mercy was shown and the inhabitants were accordingly thus slaughtered for three days, with its temple desecrated and 700 women taking shelter there enslaved. At Ror, 6000 fighting men were massacred with their families enslaved. The massacre at Brahamanabad has various accounts of 6,000 to 26,000 inhabitants slaughtered.The Classical age, by R. C. Majumdar, [https://archive.org/stream/TheClassicalAgeDr.K.M.Munshi/The%20Classical%20Age%20-%20Dr.%20K.M.%20Munshi#page/n515/mode/2up/search/no+orders+to+spare+anyone p. 456]

60,000 slaves, including 30 young royal women, were sent to al-Hajjaj. During the capture of one of the forts of Sindh, the women committed the jauhar and burnt themselves to death according to the Chach Nama. S.A.A. Rizvi citing the Chach Nama, considers that conversion to Islam by political pressure began with Qasim's conquests. The Chach Nama has one instance of conversion, that of a slave from Debal converted at Qasim's hands.{{sfn|Asif|2016|p=117}} After executing Sindh's ruler, Raja Dahir, his two daughters were sent to the caliph and they accused Qasim of raping them. The caliph ordered Qasim to be sewn up in hide of a cow and died of suffocation.{{citation|last=Suvorova|first=Anna|author-link=Anna Suvorova|title=Muslim Saints of South Asia: The Eleventh to Fifteenth Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK0aLjQtX2cC&pg=PA218|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-37006-1|page=218}}

{{Main| Habbari dynasty }}

File:Map of the Habbarid Emirate.png

The third dynasty, Habbari dynasty ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent emirate from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854 CE, the region became semi-independent from the Abbasid Caliphate in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad.P. M. ( Nagendra Kumar Singh), Muslim Kingship in India, Anmol Publications, 1999, {{ISBN|81-261-0436-8}}, {{ISBN|978-81-261-0436-9}} pg 43-45.P. M. ( Derryl N. Maclean), Religion and society in Arab Sindh, Published by Brill, 1989, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08551-0}} pg 140-143. The Habbari ascension marked the end of a period of direct rule of Sindh by the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, which had begun in 711 CE. The Habbaris were based in the city of Mansura, and ruled central and southern Sindh south of Aror,{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ap8IAAAAQAAJ&q=arab+sindh&pg=PA26 |title=A Gazetteer of the Province of Sindh |date=1874 |publisher=G. Bell and Sons |language=en}} near the modern-day metropolis of Sukkur. The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1026, who then went on to destroy the old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to the Ghaznavid Empire, thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh.

{{Main|Ghaznavids}}

Some of the territory in Sindh found itself under raids from the Turkic ruler, Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1025, who ended Arab rule of Sindh.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lI9AAAAMAAJ&q=ghaznavid+mansura|title=An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan|last=Abdulla|first=Ahmed|date=1987|publisher=Tanzeem Publishers|language=en}} During his raids of northern Sindh, the Arab capital of Sindh, Mansura, was largely destroyed.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&q=ghaznavid+mansura&pg=PA6|title=Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500|last=Habib|first=Irfan|date=2011|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-2791-1|language=en}}

The Soomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century.{{cite journal |url=http://www.uok.edu.pk/faculties/sindhi/docs/soomroEng.pdf |title=The Soomras of Sindh: their origin, main characteristics and rule – an overview (general survey) (1025 – 1351 AD) |first=Habibullah |last=Siddiqui |journal=Literary Conference on Soomra Period in Sindh}}{{cite journal |date=2007 |title=The Arab Conquest |journal=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=1 |page=91 |quote=The Soomras are believed to be Parmar Rajputs found even today in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Kutch and Sindh. The Cambridge History of India refers to the Soomras as "a Rajput dynasty the later members of which accepted Islam" (p. 54 ).}}{{Cite book |last=Dani |first=Ahmad Hasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_xtAAAAMAAJ&q=soomra+dynasty |title=History of Pakistan: Pakistan through ages |date=2007 |publisher=Sang-e Meel Publications |isbn=978-969-35-2020-0 |pages=218 |language=en |quote=But as many kings of the dynasty bore Hindu names, it is almost certain that the Soomras were of local origin. Sometimes they are connected with Paramara Rajputs, but of this there is no definite proof.}}

Later chroniclers like Ali ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) and Ibn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid.{{Cite book |last=Collinet |first=Annabelle |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=9, 11, 113 (note 43) |language=en |chapter=Chronology of Sehwan Sharif through Ceramics (The Islamic Period)}} The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum.{{Cite book |last=Boivin |first=Michel |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=30 |language=en |chapter=Shivaite Cults And Sufi Centres: A Reappraisal Of The Medieval Legacy In Sindh}}

The Ghurids and Ghaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus. The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh.

Some of them were adherents of Isma'ilism. One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to Iltutmish, the Sultan of Delhi, and was allowed to continue on as a vassal.{{cite book |author=Aniruddha Ray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNSNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 |title=The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture |date=4 March 2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-00-000729-9 |pages=43–}}

{{Main|Samma dynasty}}

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The Samma dynasty was a Sindhi dynasty that ruled in Sindh, and parts of Kutch, Punjab and Balochistan from {{circa}} 1351 to {{circa|lk=no}} 1524 CE, with their capital at Thatta.{{cite book |author1=Census Organization (Pakistan) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63maAAAAIAAJ&q=yadav+rajputs |title=Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana |author2=Abdul Latif |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1976}}{{Cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=Edward James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBNZAAAAYAAJ&q=Samma+ |title=The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, edited by W. Haig |last2=Haig |first2=Sir Wolseley |last3=Burn |first3=Sir Richard |last4=Dodwell |first4=Henry |date=1965 |publisher=Chand |pages=518 |language=en}}{{cite book|author1=U. M. Chokshi|author2=M. R. Trivedi|title=Gujarat State Gazetteer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qHiAAAAMAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Director, Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State|page=274|quote=It was the conquest of Kutch by the Sindhi tribe of Sama Rajputs that marked the emergence of Kutch as a separate kingdom in the 14th century.}}

The Sammas overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and the last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of Gujarat, under the protection of Muhammad bin Tughluq, the sultan of Delhi. Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from Delhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent.{{Cite web |url=http://www.panhwar.com/Article162.htm |title=Directions in the History and Archaeology of Sindh by M. H. Panhwar |access-date=9 December 2022 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225062314/http://www.panhwar.com/Article162.htm |url-status=dead }} Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by Ibn Battuta.

The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the Makli Hill.[http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1 Archnet.org: Thattah] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606120407/https://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1|date=2012-06-06}} It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the Makli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta.{{cite book |author1=Census Organization (Pakistan) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63maAAAAIAAJ&q=yadav+rajputs |title=Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana |author2=Abdul Latif |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1976}}Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Jacobabad

The Arghun dynasty were a dynasty of either Mongol,Davies, p. 627 Turkic or Turco-Mongol ethnicity,Bosworth, "New Islamic Dynasties," p. 329 who ruled over the area between southern Afghanistan, and Sindh from the late 15th century to the early 16th century as the Sindh's sixth dynasty. They claimed their descent and name from Ilkhanid-Mongol Arghun Khan.The Travels of Marco Polo - Complete (Mobi Classics) By Marco Polo, Rustichello of Pisa, Henry Yule (Translator)

Arghun rule was divided into two branches: the Arghun branch of Dhu'l-Nun Beg Arghun that ruled until 1554, and the Tarkhan branch of Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan that ruled until 1591 as the seventh dynasty of Sindh.

{{main|Sind State}}

In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the Mughal Empire by Akbar, himself born in the Rajputana kingdom in Umerkot in Sindh.{{cite book |last1=Tarling |first1=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtsMLNmMzbkC&pg=PA39 |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia by Nicholas Tarling p.39 |year=1999 |isbn=9780521663700}}{{cite web |title=Hispania [Publicaciones periódicas]. Volume 74, Number 3, September 1991 – Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01475176655936417554480/p0000002.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924052446/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01475176655936417554480/p0000002.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=27 January 2016 |website=cervantesvirtual.com}} Mughal rule from their provincial capital of Thatta was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenous Kalhora dynasty holding power, consolidating their rule until the mid-18th century, when the Persian sacking of the Mughal throne in Delhi allowed them to grab the rest of Sindh. It is during this the era that the famous Sindhi Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai composed his classic Sindhi text "Shah Jo Risalo" {{Cite book |last=Brohī |first=ʻAlī Aḥmad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gBuAAAAMAAJ&q=Kalhoras+a+local+Sindhi+tribe+of+Channa+origin |title=The Temple of Sun God: Relics of the Past |date=1998 |publisher=Sangam Publications |pages=175 |language=en |quote="Kalhoras a local Sindhi tribe of Channa origin..."}}{{Cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZQMzQLsyk0C&dq=They+were+originally+Channa+Sindhis+,+and+therefore+converted+Hindoos&pg=PA410 |title=Sindh, and the Races that Inhabit the Valley of the Indus |date=1851 |publisher=W. H. Allen |pages=410 |language=en |quote="Kalhoras...were originally Channa Sindhis, and therefore converted Hindoos."}}{{Cite book |last=Verkaaik |first=Oskar |url=https://archive.org/details/migrantsmilitant0000verk |title=Migrants and Militants: Fun and Urban Violence in Pakistan |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-69111-709-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/migrantsmilitant0000verk/page/94 94], 99 |quote=The area of the Hindu-built mansion Pakka Qila was built in 1768 by the Kalhora kings, a local dynasty of Arab origin that ruled Sindh independently from the decaying Moghul Empire beginning in the mid-eighteenth century. |url-access=registration}}

The Kalhora dynasty was a Sunni dynasty based in Sindh. This dynasty as the eighth dynasty of Sindh ruled Sindh and parts of the Punjab region between 1701 and 1783 from their capital of Khudabad, before shifting to Hyderabad from 1768 onwards.

Kalhora rule of Sindh began in 1701 when Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro was invested with title of Khuda Yar Khan and was made governor of Upper Sindh sarkar by royal decree of the Mughals.{{sfn|Ansari|1992|pp=32–34}} Later, he was made governor of Siwi through imperial decree. He founded a new city Khudabad after he obtained from Aurangzeb a grant of the track between the Indus and the Nara and made it the capital of his kingdom. Thenceforth, Mian Yar Muhammad became one of the imperial agents or governors. Later he extended his rule to Sehwan and Bukkur and became sole ruler of Northern and central Sindh except Thatto which was still under the administrative control of Mughal Empire.{{sfn|Ansari|1992|pp=32–34}}

The Kalhora dynasty succumbed to the Afghan Qizilbash during the invasion of Nader Shah. Sind was then conquered by Ahmad Shah Durrani from 1748-1750 making the ruling Kalhora dynasty a vassal under suzerainty of the Durrani Empire.[https://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Peoples_of_Pakistan.html?id=XXZoMwEACAAJ&redir_esc=y The Peoples of Pakistan: An Ethnic History] (1971) by I︠U︡riĭ Vladimirovich Gankovskiĭ[https://books.google.com.au/books/about/History_of_civilizations_of_Central_Asia.html?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&redir_esc=y History of civilizations of Central Asia] (2003) Adle, Chahryar, Baipakov, Karl M., Habib, Irfan, UNESCO

Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro reorganised and consolidated his power, but his son lost control of Sindh and was overthrown by Talpurs Amirs. Mian Abdul Nabi Kalhoro was the last Kalhora ruler.{{cite book |author=Sarah F. D. Ansari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kC421xzMKsC&pg=PA32 |title=Sufi Saints and State Power: The Pirs of Sind, 1843-1947 |date=31 January 1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-40530-0 |pages=32–34}}

File:Tombs_of_Talpur_Mirs_-_view_5.JPG in Hyderabad]]

File:Talpur Map 1823.png

The Talpur dynasty (Sindhi: ٽالپردور‎; Urdu: سلسله تالپور‎) succeeded the Kalhoras in 1783 and four branches of the dynasty were established.{{Cite web |date=2018-04-21 |title=History of Khairpur and the royal Talpurs of Sindh |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/230879/history-of-khairpur-and-the-royal-talpurs-of-sindh/ |access-date=2020-03-06 |website=Daily Times |language=en-US}} One ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad, another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur, a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas, and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan. They were Sindhi-speaking ethnic Baloch,{{Cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=R. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47sfj8DUwNgC&dq=talpur+sindh&pg=PA337 |title=Indian States: A Biographical, Historical, and Administrative Survey |last2=Bond |first2=J. W. |date=2006 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1965-4 |language=en}} and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the Durrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them.{{cite book |last1=Baloch |first1=Inayatullah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ox0NAAAAIAAJ&q=talpurs+vassals |title=The Problem of "Greater Baluchistan": A Study of Baluch Nationalism |date=1987 |publisher=Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden |isbn=9783515049993 |page=121}}{{cite book |last1=Ziad |first1=Waleed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-ZFEAAAQBAJ&dq=durranis+talpur&pg=PA53 |title=Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints Beyond the Oxus and Indus |date=2021 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674248816 |page=53}}

They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the British at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubbo.{{Cite web |title=The Royal Talpurs of Sindh - Historical Background |url=http://www.talpur.org/Home/historical-background |access-date=2020-02-23 |website=www.talpur.org}} The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as the princely state of Khairpur, whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into West Pakistan in 1955.

{{Main|British Raj|Partition of India|Pakistan Movement}}

File:Bombay_Prov_1909.jpg in 1909.]]

{{main|Bombay Presidency}}

The British conquered Sindh in 1843. General Charles Napier is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely Peccavi – or I have sinned (Latin).General Napier apocryphally reported his conquest of the province to his superiors with the one-word message peccavi, a schoolgirl's pun recorded in Punch (magazine) relying on the Latin word's meaning, "I have sinned", homophonous to "I have Sindh". Eugene Ehrlich, Nil Desperandum: A Dictionary of Latin Tags and Useful Phrases [Original title: Amo, Amas, Amat and More], BCA 1992 [1985], p. 175.

The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh: the consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential.{{citation|author1=Roger D. Long|author2=Gurharpal Singh|author3=Yunas Samad|author4=Ian Talbot|title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102|date=8 October 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-44820-4|pages=102–}}

The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into the Bombay Presidency. Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab.

The British desired to increase their profitability from Sindh and carried out extensive work on the irrigation system in Sindh, for example, the Jamrao Canal project. However, the local Sindhis were described as both eager and lazy and for this reason, the British authorities encouraged the immigration of Punjabi peasants into Sindh as they were deemed more hard-working. Punjabi migrations to Sindh paralleled the further development of Sindh's irrigation system in the early 20th century. Sindhi apprehension of a ‘Punjabi invasion’ grew.

In his backdrop, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At the annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913, a Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests. Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in the 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement.{{citation|author=I. Malik|title=Islam, Nationalism and the West: Issues of Identity in Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyWBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56|date=3 June 1999|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-37539-0|pages=56–}} A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined the Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following.{{citation|author=Gail Minault|title=The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAW8GreFqjkC&pg=PA105|year=1982|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-05072-2|pages=105–}} The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh.{{harvnb|Ansari|1992|p=77}} Sindh came to be at the forefront of the Khilafat Movement.{{citation|author=Pakistan Historical Society|title=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_svAQAAIAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Pakistan Historical Society.|page=245}}

Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as a safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified ‘Hindu’ with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing the interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook,Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 39:4, 775, {{doi|10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752}} both the Muslim landed elite, waderas, and the Hindu commercial elements, banias, collaborated in oppressing the predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited.{{cite book |author=Ayesha Jalal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA415 |title=Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850 |date=4 January 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-59937-0 |pages=415–}} Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus.{{cite book |author1=Roger D. Long |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security |author2=Gurharpal Singh |author3=Yunas Samad |author4=Ian Talbot |date=8 October 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-44820-4 |pages=102–}}{{cite book |author=Pakistan Historical Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_svAQAAIAAJ |title=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society |publisher=Pakistan Historical Society. |year=2007 |page=245}}Ansari, p. 77.

In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues.{{harvnb|Jalal|2002|p=415}} Due to British policies, much land in Sindh was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades.{{citation|author1=Amritjit Singh|author2=Nalini Iyer|author3=Rahul K. Gairola|title=Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmA0DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127|date=15 June 2016|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-1-4985-3105-4|pages=127–}} Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims. The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah.{{citation|author=Khaled Ahmed|title=Sleepwalking to Surrender: Dealing with Terrorism in Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TbzBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT230|date=18 August 2016|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-93-86057-62-4|pages=230–}} Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G.M. Syed left the All India Muslim League in the mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance. Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors.{{citation|author=Veena Kukreja|title=Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA138|date=24 February 2003|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-9683-5|pages=138–}} The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families.Ansari, p. 115. Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats,{{sfn|Ansari|1992|p=115}} the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province,{{sfn|Ansari|1992|p=122}} it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan.{{cite book |author=I. Malik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyWBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 |title=Islam, Nationalism and the West: Issues of Identity in Pakistan |date=3 June 1999 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0-230-37539-0 |pages=56–}}{{cite book |author=Veena Kukreja |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA138 |title=Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises |date=24 February 2003 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-9683-5 |pages=138–}}

In 1947, violence did not constitute a major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between the local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval, and Okha.Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 39:4, 776-777, DOI: 10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752

• List of monarchs of Sindh
• Encyclopedia Sindhiana
• Sindhi Wikipedia

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{{History of Sindh}}

{{History of Pakistan by province}}

{{Sindh topics}}

{{Authority control}}