History of Western role-playing video games#References
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{{About|role-playing video games developed in the Western world|a history of role-playing video games developed in East Asia|History of Eastern role-playing video games}}
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Western role-playing video games are role-playing video games developed in the Western world, including the Americas and Europe. They originated on mainframe university computer systems in the 1970s, were later popularized by titles such as Ultima and Wizardry in the early- to mid-1980s, and continue to be produced for modern home computer and video game console systems. The genre's "Golden Age" occurred in the mid- to late-1980s, and its popularity suffered a downturn in the mid-1990s as developers struggled to keep up with changing fashion, hardware evolution and increasing development costs. A later series of isometric role-playing games, published by Interplay Productions and Blizzard Entertainment, was developed over a longer time period and set new standards of production quality.
Computer role-playing games (CRPGs) are once again popular. Recent titles, such as BioWare's Mass Effect series and Bethesda Softworks' The Elder Scrolls series, have been produced for console systems and have received multi-platform releases, although independently developed games are frequently created as personal computer (PC) exclusives. Developers of role-playing games have continuously experimented with various graphical perspectives and styles of play, such as real-time and turn-based time-keeping systems, axonometric and first-person graphical projections, and single-character or multi-character parties. Subgenres include action role-playing games, roguelikes and tactical role-playing games.
Early American computer RPGs (mid-1970s–mid-1980s)
=Mainframe computers (mid-1970s–early 1980s)=
{{See also|Chronology of roguelike video games}}
File:Dnd8won.png on the PLATO mainframe system|alt=Screenshot of dnd.]]
The earliest role-playing video games were created in the mid-to-late 1970s, as offshoots of early university mainframe text-based RPGs that were played on PDP-10, PLATO and Unix-based systems. These included m199h, created in 1974,{{#tag:ref|The file "m199h" was quickly deleted by PLATO administrators, so no copy of its source code survives.{{cite web |last1=Brewer |first1=Nathan |title=Going Rogue: A Brief History of the Computerized Dungeon Crawl |url=https://insight.ieeeusa.org/articles/going-rogue-a-brief-history-of-the-computerized-dungeon-crawl/ |website=IEEE-USA InSight |publisher=IEEE |access-date=23 February 2021 |date=7 July 2016}}{{Harvnb|Pepe|2019|p=30|Ref=pepe_2019}}|group="Note"}} Dungeon, written in 1975 or 1976, pedit5, created in 1975,{{#tag:ref|Pedit5 was later deleted and lost to history.|group="Note"}} and dnd, also from 1975.{{cite web|last=Martell|first=Carey|title=Interview with the creators of dnd (PLATO)|url=http://www.rpgfanatic.net/advanced_game_wiki_database.html?p=news&nrid=5049&game=dnd|date=2012-04-26|work=RPG Fanatic|publisher=Martell Brothers Studios, LLC|access-date=May 5, 2012}} These early games were inspired by pen-and-paper role-playing games, particularly Dungeons & Dragons, which was first published in 1974, and J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings trilogy.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007a|p=1|Ref=barton_3623}} Some of the first graphical computer RPGs (CRPGs) after pedit5 and dnd included orthanc (1978),{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|pp=33–34|Ref=barton_ddesktops}} which was named after Saruman's tower in Lord of the Rings, avathar (1979), later renamed avatar, oubliette (1977),{{Cite book|last=Bartle|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Bartle|title=Designing Virtual Worlds|work= New Riders|year=2003|isbn=0-13-101816-7|page=741|quote=Jim Schwaiger's 1977 game Oubliette (inspired by Dungeons & Dragons and Chuck Miller's earlier multiplayer game, Mines of Moria) had a first-person point of view and used line graphics to render the scene ahead. [...] In late 1979, the first ever fully functional graphical virtual world was released: Avatar. Written by a group of students to out-do Oubliette, it was to become the most successful PLATO game ever—it accounted for 6% of all the hours spent on the system between September 1978 and May 1985.|title-link=Designing Virtual Worlds}} named after the French word for "dungeon",{{Harvnb|King|Borland|2003|p=28|Ref=borlanddd}} moria (1975),{{cite web |first=Matt |last=Barton |url=http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1396 |title=Fun with PLATO |work=Armchair Arcade |date=2007-07-03 |access-date=September 8, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120234946/http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1396 |archive-date=November 20, 2017 |url-status=dead }} dungeons of degorath, baradur, emprise, bnd, sorcery, and dndworld.{{#tag:ref|Note the lower-case letters, as the PLATO mainframe's file system was case-insensitive.|group="Note"}} All of these were developed and became popular on the PLATO system during the late 1970s, in large part due to PLATO's speed, fast graphics, and large number of players with access to its nationwide network of terminals. PLATO was a mainframe system that supported multiple users and allowed them to play simultaneously, a feature not commonly available to owners of home personal computer systems at the time.{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|pp=37–38|Ref=barton_ddesktops}} These were followed by games on other platforms, such as Temple of Apshai, written in 1979 for the TRS-80 and followed by two add-ons; Akalabeth: World of Doom (1980), which gave rise to the well-known Ultima series;{{Harvnb|Barton|2007a|p=2|Ref=barton_3623}} Wizardry (1981), and Sword of Fargoal (1982). Games of this era were also influenced by text adventures such as Colossal Cave Adventure (1976) and Zork (1976); early MUDs, tabletop wargames such as Chainmail (1971), and sports games such as Strat-O-Matic.{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|p=12|Ref=barton_ddesktops}}{{#tag:ref|Chainmail was the official combat handbook for the first edition of Dungeons & Dragons.{{Harvnb|Harris|2009|p=1|Ref=gama_20ess}}|group="Note"}}
{{quote box|align=right|width=35%|quote=Gary Gygax [co-creator of Dungeons & Dragons] was pivotal to the development of the gaming industry, and to my own career. (...) Millions upon millions of players around the world live and play in imaginary worlds built on the back of what Gary first conceived.|author=Richard Garriott, following Gygax's death in 2008}}
The popular dungeon crawler Rogue was developed in 1980, for Unix-based systems, by two students at Berkeley. It used ASCII graphics, and featured a deep system of gameplay and a multitude of randomly generated items and locations. Rogue was later distributed as free software with the BSD operating system, and was followed by an entire genre of "roguelikes" that were inspired by and emulated the original game's mechanics, and by later titles such as Diablo. Later examples of roguelikes include Angband (1990), Ancient Domains of Mystery (1993) and Linley's Dungeon Crawl (1997).{{cite web |last=Harris |first=John |title=COLUMN: @Play: Angband – At Last! |work=GameSetWatch |publisher=UBM TechWeb |date=2008-01-19 |url=http://www.gamesetwatch.com/2008/01/play_angband_at_last.php |access-date=August 4, 2012 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924020726/http://www.gamesetwatch.com/2008/01/play_angband_at_last.php |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Adam |title=Roguelike Resurrection: ADOM Seeks Funding |website=Rock Paper Shotgun |date=2012-07-03 |url=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/tag/adom/ |access-date=August 4, 2012 |archive-date=January 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107205522/https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/tag/adom/ |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |last=John |first=Harris |title=COLUMN: @Play: Crawlapalooza, Part 3: Beogh Liturgical School For Orcs |work=GameSetWatch |publisher=UBM TechWeb |date=2010-02-18 |url=http://www.gamesetwatch.com/2010/02/column_play_crawlapalooza_part_2.php |access-date=August 4, 2012 |archive-date=March 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323181631/http://www.gamesetwatch.com/2010/02/column_play_crawlapalooza_part_2.php |url-status=dead }}
The keyboard was frequently the only input supported by these games, and their graphics were simple and often monochromatic. Some titles, like Rogue, represented objects through text characters, such as '@' for the main character and 'Z' for zombies.{{#tag:ref|Certain games, such as avatar, moria, and oubliette experimented with a first-person view, while others, such as orthanc and Rogue, featured an overhead view with branching corridors more reminiscent of table-top RPGs.|group="Note"}} No single game featured all of the characteristics expected in a modern CRPG, such as exploration of subterranean dungeons, use of weapons and items, "leveling up" and quest completion, but it is possible to see the evolution of these features during this era and that which followed.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007a|p=5|Ref=barton_3623}}
=''Ultima'' and ''Wizardry'' (early–mid-1980s)=
File:BOEcombat1.png (1997).]]
Although simplified for use with the console gamepad, many innovations of the early Ultimas—in particular Ultima III: Exodus (1983) by developer Richard Garriott—became standard among later RPGs in both the personal computer and console markets. These ideas included the use of tiled graphics and party-based combat, a mix of fantasy and science-fiction elements, and time travel.{{#tag:ref|Some of these elements were inspired by Wizardry, specifically the party-based system.{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|p=76|Ref=barton_ddesktops}}|group="Note"}} The game's written narrative was an innovative feature that allowed it to convey a larger story than was found in the minimal plots common at the time. Most games, including Garriott's own Akalabeth, focused primarily on basic gameplay mechanics like combat, and paid little attention to story and narrative.
Ultima III is considered by many to have been the first modern CRPG.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007a|p=4|Ref=barton_3623}} It was originally published for the Apple II, but was ported to many other platforms and influenced the development of later titles,{{Harvnb|King|Borland|2003|Ref=borlanddd}} including such console RPGs as Excalibur (1983) and Dragon Quest (1986).{{cite web|first=Andrew|last=Vestal|title=The History of Console RPGs|work=GameSpot|publisher=CBS Interactive Inc.|date=1998-11-02|url=http://www.gamespot.com/features/vgs/universal/rpg_hs/index.html|access-date=September 10, 2009 |ref=gspot_consolehist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608123714/http://www.gamespot.com/features/vgs/universal/rpg_hs/|archive-date=2009-06-08}}
Garriott introduced a system of chivalry and code of conduct in Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar (1985) that persisted throughout later Ultimas. The player's Avatar tackles such problems as fundamentalism, racism and xenophobia, and based on his or her actions is tested periodically in ways that are sometimes obvious and sometimes unseen.{{Harvnb|King|Borland|2003|pp=72–78|Ref=borlanddd}} This code of conduct was in part a response to the efforts among some Christian groups to mitigate the rising popularity of Dungeons & Dragons. Continuing until Ultima IX: Ascension (1999), it covered a range of virtues that included compassion, justice, humility and honor. This system of morals and ethics was unique at the time, as other video games allowed players to be lauded as "heroes" by the game worlds' denizens, no matter what the player's actions had been. In Ultima IV, on the other hand, players were forced to consider the moral consequences of their actions. According to Garriott, Ultima was now "more than a mere fantasy escape. It provided a world with a framework of deeper meaning[,] a level of detail[, and] diversity of interaction[,] that is rarely attempted." "I thought people might completely reject this game because some folks play just to kill, kill, kill. To succeed in this game, you had to radically change the way you'd ever played a game before."
The Wizardry series was created for the Apple II at roughly the same time, in 1981. Wizardry featured a 3D, first-person view, an intuitive interface, party-based combat, and pre-constructed levels that encouraged players to draw their own maps. It allowed players to import characters from previous games, albeit with reduced experience levels, and introduced a moral alignment feature that limited the areas players could visit. The series was extremely difficult when compared to other RPGs of the time,{{Harvnb|Barton|2007b|p=7|Ref=barton_1706}} possibly because they were modeled after pen-and-paper role-playing games of similar difficulty. Wizardry IV (1986) in particular is considered one of the most difficult CRPGs ever created. It is unique in that the player controls the villain of the first game in an attempt to escape his prison dungeon and gain freedom in the above world. Unlike Ultima, which evolved with each installment, the Wizardry series retained and refined the same style and core mechanics over time, and improved only its graphics and level design as the years progressed.
By June 1982, Temple of Apshai had sold 30,000 copies, Wizardry 24,000 copies, and Ultima 20,000.{{citation|magazine=Computer Gaming World|url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1982&pub=2&id=6 | date=September–October 1982 |volume=2|issue=5|page=2|title=List of Top Sellers}}{{cite web | url=http://www.filfre.net/2014/06/of-wizards-and-bards/ | title=Of Wizards and Bards | work=The Digital Antiquarian | date=2014-06-25 | access-date=11 July 2014 | author=Maher, Jimmy}}{{cite web | url=http://www.filfre.net/2016/03/opening-the-gold-box-part-3-from-tabletop-to-desktop/ | title=Opening the Gold Box, Part 3: From Tabletop to Desktop | publisher=The Digital Antiquarian | date=2016-03-18 | access-date=19 March 2016 | author=Maher, Jimmy}} Garriott even discussed collaborating with Wizardry{{'}}s Andrew C. Greenberg on "the ultimate fantasy role-playing game".{{cite news | url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1983&pub=6&id=14 | title=Profiles in Programming / Lord British | work=Softline | date=Nov–Dec 1983 | access-date=29 July 2014 | author=Durkee, David | page=26}} The first Wizardry outsold (more than 200,000 copies sold in its first three years) the first Ultima and received better reviews, but over time Ultima became more popular by improving its technology and making games more friendly, while Wizardry required new players to play the first game before its first two sequels, and the very difficult Wizardry IV sold poorly.{{r|maher20140625}}
Telengard, a BASIC port of the earlier PDP-10 game DND,{{cite web|first=Matt|last=Barton|url=http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1366|title=Interview with Daniel M. Lawrence, CRPG Pioneer and Author of Telengard|work=Armchair Arcade|date=2007-06-22|access-date=September 7, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213225551/http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1366|archive-date=February 13, 2012|url-status=dead}} and Dungeons of Daggorath, both released in 1982, introduced real-time gameplay. Earlier dungeon crawl games had used turn-based movement, in which the enemies only moved when the adventuring party did.{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|pp=234–5|Ref=barton_ddesktops}} Tunnels of Doom, produced the same year, introduced separate screens for exploration and combat. Dragon Quest is most commonly claimed as the first role-playing video game produced for a console, though journalist Joe Fielder cites the earlier Dragonstomper.{{Harvnb|Vestal|1998a|p="The First Console RPG"|Ref=gspot_consolehist}} "A devoted gamer could make a decent case for either of these Atari titles founding the RPG genre; nevertheless, there's no denying that Dragon Quest was the primary catalyst for the Japanese console RPG industry. And Japan is where the vast majority of console RPGs come from, to this day. Influenced by the popular PC RPGs of the day (most notably Ultima), both Excalibur and Dragon Quest "stripped down" the statistics while keeping features that can be found even in today's most technologically advanced titles. An RPG just wouldn't be complete, in many gamers' eyes, without a medieval setting, hit points, random enemy encounters, and endless supplies of gold. (...) The rise of the Japanese RPG as a dominant gaming genre and Nintendo's NES as the dominant console platform were closely intertwined."
Golden Age (late 1980s–early 1990s)
File:DOTGv0.31screenshot.png.]]
The Might and Magic series, highly popular in the 1980s and onward, began with the 1986 release of Might and Magic Book One: The Secret of the Inner Sanctum for the Apple II. It encompasses a total of ten games, the most recent of which was released in 2014, as well as the popular turn-based strategy series Heroes of Might and Magic. The series featured a mix of complex statistics, large numbers of weapons and spells, and enormous worlds in which to play.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007b|p=8|Ref=barton_1706}} It was among the longest-lived CRPG series, alongside Ultima and Wizardry, It is also notable for making race and gender an important aspect of gameplay.
Strategic Simulations, Inc.'s series of "Gold Box" CRPGs, which began in 1988 with Pool of Radiance for the Apple II and Commodore 64,{{cite journal |journal=G.M. |publisher=Croftward |issue=1 |volume=1 |date=September 1988 |pages=18–20 |title=Advanced Dungeons & Dragons}} was the first widely successful official video game adaptation of TSR's Advanced Dungeons & Dragons license and rules. These games featured a first-person display for movement and exploration, combined with an overhead tactical display for combat that tried to model D&D
File:Dungeon-craft-screenshot-collage.png scene for games such as The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, RPG construction kits such as Forgotten Realms: Unlimited Adventures (FRUA) allowed users to create and share their own custom modules online. Pictured here is Dungeon Craft, a modern open source FRUA clone.]]
SSI had already published many RPGs based on original properties. Its "hardcore" RPG Wizard's Crown (1985) presaged the Gold Box games' design, with eight-character parties, a skill-based experience system, highly detailed combat mechanics, dozens of commands, injuries and bleeding, and strengths and weaknesses versus individual weapon classes.{{r|maher20160318}} The game did not, however, offer much in terms of role-playing or narrative beyond buying, selling and killing.{{Cite magazine|date=September–October 1986|author=Scorpia|magazine=Computer Gaming World|publisher=Ziff Davis|title=Wizard's Crown |pages=24–25}} Wizard's Crown was followed by The Eternal Dagger in 1987, a similar game that removed some of its predecessor's more complicated elements.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007b|p=3|Ref=barton_1706}}
Interplay Productions developed a string of hits in the form of The Bard's Tale (1985) and its sequels under publisher Electronic Arts, originally for the Apple II and Commodore 64. The series became the first outside Wizardry to challenge Ultima{{'}}s sales. It combined colorful graphics with a clean interface and simple rules, and was one of the first CRPG series to reach a mainstream audience. It spawned a series of novels by authors such as Mercedes Lackey, something that arguably did not occur again until the release of Diablo in 1997.{{cite web |last=Crigger |first=Lara |title=Chasing D&D: A History of RPGs |work=1UP.com |publisher=IGN Entertainment Games |year=2008 |url=http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3168091 |access-date=November 9, 2010 }}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The series allowed players to explore cities in detail, at a time when many games relegated them to simple menu screens with "buy"/"sell" options. A construction set released in 1991 allowed players to create their own games, and Interplay re-used the engine in its 1988 post-apocalyptic CRPG Wasteland.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007b|p=2|Ref=barton_1706}}
FTL Games' Dungeon Master (1987) for the Atari ST introduced several user-interface innovations, such as direct manipulation of objects and the environment using the mouse, and popularized mouse-driven interfaces for computer RPGs. Unusually for the era, it features a real-time, first-person viewpoint, now common in first-person shooters and more recent games such as The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007b|p=6|Ref=barton_1706}} The game's real-time combat elements were akin to Active Time Battle.{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|p=236|Ref=barton_ddesktops}} The game's complex magic system used runes that could be combined in specific sequences to create magical spells. These sequences were not detailed in the game manual, instead players were required to discover them through trial and error. Sequels followed in 1989 and 1993. The game's first-person, real-time mechanics were copied in SSI's "Black Box" series, from Eye of the Beholder (1990) onward. Dungeon Master sold 40,000 copies in its first year of release,{{cite journal |last=Petersen |first=Sandy |title=Eye of the Monitor |journal=Dragon; TSR, Inc. |issue=#200 |page=73 |location=Lake Geneva, Wisconsin |date=December 1993}} and became the best-selling Atari ST title.{{cite web |last=Barton |first=Matt |title=Review: FTL's "Dungeon Master" (1987) |work=Armchair Arcade |date=2006-11-24 |url=http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1009 |access-date=April 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217052042/http://armchairarcade.com/neo/node/1009 |archive-date=December 17, 2011 |url-status=dead }}
Times of Lore, designed by Chris Roberts and released by Origin Systems in 1988, introduced the action-adventure and action role-playing game formula of console titles such as The Legend of Zelda to the American computer RPG market.{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|pp=182 & 212|Ref=barton_ddesktops}}{{cite magazine|magazine=Computer Gaming World|issue=68|date=February 1990|pages=34 & 38|title=The Screen Says It All (Interface)}} Times of Lore and Dungeon Master went on to directly inspire several later Origin Systems titles, including Bad Blood (1990),{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|p=183|Ref=barton_ddesktops}} Ultima VI: The False Prophet (1990){{cite web|url=http://www.mobygames.com/developer/sheet/view/developerId,6555/|title=Chris Roberts|publisher=MobyGames}}{{cite book|title=The Official Book Of Ultima: Second Edition|author=Shay Addams|others=Richard Garriott (introduction)|year=1992|pages=83–4|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheOfficialBookOfUltima/The-Official-Book-of-Ultima#page/n95/mode/2up|publisher=Compute Publications International}} and Ultima VII (1992).{{Harvnb|Barton|2009|p=347|Ref=vintage_log}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.filfre.net/2017/04/ultima-vi/|title=Ultima VI|last=Maher|first=Jimmy|date=2017-04-07|website=The Digital Antiquarian}} Ultima VI made some major changes to the Ultima formula, including a constant-scale open world (replacing the unscaled overworld of earlier Ultima titles) and a point & click interface.
{{quote box|align=right|width=35%|quote=Ultima VII is still my favorite game. It's hard not to look at Oblivion and see the Ultima influence.|author=Todd Howard, executive producer of the Elder Scrolls series}}
The Ultima series went on to span over a dozen titles, including the spin-off series Worlds of Ultima (1990–1991) and Ultima Underworld (1992–1993), and the multiplayer online series, Ultima Online (1997). Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss (1992) offered players a full 360 degree view of the game world. Ultima VII: The Black Gate (1992) was the first real-time title in the series, and was fully playable with the computer mouse. Garriott later left Origin Systems and Electronic Arts to form Destination Games, under publisher NCsoft. He was involved with a number of NCsoft's MMORPGs, including Lineage (1998) and Tabula Rasa (2007), before his 2009 departure.
The Wizardry series' most famous titles did not appear until years after its debut,{{Harvnb|Barton|2007b|p=1|Ref=barton_1706}} and installments were published as recently as 2001. Wizardry VII (1992) has been said to possess one of the best character class systems of any CRPG.{{cite web|last=Kaiser|first=Rowan|title=Best class system in RPGs belongs to Wizardry VII|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|date=2012-06-22|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2012/06/22/best-class-system-in-rpgs-belongs-to-wizardry-vii/|access-date=June 26, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128184334/http://www.joystiq.com/2012/06/22/best-class-system-in-rpgs-belongs-to-wizardry-vii/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}}
Quest for Glory (1989) was produced by Sierra Entertainment, known for point-and-click adventure games, and combined CRPG and adventure-game mechanics into a unique, genre-bending mix. The series featured involved stories, complex puzzles, and arcade-like combat. The last of its five titles was released in 1998. It was originally conceived as a tetralogy built around the themes of the four cardinal directions, the four classical elements, the four seasons and the four mythologies. The designers felt that the series' storyline made Shadows of Darkness too difficult, and so inserted a fifth game, Wages of War, into the canon and renumbered the series.{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=Lori |author2=Cole, Corey |journal=Sierra Entertainment; Interaction |date=Fall 1992}}
Legends of Valour (1992) provided an early example of open-world, non-linear gameplay in an RPG. It was cited as an influence on The Elder Scrolls series.
Sierra's Betrayal at Krondor (1993) was based upon author Raymond E. Feist's Midkemia setting. It featured turn-based, semi-tactical combat, a skill-based experience system, and a magic system similar to that of Dungeon Master, but suffered due to outdated, polygonal graphics. Feist was heavily consulted during development, and later created his own novelization based upon the game. The sequel Betrayal in Antara (1997) re-used the first game's engine but—as Sierra had lost its license for Krondor—was set in a different universe. Return to Krondor (1998) used a new game engine, but returned to Feist's setting.
Westwood Studios's Lands of Lore series (1993) featured a story-based approach to RPG design. It served as a stylistic "mirror" to Japanese RPGs of the time, with brightly colored, cheerful graphics, a simple combat system borrowed from Dungeon Master, and a semi-linear story. These elements contrasted with Western RPGs' stereotype as dark, gritty and rules-centric games.{{cite web|last=Kaiser|first=Rowan|title=East Is West: How Two Classic RPGs Prove the Stereotypes False|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|date=2012-02-16|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2012/02/16/east-is-west-how-two-classic-rpgs-prove-the-stereotypes-false/|access-date=April 11, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128182859/http://www.joystiq.com/2012/02/16/east-is-west-how-two-classic-rpgs-prove-the-stereotypes-false/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}}
Decline (mid-1990s)
{{quote box|align=right|width=35%|quote=Probably one of the saddest sights over the last couple of years has been the rapid decline in computer role-playing games. [...] The emphasis [among newer CRPGs, such as Ultima VIII: Pagan] is on bigger on-screen characters with more realistic animation in a smaller game world. [...] This seems to be a part of a design philosophy which says that computer gamers don't want to play the big games any longer.|source=Computer Gaming World, March 1994{{Cite magazine |date=March 1994 |title=The FX Of Computer Entertainment |url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1994&pub=2&id=116 |magazine=Computer Gaming World |page=18}}}}
{{quote box|align=right|width=35%|quote=There was this thought that maybe, like adventure games, RPGs were going to die out, too. [...] I wasn't the only developer that thought I'd coded myself into a corner.|author=Brenda Brathwaite, former Wizardry developer}}
In the mid-1990s, developers of Western RPGs lost their ability to keep up with hardware advances; RPGs had previously been at or near the forefront of gaming technology, but the improved computer graphics and increased storage space facilitated by CD-ROM technology created expectations that developers struggled to meet.{{cite web|last=Kaiser|first=Rowan|title=The year role-playing games broke|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|date=2012-03-12|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2012/03/12/the-year-role-playing-games-broke/|access-date=April 11, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128183123/http://www.joystiq.com/2012/03/12/the-year-role-playing-games-broke/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}}{{cite web|last=Kaiser|first=Rowan|title=State of the Western RPG|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|date=2012-01-13|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2012/01/13/state-of-the-western-rpg/|access-date=April 16, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128182559/http://www.joystiq.com/2012/01/13/state-of-the-western-rpg/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}} This caused lengthy delays between releases, and closures among less popular franchises. Scorpia in 1994 said that, "Nothing has come along to equal or exceed" Ultima IV ten years later. She wondered if "maybe nothing ever will. I hope that's not the case, though, because that would mean the CRPG has stagnated".{{Cite magazine |author=Scorpia |date=August 1994 |title=Scorpia The Avatar |department=Scorpia's Sting |url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1994&pub=2&id=121 |magazine=Computer Gaming World |pages=29–33}} Computer Games later wrote that "[d]uring the now-infamous mid-nineties CRPG lull, the toughest dungeons were the bottomless pits of failed designs, and the fiercest beasts the deadly-dull CRPG releases".{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021223193626/http://www.cdmag.com/articles/020/148/swordc_review.html |url=http://www.cdmag.com/articles/020/148/swordc_review.html |title=Khalid and Jaheira's Excellent Adventure Part II |archive-date=December 23, 2002 |date=June 18, 1999 |last=Walker |first=Mike |work=Computer Games Magazine |access-date=April 19, 2010 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}
Increases in development budgets and team sizes meant that sequels took three or more years to be released, instead of the almost-yearly releases seen in SSI's Gold Box series. The growth of development teams increased the likelihood that software bugs would appear, as code produced by programmers working in different teams was merged into a whole.{{#tag:ref|Several titles were affected by this, ruining what might have otherwise been impressive efforts.|group="Note"}} A lack of technical standards among hardware manufacturers forced developers to support each manufacturer's implementation, or risk losing players.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007c|p=1|Ref=barton_1571}}
Further, competition arose from other genres. Players turned away from RPGs, flight simulators and adventure games in favor of action-oriented titles, such as first-person shooters and real-time strategy games. Later RPGs would draw influences from action genres,{{#tag:ref|For instance, Baldur's Gate
North American computer RPGs (late 1990s)
=''Diablo'' and action RPGs=
{{see also|Action role-playing game}}
The dark fantasy-themed RPG Diablo was released by Blizzard Entertainment on December 31, 1996, in the midst of a stagnant PC RPG market.{{cite web|last=Nguyen|first=Thierry|title=How Diablo Saved the Computer RPG|work=1UP.com|publisher=IGN Entertainment Games|date=2012-01-21|url=http://www.1up.com/features/how-diablo-saved-computer-rpg|access-date=March 11, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509141846/http://www.1up.com/features/how-diablo-saved-computer-rpg|archive-date=May 9, 2012|df=mdy-all}} Diablo is set in the fictional kingdom of Khanduras, in the world of Sanctuary, and has the player take control of a lone hero who battles to rid the world of Diablo, the Lord of Terror. Its development was influenced by Moria and Angband,{{cite web|first=Russ|last=Pitts|url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_48/289-Secret-Sauce-The-Rise-of-Blizzard|title=Secret Sauce: The Rise of Blizzard|work=The Escapist|publisher=Themis Media|date=2006-06-06|access-date=July 8, 2012|archive-date=February 11, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211045257/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_48/289-Secret-Sauce-The-Rise-of-Blizzard|url-status=dead}} and Diablo resembles a roguelike due to its focus on dungeon crawling, and its procedurally generated levels. Major differences include the commercial quality of the game's graphics, its simplified character development, and its fast, real-time action.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007c|p=7|Ref=barton_1571}} A factor in Diablo
Action RPGs typically give each player real-time control of a single character. Combat and action are emphasized, while plot and character interaction are kept to a minimum, a formula referred to as "the Fight, Loot, and Level cycle".{{cite web|last=Bycer|first=Josh|title=The Devil Is in the Details of Action RPGs – Part One: The Logistics of Loot|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2012-02-08|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/the-devil-is-in-the-details-of-action-rpgs---part-one-the-logistics-of-loot|access-date=July 11, 2012}} The inclusion of any content beyond leveling up and killing enemies becomes a challenge in these "hack and slash" games, because the sheer number of items, locations and monsters makes it difficult to design an encounter that is unique and works regardless of how a character has been customized. On the other hand, a game that omits technical depth can seem overly streamlined. The result in either case is a repetitive experience that does not feel tailored to the player.
RPGs can suffer in the area of exploration. Traditional RPGs encourage exploration of every detail of the game world, and provide for a more organic experience in which NPCs are distributed according to the internal logic of the game world or plot.{{cite web|last=Cooney|first=Glen|title=Planescape: Torment and the Evolution of the RPG|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2012-02-16|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/planescape-torment-and-the-evolution-of-the-rpg|access-date=May 26, 2012}} Action games reward players for quick movement from location to location, and tend to ensure that no obstacles occur along the way. Games such as Mass Effect streamline the player's movements across the game world by indicating which NPCs can be interacted with, and by making it easier for players to find locations and shopkeepers who can exchange items for money or goods.{{#tag:ref|There is debate as to whether games like BioWare's Mass Effect (2007) constitute action RPGs as opposed to more traditional RPGs,{{cite web|last=Remo|first=Chris|title=Analysis: Mass Effect 2's Surprising Genre Experiment|work= Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2010-01-29|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/26955/Analysis_Mass_Effect_2s_Surprising_Genre_Experiment.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131015713/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/26955/Analysis_Mass_Effect_2s_Surprising_Genre_Experiment.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 31, 2010|access-date=July 11, 2011}} or whether they can be considered RPGs at all due to the amount of streamlining.{{cite web|title=Escapist Podcast : 035: What Defines An RPG & More Mass Effect|work=The Escapist|publisher=Themis Media|date=2012-03-02|url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/videos/view/escapist-podcast/5431-035-What-Defines-An-RPG-More-Mass-Effect|access-date=April 26, 2012|archive-date=January 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122180714/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/videos/view/escapist-podcast/5431-035-What-Defines-An-RPG-More-Mass-Effect|url-status=dead}} The sequels in particular pushed more in the direction of action games.|group="Note"}} Some of the best characteristics of RPGs can be lost when these road blocks are eliminated in the name of streamlining the player's experience.
One action RPG which overcame these limitations was the FPS/RPG hybrid Deus Ex (2000), designed by Warren Spector. This cyberpunk spy thriller offered multiple solutions to problems through intricately-layered dialogue choices, a deep skill tree, and hand-crafted environments.{{cite web|last=Bailey |first=Kat |title=Hack and Slash: What Makes a Good Action RPG? |work=1UP.com |publisher=IGN Entertainment Games |date=2010-05-18 |url=http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId=9030743 |access-date=July 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110629035402/http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId=9030743 |archive-date=June 29, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} Players were challenged to act in-character through dialog choices appropriate to his or her chosen role, and by intelligent use of the surrounding environment. This produced a unique experience that was tailored to each player. According to Spector, the game's dialogue choices were inspired by the console role-playing game, Suikoden (1995).{{cite web|url=http://www.siliconera.com/2012/11/10/how-suikoden-influenced-deus-ex-and-epic-mickey/|website=Siliconera|title=How Suikoden Influenced Deus Ex And Epic Mickey|date=November 10, 2012|author=Ishaan|access-date=July 4, 2015}}
Diablo was followed by the Diablo: Hellfire expansion pack in 1997, and a sequel, Diablo II, in 2000. Diablo II received its own expansion, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, in 2001. Diablo, Diablo II, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction and the Diablo II strategy guide were bundled together in stores as parts of the Diablo Battle Chest; and appeared on the NPD Group's top 10 PC games sales list as recently as 2010.{{cite web|author=Stephany Nunneley |url=http://www.vg247.com/2010/08/05/activision-blizzard-q2-financials-net-revenue-comes-in-at-967-million/ |title=Blog Archive » Activision Blizzard Q2 financials: Net revenue comes in at $967 million |website=VG247 |date=August 5, 2010 |access-date=September 15, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004040715/http://www.vg247.com/2010/08/05/activision-blizzard-q2-financials-net-revenue-comes-in-at-967-million/ |archive-date=October 4, 2010 }} A third game, Diablo III, was announced on June 28, 2008, and released on May 15, 2012.{{cite press release|url=http://www.blizzard.com/us/press/080628.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629074855/http://www.blizzard.com/us/press/080628.html|archive-date=2008-06-29|title=Diablo III Unveiled|date=2008-06-28|access-date=June 29, 2008 |publisher=Blizzard Entertainment}}{{cite press release|title=Diablo III Launching May 15– Digital Pre-Sales NOW OPEN|url=http://battle.net/d3/en/blog/4612389/Diablo_III_Launching_May_15_%E2%80%93_Digital_Pre-Sales_NOW_OPEN-3_15_2012|publisher=Blizzard Entertainment|date=2012-03-15|access-date=May 25, 2012}} Examples of "Diablo clones" include Fate (2005), Sacred (2004), Torchlight (2009), Din's Curse (2011), Hellgate: London (2007) and Path of Exile (2013).{{cite web | url =https://www.gamesradar.com/path-exile-diablo-ii-sequel-youve-always-wanted/ | title =Path of Exile is the Diablo II sequel you've always wanted | last =Sullivan | first =Lucas | date =January 23, 2013 | website =GamesRadar | publisher =Future US Inc | access-date =February 21, 2021}}{{#tag:ref|Hellgate: London was developed by a team headed by former Blizzard employees, some of whom had participated in the development of the Diablo series.{{cite press release|url=http://www.bluesnews.com/a/686|title=Flagship Studios Opens with a Splash|publisher=Blue's News|date=2003-11-22|access-date=July 16, 2008}}|group="Note"}} Like Diablo and Rogue before them, Torchlight, Din
=Interplay, BioWare and Black Isle Studios=
File:Rpg-project 0.64a shot58.jpg isometric fantasy RPG Tales of Trolls & Treasures.]]
Interplay, now known as Interplay Entertainment and a publisher in its own right, produced several late 1990s RPG titles through two new developers, Black Isle Studios and BioWare. Black Isle released the groundbreaking Fallout (1997) which, reminiscent of Interplay's earlier Wasteland, was set in an alternate history future America following a nuclear holocaust.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007b|p=5|Ref=barton_1706}} "Probably the most famous of all the post-apocalyptic CRPGs, Fallout, can trace its roots back to Interplay's Wasteland... (...) It's more than a testament to the game's enduring legacy that the best-selling Fallout, released in 1997, is in many ways little more than a graphical revamp of the older engine." One of the few successful late-1990 video game RPGs not set in a swords-and-sorcery environment, Fallout was notable for its open-ended and largely nonlinear gameplay and quest system, tongue-in-cheek humor, and pervasive sense of style.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007c|p=8|Ref=barton_1571}} "Therefore, there's really nothing surprising about Interplay's breakthrough success with Fallout, a turn-based isometric game set in a post-apocalyptic wasteland. (...) If I had to sum up Fallout's appeal in one word, it'd be "style." The governing aesthetic is a surreal mix of cheerfully morbid 1950s Cold War imagery and movies like Mad Max, Planet of the Apes, and Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb. (...) Furthermore, the aesthetics run all the way through the game, including the interface." Players were afforded numerous moral choices to shape the game world based on how NPCs might react to the player, much like the original Ultimas. Fallout was nearly as influential on post-crash RPGs as Ultima was on Golden Age RPGs, and is considered by some to be the first "modern" CRPG.{{cite web|last=Kaiser|first=Rowan|title=Fallout: The first modern role-playing game|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|date=2012-03-16|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2012/03/16/fallout-the-first-modern-role-playing-game|access-date=April 16, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128183147/http://www.joystiq.com/2012/03/16/fallout-the-first-modern-role-playing-game/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}} Black Isle produced a sequel, Fallout 2, co-designed by Chris Avellone in 1998. Third-party developer Micro Forté created Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel, a tactical RPG based on the franchise, which was published in 2001 under Interplay's strategy division 14 Degrees East.
BioWare's Baldur's Gate series was no less important, being the most significant D&D series to be released since the Gold Box era.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007c|p=9|Ref=barton_1571}} "The development team that would finally succeed in winning players back to the Forgotten Realms would not be SSI, Interplay, or Sierra, but rather a trio of Canadian medical doctors turned game developers: BioWare." The games created the most accurate and in-depth D&D simulation to date, and featured support for up to six players in cooperative mode.{{cite web|url=http://pc.ign.com/articles/159/159942p1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020404000652/http://pc.ign.com/articles/159/159942p1.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 4, 2002|title=Baldur's Gate – PC Review at IGN|work=IGN|date=1999-01-18|access-date=September 5, 2010|quote=Baldur's Gate is, simply put, the best computer representation of Dungeons and Dragons ever made. (...) The entire game is played exactly like a true game of AD&D with savings throws, armor classes and to-hit rolls and combat range and speed all computed with every scrap the party gets into. The thing that makes this all so impressive (and very different from SSI's Gold Box series) is that it all goes on behind the scenes where it belongs.}} Baldur
{{quote box|align=left|width=35%|quote=I think there are a few reasons for Fallout
Black Isle's games during this time period often shared engines to cut down on development time and costs, and most feature an overhead axonometrically projected third-person interface. Their titles, apart from the two Fallout games, used various versions of the Infinity Engine that had been developed by BioWare for Baldur's Gate. Interplay's collapse resulted in the shutdown of Black Isle and the cancellation of the third games in both the Fallout and Baldur's Gate series, as well as of an original title, Torn.{{cite web|first=Jon "Buck"|last=Birnbaum|url=http://www.gamebanshee.com/interviews/theblackhound1.php|title=The Black Hound Interview|work=GameBanshee.com|date=2007-02-13|access-date=September 15, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100205122510/http://gamebanshee.com/interviews/theblackhound1.php|archive-date=February 5, 2010|df=mdy-all}}{{cite web |last=Walker |first=Trey |date=2001-03-22 |title=Black Isle announces Torn|url=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/torn/news.html?page=1&sid=2700191 |work=GameSpot|publisher=CBS Interactive Inc.|access-date=July 20, 2006}}{{cite web |last=Chan |first=Leo |date=2001-07-27 |title=Black Isle's TORN Cancelled|url=http://www.neoseeker.com/news/1169-black-isles-torn-cancelled/ |work=Neoseeker |publisher=Neo Era Media Inc.|access-date=July 20, 2006}} Instead, they published a trio of console-only action RPGs, Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance (2001), Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance II (2004), and Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel (2004). One of the last CRPGs released before Interplay went defunct was the poorly-received Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader (2003) by developer Reflexive Entertainment,{{cite web|url=https://www.metacritic.com/game/lionheart-legacy-of-the-crusader/critic-reviews/?platform=pc|title=Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader Critic Reviews for PC at|publisher=Metacritic|date=2003-08-13|access-date=September 8, 2010}} notable for using the SPECIAL system introduced by Fallout.{{cite web|first=Joe|last=Dodson|url=http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/pc/lionheart|title=Lionheart Review for the PC|work=Game Revolution|publisher=AtomicOnline, LLC.|date=2010-08-26|access-date=September 13, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725021828/http://www.gamerevolution.com/review/pc/lionheart|archive-date=July 25, 2008|url-status=dead}}
Mainstream success (2000s–present)
{{Update|section|date=February 2021}}
File:Sintel The Game Docks.png, real-time first- and third-person polygonal graphics became commonplace in CRPGs. Pictured here is Sintel The Game.]]
The new century saw an increasing number of multi-platform releases. The move to 3D game engines, along with constant improvements in graphic quality, led to progressively more detailed and realistic game worlds.{{cite web|last=Wilson|first=Jason|title=The Future of Single-Player RPGs|work=1UP.com|publisher=IGN Entertainment Games|date=2009-12-30|url=http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3176786|access-date=October 2, 2010}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{cite web |last=Gorden |first=Seth |title=Roles & Action or Dear RPG, Please Respond|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2011-06-15 |url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/roles-action-or-dear-rpg-please-respond|access-date=July 11, 2011 |quote=For the last decade or so, the {{sic|hide=y|over-|arching}} focus I've seen is a push for bigger worlds. This in turn drives the player to explore and try new things. To a great extent, these games contain specific experiences that 8bit predecessors could not deliver in such detail.}}
BioWare produced Neverwinter Nights (2002) for Atari, the first CRPG to fuse the third-edition Dungeons & Dragons rules with a 3D display in which the user could vary the viewing angle and distance. New game content could be generated using the Aurora toolset supplied as part of the game release, and players could share their modules and play cooperatively with friends online. Based in part on experiences while playing Ultima Online, one of the goals during development was to reproduce the feel of a live pen-and-paper RPG experience, complete with a human Dungeon Master.{{cite web|first=Scott|last=Greig|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/2918/postmortem_biowares_neverwinter_.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213175607/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/2918/postmortem_biowares_neverwinter_.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 13, 2007|title=Postmortem: Bioware's Neverwinter Nights|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2002-12-04|access-date=September 25, 2010}} Neverwinter Nights (NWN) was very successful commercially, and spawned three official expansion packs and a sequel developed by Obsidian Entertainment. BioWare later produced the acclaimed Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, which married the d20 system with the Star Wars franchise; as well as the original Jade Empire (2005), Mass Effect (2007–2012) and Dragon Age (2009–2014) series, all which were released for multiple platforms.{{cite web|last=Ransom|first=James|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/01/29/bioware-says-dragon-age-2-to-look-super-hot/|title=BioWare says Dragon Age 2 to look 'super hot'|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|date=2010-01-29|access-date=June 8, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128160239/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/01/29/bioware-says-dragon-age-2-to-look-super-hot/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}}{{cite web|first=Christopher|last=Grant|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/07/08/dragon-age-2-dated-for-march-2011-playable-character-is-a-human/|title=Dragon Age 2 dated for March 2011, playable character is a human named Hawke|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|date=2010-06-07|access-date=July 20, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128162100/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/07/08/dragon-age-2-dated-for-march-2011-playable-character-is-a-human/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}} With the Mass Effect and the Dragon Age titles, Bioware also utilized a save import system where decisions in the earlier games impact the story in the later games.{{Cite web | url=https://www.engadget.com/2009/12/26/mass-effect-2s-save-game-import-features-explained/ | title=Mass Effect 2's save game import features explained}}{{Cite web | url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/old-dragon-age-choices-still-matter-inquisition-thanks-dragon-age-keep/ |title = Dragon Age Keep Lets You Tailor Your World in Inquisition|date = October 30, 2014}}
During the production of Fallout 2, several of Black Isle's key members left the studio to form Troika Games, citing disagreements with the development team structure. The new studio's first title was Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura (2001), an original, nonlinear steampunk-themed RPG with fantasy elements. Several Arcanum designers worked on Fallout, and the two titles share an aesthetic and sense of humor. Arcanum was followed by The Temple of Elemental Evil (2003), based on the Dungeons & Dragons 3.5 Edition rules and set in the Greyhawk universe; and Vampire: The Masquerade – Bloodlines (2004), based on White Wolf's Vampire: The Masquerade. All three games received positive reviews—as well as cult followings— but were criticized for shipping with numerous bugs. Troika's reputation became "Great Ideas. Never Enough Testing", and by 2005 the studio was in financial trouble, no longer able to secure funding for additional titles.{{cite web |last=Buecheler |first=Christopher|title=The Resident Cynic – Eulogy to a Flawed Developer|work=GameSpy|date=2005-03-01|url=http://www.gamespy.com/articles/592/592496p1.html|access-date=July 1, 2012}} Most of the developers left for other studios.{{cite web|last=Hoffman|first=Erin|url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_77/440-The-Rise-and-Fall-of-Troika|title=The Escapist : The Rise and Fall of Troika|work=The Escapist|publisher=Themis Media|date=2006-12-26|access-date=September 6, 2010|archive-date=August 8, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808114153/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_77/440-The-Rise-and-Fall-of-Troika|url-status=dead}}{{Harvnb|Barton|2007c|p=9|Ref=barton_1571}} "A company named Troika scored a triumph in 2001 with Arcanum: Of Steamworks & Magick Obscure, a game published by Sierra that quickly gained a large and devoted cult following. (...) Arcanum has much in common with the Fallout series, no doubt due in part to sharing some key members on the development team."
When Black Isle closed down, several employees formed Obsidian Entertainment, who released Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II – The Sith Lords (2005), a sequel to BioWare's successful Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. Obsidian later created a sequel to another BioWare game: Neverwinter Nights 2 was released on Halloween of 2006, and featured the 3.5 Edition D&D ruleset. It was followed by two expansions and an "adventure pack", in 2007 and 2008. Obsidian Entertainment began development of a role-playing game based on the Alien film franchise in 2006, but it was canceled, along with an original title under the working name of Seven Dwarves.{{cite press release |url=http://www.sega.com/news/?n=1962 |title=SEGA Signs Obsidian Entertainment To Develop Alien Title For Next-generation Systems |work=SEGA Corporation |publisher=SEGA |date=2006-12-13 |access-date=November 1, 2008 |archive-date=April 28, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428071131/http://www.sega.com/news/?n=1962 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|first=Brad|last=Shoemaker|url=http://www.giantbomb.com/news/obsidians-aliens-rpg-officially-finished/1492/|title=Obsidian's Aliens RPG Officially Finished|access-date=June 26, 2009 |date=2009-06-26|work=Giant Bomb|publisher=CBS Interactive Inc.}}{{cite web |first1=Suzie "Kalia" |last1=Ford |url=http://www.warcry.com/articles/view/interviews/devprofiles/4784-Neverwinter-Nights-2-Dev-Profile-Q-A-Kevin-Saunders-NWN2-Lead-Designer |title=Dev Profile Q&A: Kevin Saunders, Lead Designer on NWN2: MotB |work=Warcry Network |publisher=Themis Media |access-date=May 30, 2007 |quote=I was the lead designer on project "New Jersey," which was never announced, and then helped with finishing up NWN2 over its last six months or so. |author2=Massey, Dana |date=2007-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207030250/http://www.warcry.com/articles/view/interviews/devprofiles/4784-Neverwinter-Nights-2-Dev-Profile-Q-A-Kevin-Saunders-NWN2-Lead-Designer |archive-date=December 7, 2008 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }} Obsidian's most recent RPGs are The Outer Worlds (2019),{{Cite web |last=Entertainment |first=Obsidian |title=The Outer Worlds |url=https://www.obsidian.net/games/the-outer-worlds |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=Obsidian |language=en}} a sci-fi game set in an alternate future, released for multiple platforms, and Pillars of Eternity II: Deadfire (2018). The company released Dungeon Siege III on June 17, 2011.{{cite web |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/28977/E3_Square_Enix_Owns_Dungeon_Siege_IP_Moves_Into_Western_RPG_Market.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617204410/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/28977/E3_Square_Enix_Owns_Dungeon_Siege_IP_Moves_Into_Western_RPG_Market.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 17, 2010 |title=E3: Square Enix Owns Dungeon Siege IP, Moves Into Western RPG Market |work=Gamasutra |access-date=March 9, 2014}} Obsidian Entertainment is now a subsidiary of Microsoft Studios.{{cite web | url =https://www.videogamer.com/news/obsidian-entertainment-says-the-microsoft-acquisition-was-a-weight-off-its-shoulders | title =Obsidian Entertainment says the Microsoft acquisition was a weight off its shoulders | last =Donovan | first =Imogen | date =October 17, 2019 | website =videogamer.com | publisher =Resero | access-date =February 21, 2021}}
=Bethesda=
Bethesda Softworks has developed RPGs since 1994, in its epic fantasy The Elder Scrolls series. Daggerfall (1996) is notable as an early 3D first-person RPG with an expansive world. The series drew attention to sandbox gameplay, which gives the player wide choices of free-roaming activities unrelated to the game's main storyline.{{Harvnb|Barton|2007c|p=5|Ref=barton_1571}} The Elder Scrolls series was seen as an alternative to the "highly linear, story-based games" that dominated the computer RPG genre at the time, and the series' freedom of play inspired comparisons to Grand Theft Auto III.{{cite web | url =https://www.ign.com/articles/2011/10/16/how-grand-theft-auto-iii-carjacked-open-world-games | title =How Grand Theft Auto III Carjacked Open World Games | last =Thomsen | first =Michael | date =January 18, 2012 | website =IGN | publisher =Ziff Davis | access-date =February 22, 2021}}{{cite web | url =https://www.usgamer.net/articles/the-top-25-rpgs-of-all-time-the-elder-scrolls-morrowind | title =The Top 25 RPGs of All Time #11: The Elder Scrolls 3: Morrowind | last =Bailey | first =Kat | date =March 4, 2019 | website =USgamer | publisher =Gamer Network Limited | access-date =February 22, 2021 | archive-date =March 4, 2021 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20210304132656/https://www.usgamer.net/articles/the-top-25-rpgs-of-all-time-the-elder-scrolls-morrowind | url-status =dead }} According to Todd Howard, "I think [Daggerfall is] one of those games that people can 'project' themselves on. It does so many things and allows [for] so many play styles that people can easily imagine what type of person they'd like to be in-game."
The series' popularity exploded with the release of The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind (2002), for the Xbox and PC. Morrowind became a successful and award-winning RPG due to its open-ended play, richly detailed game world, and flexibility in character creation and advancement. Two expansions were released: Tribunal in 2002 and Bloodmoon in 2003. The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion (2006), released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 as well as the PC, was an enhanced sequel that featured scripted NPC behaviors, significantly improved graphics, and the company's first foray into micro transactions, an emerging trend among Western RPG makers.{{cite web|last=Bailey|first=Kat|title=Questions for 2010: What are the Prevailing RPG Trends?|url=http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId=9018187|work=1UP.com|publisher=IGN Entertainment Games|date=2010-01-28|access-date=July 8, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019184126/http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId=9018187|archive-date=October 19, 2012|df=mdy-all}} Two expansion packs, Shivering Isles and Knights of the Nine, were developed, as were several smaller downloadable packages, each costing between $1–3. Oblivion's immediate successor, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, was released to wide critical acclaim{{Cite web |date=2011-12-11 |title=VGA awards: Bethesda's Skyrim wins game of the year |url=https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/10/vga-awards-bethesdas-skyrim-wins-game-of-the-year/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US}} on November 11, 2011 and remains one of the bestselling video games to date,{{Cite web |date=2022-03-19 |title=The bestselling games of all time |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/bestselling-games-of-all-time/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=Digital Trends |language=en}} with over 30 million sold copies.{{Cite web |date=2016-11-22 |title='Skyrim' Creator Todd Howard Talks Switch, VR and Elder Scrolls Wait – Glixel |url=http://www.glixel.com/interviews/skyrim-creator-todd-howard-talks-switch-vr-and-elder-scrolls-wait-w451761 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122050536/http://www.glixel.com/interviews/skyrim-creator-todd-howard-talks-switch-vr-and-elder-scrolls-wait-w451761 |archive-date=2016-11-22 |access-date=2022-08-02 }}
Interplay's decision to scrap plans for Fallout 3 and Bethesda's subsequent acquisition of the Fallout brand created mixed feelings among the series' small but vocal fan community as well as "hardcore" PC gamers. Problems cited included the number of lackluster additions to the series since the release of the original two games,{{cite web|last=Elrod|first=Corvus|url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_102/565-Gamings-Fringe-Cults.3|title=The Escapist : Gaming's Fringe Cults|work=The Escapist|publisher=Themis Media|date=2007-06-19|access-date=September 6, 2010|archive-date=January 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116124908/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_102/565-Gamings-Fringe-Cults.3|url-status=dead}} as well as a perceived track record on the part of Bethesda for simplifying and streamlining its own franchises in order to appeal to a wider audience (a.k.a. "dumbing down").{{cite web | url =http://www.next-gen.biz/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=10342&Itemid=2 | title =Bethesda: We Don't "Dumb Down" Franchises | date =May 7, 2008 | website =Edge | publisher =Future Publishing Limited | access-date =February 20, 2021}} Nevertheless, Bethesda released Fallout 3 in North America on October 28, 2008 to wide acclaim and much fanfare,{{cite web|url=https://www.metacritic.com/game/fallout-3/critic-reviews/?platform=pc|title=Fallout 3 Critic Reviews for PC at|publisher=Metacritic|date=2008-10-28|access-date=September 13, 2010}} and the game was quickly followed by five "content packs" and several additional sequels and spin-offs. Fallout: New Vegas (2010), created by Obsidian Entertainment and using the same engine as Fallout 3, was released to generally favorable reviews{{cite web|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/fallout-new-vegas-dated|title=Fallout: New Vegas dated|work=Eurogamer|publisher=The Eurogamer Network|last=Bramwell|first=Tom|date=2010-06-14|access-date=June 14, 2010}}{{cite web|title=Fallout: New Vegas for Xbox 360|publisher= Metacritic|url=https://www.metacritic.com/game/fallout-new-vegas/critic-reviews/?platform=xbox-360|access-date=May 10, 2011}} but would later go on to become a cult classic.{{cite web | url =https://www.usgamer.net/articles/the-making-of-fallout-new-vegas-how-obsidians-cult-sequel-became-a-beloved-classic | title =The Making of Fallout: New Vegas: How Obsidian's Underrated Sequel Became a Beloved Classic | last =Bailey | first =Kat | date =December 21, 2020 | website =USGamer.net | publisher =ReedPop | access-date =February 19, 2021}}{{cite web | url =https://screenrant.com/fallout-new-vegas-2-obsidian/ | title =Fallout: New Vegas 2 Likely Won't Ever Happen, Says Obsidian | last =Chapman | first =Tom | date =October 18, 2018 | website =screenrant.com | access-date =February 19, 2021}} Fallout 4, released in 2015, featured improved graphics and gunplay, and for the first time in the series a "voiced" protagonist.{{cite magazine | url =https://www.gameinformer.com/games/fallout_4/b/xboxone/archive/2015/11/09/a-familiar-wasteland.aspx | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20151113054004/http://www.gameinformer.com/games/fallout_4/b/xboxone/archive/2015/11/09/a-familiar-wasteland.aspx | url-status =live | archive-date =November 13, 2015 | title =Fallout 4 Review | last =Reiner | first =Andrew | date =November 9, 2015 | magazine =Game Informer | access-date = February 20, 2021}} Fallout 76, released in 2018, featured online-only multiplayer modes and survival crafting mechanics.{{cite web | url =https://www.gamesradar.com/how-to-build-the-best-fallout-76-camp/ | title =Fallout 76 CAMP tips: 14 tips to help you build the best base | last =Ford | first =James | date =April 30, 2020 | website =GamesRadar | publisher =Future US | access-date =February 20, 2021}}
=Video game consoles and accessibility=
Multi-platform releases were common in the early days of RPGs, but there was a period during the 1990s when this was not generally the case.{{cite web |last=Reimer|first=Jeremy|title=Cross-platform game development and the next generation of consoles|url=https://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/11/crossplatform.ars/|work=Ars Technica|access-date=March 23, 2011 |date=2005-11-07}}{{cite web |last=Reimer |first=Jeremy |title=Musings on EA's quest for a standard game console platform |url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/news/2007/10/whats-behind-eas-quest-for-a-standard-game-console-platform.ars |work=Ars Technica|access-date=March 23, 2011 |date=2007-10-21}} The sixth generation of home gaming consoles led many game developers to resume this practice, and some opted to develop primarily or exclusively for consoles. The combination of the Xbox and DirectX technologies proved especially popular due to the two systems' architectural similarities, as well as their common set of development tools.{{cite web|last=Reimer|first=Jeremy|title=Microsoft releases XNA game development framework, opens up Xbox Live|url=https://arstechnica.com/old/content/2006/03/6420.ars|work=Ars Technica|access-date=May 17, 2011 |date=2006-03-20}} Multimedia and art assets, which account for a greater proportion of a game's development budget today than in the past, are also easily transferable between multiple platforms.
Development for multiple platforms is profitable, but difficult. Optimizations needed for one platform architecture do not necessarily translate well to others. Legacy platforms such as the Sega Genesis and PlayStation 3 were seen as difficult to develop for compared to their competitors, and even today developers are still not yet fully comfortable with new technologies such as multi-core processors and hyper-threading. Multi-platform releases are increasingly common, but not all similarities between game editions can be fully explained by game design alone. Rather, they can often be attributed to developers' lack of willingness to support all the optimizations needed to expose a single platform's full potential.
There remain franchise stalwarts that exist solely on one system, however. Developers for handheld and mobile systems in particular are seen as being able to get away with more since they are not forced to operate under the pressures of $20 million budgets and scrutiny from publishers' marketing departments to the same degree as other console game developers. Nintendo, credited with popularizing the handheld console concept with the release of the Game Boy in 1989,{{cite book| last = Steinbock| first = Dan|author2=Johnny L. Wilson| title = The Mobile Revolution| publisher = Kogan Page| date =January 28, 2007 | page = 150| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cUQ1y4iNrGcC&q=popularizing+the+handheld+console+concept+nintendo&pg=PA150| isbn = 978-0-7494-4850-9}} has recently combined its TV and handheld consoles into a single device, however.
Several major PC RPG titles have been affected by multi-platform releases, mostly due to console exclusivity publishing deals with Microsoft. BioWare's Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic was developed primarily for the Xbox, and not ported to the PC until several months later. Their original IP, Jade Empire (2005) was also an Xbox exclusive,{{cite press release|title=Xbox Exclusive 'Jade Empire' in Development by BioWare|publisher= GameZone|date=2003-09-25|url=http://www.gamezone.com/news/item/xbox_exclusive_quot_jade_empire_quot_in_development_by_bioware|access-date=July 14, 2011}} and did not receive a Windows version until Jade Empire – Special Edition (which included bonus content) in 2007.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Obsidian's KOTOR sequel was released in December 2004 for the Xbox, followed by a PC version in February 2005;{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} and Fable (2004) by Lionhead Studios did not receive a PC port until its reissue as a Platinum Hit in 2005.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Fable II (2008) and Fable III (2010) were platform exclusives when they were released, as well.{{cite web|last=Dietz|first=Jason|title=The Most Anticipated Games of 2010, Part 2: Platform Exclusives|publisher=Metacritic|date=2010-01-17|url=http://www.metacritic.com/feature/2010-games-preview-platform-exclusives|access-date=October 6, 2010|archive-date=June 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608074622/https://www.metacritic.com/feature/2010-games-preview-platform-exclusives|url-status=dead}}
Sequels to many of the titles previously mentioned in this article have also been developed for next-gen console systems. The Fallout and Baldur's Gate series of PC RPGs spawned console-friendly, Diablo-style action titles for the PS2 and Xbox as their respective PC series ended.{{#tag:ref|Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel (2004), and Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance (2001), namely.|group="Note"}} Bethesda's The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion was released simultaneously for console and PC, but was considered a major launch title for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.{{cite web|first=Rob|last=Semsey|url=http://previews.teamxbox.com/xbox-360/1211/The-Elder-Scrolls-IV-Oblivion/p1/|title=The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion Hands-On (Xbox 360)|work=TeamXbox|date=2005-10-07|access-date=September 11, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716074029/http://previews.teamxbox.com/xbox-360/1211/The-Elder-Scrolls-IV-Oblivion/p1/|archive-date=July 16, 2011|df=mdy-all}}{{cite press release|url=http://www.neowin.net/news/elder-scrolls-iv-oblivion---playstation-3-launch-title|title=Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion – Playstation 3 launch title|publisher=Neowin LLC|date=2006-09-28|access-date=September 11, 2010}} BioWare continued to produce launch-exclusive RPG titles for the Xbox 360, such as Mass Effect (2007).{{cite web|first=Dean |last=Takahashi |work=Mercury News |others=MediaNews Group |title=Mass Effect is a Game Worth Waiting For From BioWare |url=http://blogs.mercurynews.com/aei/2005/10/x05_mass_effect.html |date=2005-10-09 |access-date=July 2, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221195525/http://blogs.mercurynews.com/aei/2005/10/x05_mass_effect.html |archive-date=February 21, 2006 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }} They also produced the multi-platform Dragon Age series starting in 2009.
{{quote box|align=left|width=35%|quote=[Console gamers] don't have the patience to wade through the introduction of [new] systems. [...] [Y]ou need to ease them in a bit more [...] [But] once they're into the game, the console guys want just as deep of an experience as the PC guys.|author=Ken Levine and Todd Howard in a 2010 interview{{cite web|first=Stephany|last=Nunneley|url=http://www.vg247.com/2010/07/01/fallouts-howard-console-rpgs-must-be-easier-to-learn-and-easier-to-play/|title=Blog Archive » Fallout's Howard: Console RPGs must be "easier to learn and easier to play"|work=VG247|publisher=videogaming247 Ltd.|date=2010-07-01|access-date=September 11, 2010}}}}
This change in focus away from the PC platform to console systems has met with criticism, due to the concessions required to adapt games to the altered interfaces and control systems, as well as a perceived need to make games "accessible" to a wider demographic.{{cite web | url =https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/fallout-3-do-consoles-dumb-down | title =Fallout 3: Do Consoles Dumb Down? | last =Walker | first =John | date =May 7, 2008 | website =Rock Paper Shotgun | publisher =Gamer Network Limited | access-date =February 21, 2021}}{{Harvnb|Barton|2007c|p=12|Ref=barton_1571}} "Some cynics claim that this began to change with the increasing dominance of console RPGs, which by the late 90s were influencing CRPGs more than the other way around... (...) Naturally, adapting the CRPG for use on a console required making concessions in almost every area, particularly the interface, which had to be simple enough to work with a handheld controller. (...) Likewise, these games had to appeal to a much wider demographic than PC games, whose developers could expect much more technical knowledge and sophistication than their console counterparts." (A process referred to variously as "dumbing down" or "console-itis" by vocal detractors.){{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Developer Josh Sawyer of Obsidian Entertainment lamented the decline of high-profile computer-exclusive RPGs, and claimed that the collapse of Troika Games meant that there were "no pure CRPG developers left", outside of small companies like Spiderweb Software.{{cite web|author=Vault Dweller|url=http://www.rpgcodex.net/content.php?id=127|title=Interview with JE Sawyer|date=2006-03-17|access-date=July 15, 2006 |work=RPG Codex}} According to video game historian and vlogger Matt Barton, "Successful CRPGs of modern times often seem more like action adventures or first-person shooters than anything ever released by Origin."{{Harvnb|Barton|2008|p=367|Ref=barton_ddesktops}} Other criticisms include the increasing emphasis on video quality and voiceovers, and their detrimental effect on development budgets and the amount and quality of dialogue created for games.{{cite web|last=Bailey|first=Kat|title=Elder Scrolls V: Bethesda Returns to What They Know Best|url=http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId=9066317|work=1UP.com|publisher=IGN Entertainment Games|date=2010-12-13|access-date=July 8, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018215551/http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId=9066317|archive-date=October 18, 2012|df=mdy-all}} Lastly, there are concerns over the games' narrative and writing styles. Once considered the "savior" of the Western RPG following the CRPG drought of the mid-1990s, BioWare shed the novel-like writing style and other conventions of Western RPGs with Mass Effect. Instead, it replaced these conventions with the more cinematic style and streamlined action of Japanese console RPGs such as Final Fantasy and other video game genres.{{cite web|last=Kaiser|first=Rowan|title=Opinion: How Mass Effect challenged my definition of 'RPG'|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/129583/Opinion_How_Mass_Effect_challenged_my_definition_of_RPG.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306024602/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/129583/Opinion_How_Mass_Effect_challenged_my_definition_of_RPG.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 6, 2012|work=Gamasutra|date=2012-03-01|access-date=July 11, 2012|publisher=UBM TechWeb}} While constituting a major departure from established practice, and—along with other factors—raising questions as to whether games like Mass Effect are actually RPGs, BioWare's success as a company has been attributed to successfully "marrying Western mechanics with Japanese-style character interactions".{{cite web|url=http://www.joystiq.com/2012/12/21/2012-the-year-in-rpgs/|title=2012: the year in RPGs|last=Kaiser|first=Rowan|date=December 21, 2012|work=Joystiq|publisher=AOL Inc.|access-date=December 22, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128190611/http://www.joystiq.com/2012/12/21/2012-the-year-in-rpgs/|archive-date=January 28, 2015}}
There have been other less subtle shifts away from the core influences of Dungeons & Dragons that existed in the 1980s and 1990s, as well. Games that were originally closely tied to the system's basic mechanics such as dice rolls and turn-based tactical combat, have begun moving in the direction of real-time modes, simplified mechanics and skill-based interfaces.{{#tag:ref|Examples include Mass Effect 2
=Indie and European game studios=
File:Legend of Grimrock screenshot 01.jpg
The technical sophistication required to make modern video games and the high expectations of players (at least, in terms of the number and quality of voice-overs and increasing graphical fidelity) make it difficult for independent developers to impress audiences to the same degree that large game makers with extensive budgets and development teams are able to.{{cite web|last=Reimer|first=Jeremy|title=The XNA Game Development Studio for Xbox 360 and PC|url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/news/2006/12/xna.ars/2|work=Ars Technica|access-date=May 17, 2011 |date=2006-12-12}}{{#tag:ref|Though managed development environments such as Microsoft's XNA platform and GarageGames' Torque engine are meant to make this easier.{{cite web|last=Jordan|first=Jon|title=Engines of Creation: An Overview of Game Engines|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/business/engines-of-creation-an-overview-of-game-engines|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|access-date=May 17, 2011 |date=2008-10-28}}|group="Note"}} But innovation and quality need not necessarily be stymied. Like the movie industry, the "indie" (short for "independent") video game scene plays a crucial role in formulating new ideas and concepts that mainstream publishers and marketing departments, stuck in their rigid antiquated ways, might deem too unworkable or radical, but later adopt. There are many examples of movies that never gained approval within a corporate framework that ended up being financially successful and/or iconic among filmgoers. Likewise, "indie" video game developers are able to be successful by putting development time and effort into aspects of a game larger corporate enterprises might ignore. Lastly, independent developers can be successful by focusing on smaller niche markets. European countries, and Germany in particular, remain more receptive to PC-exclusives and, to older, more "hardcore" design decisions, in general.
The new millennium saw a number of independently-published RPGs for the PC, as well as a number of CRPGs developed in Europe and points farther east, leading some to call Eastern Europe a "hotbed" of RPG development in recent years.{{cite web |last=Wilson |first=Jason |title=The Dungeons & Dragons Effect|work= GameSpy|date=2010-08-24 |url=http://www.gamespy.com/articles/111/1115803p1.html|access-date=November 9, 2010}}{{#tag:ref|Russia also happens to be Europe's largest video games market,{{cite web|author=Jonric|title=RPG Vault Focus: Russia – Part 1|work= RPGVault|date=2008-05-21|url=http://rpgvault.ign.com/articles/875/875540p1.html|access-date=July 11, 2011 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509161020/http://rpgvault.ign.com/articles/875/875540p1.html|archive-date=May 9, 2011}} though the country ranks behind the UK and Germany in total video games sales.{{cite web|author=Jonric|title=RPG Vault Focus: Russia – Part 2|work=RPGVault|date=2008-05-22|url=http://rpgvault.ign.com/articles/875/875760p1.html|access-date=July 11, 2011 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502222637/http://rpgvault.ign.com/articles/875/875760p1.html|archive-date=May 2, 2009}}|group="Note"}} Examples of independently-produced RPGs include Spiderweb Software's Geneforge (2001–2009) and Avernum (2000–2010) series; Pyrrhic Tales: Prelude to Darkness (2002) by Zero Sum Software; Eschalon: Book I (2007) and Book II (2010) by Basilisk Games; Depths of Peril (2007) and Din's Curse (2010) by Soldak Entertainment; Knights of the Chalice (2009) by Heroic Games;{{cite web|url=http://www.insidemacgames.com/news/story.php?ArticleID=16209|title=Inside Mac Games News: Developers Discuss The Need For Indie RPGs|work=Inside Mac Games|access-date=September 15, 2010|last=Kruse|first=Cord|date=2008-02-12|archive-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802101659/http://www.insidemacgames.com/news/story.php?ArticleID=16209|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|first=Kieron|last=Gillen|url=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2009/08/11/our-rpg-cup-overfloweth-knights-of-the-chalice/|title=Our RPG Cup Overfloweth: Knights of the Chalice|website=Rock Paper Shotgun|date=2009-08-11|access-date=September 15, 2010}} and Underrail (2015) by Stygian Software. Examples of Central and Eastern European RPGs include Belgian developer Larian Studios' Divinity series (2002–2017); Russian developer Nival Interactive's series of tactical RPGs, starting with Silent Storm (2003); German developer Ascaron Entertainment's Sacred series of action RPGs (2004–2014); and Polish developer Reality Pump's Two Worlds (2007) and Two Worlds 2 (2010). Hybrid RPGs include Russian developer Elemental Games' multi-genre Space Rangers (2002) and Space Rangers 2: Dominators (2004);{{cite web|last=Senior|first=Tom|title=Return to Zork and Space Rangers 2 now available on GOG, Apogee sale this weekend|work=PC Gamer|publisher=Future Publishing Limited|date=2011-02-03|url=http://www.pcgamer.com/2011/02/03/return-to-zork-and-space-rangers-2-now-available-on-gog-apogee-sale-this-weekend/|access-date=July 1, 2012}}{{cite web|last=Meer|first=Alec|title=Before King's Bounty There Was...|website=Rock Paper Shotgun|date=2009-11-30|url=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2009/11/30/before-kings-bounty-there-was/|access-date=July 1, 2012}} Ukrainian developer GSC Game World's hybrid survival horror RPG/first-person shooter S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl (2007);{{cite web|last=Vandervell|first=Andy|title=S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl|work=bit-tech|publisher=Dennis Publishing Limited|date=2007-03-19|url=http://www.bit-tech.net/gaming/pc/2007/03/19/stalker_review/6|access-date=July 1, 2012|quote=Being someone that really didn't enjoy Oblivion – too big, too open plan, too much crazy dialogue, I was surprised to find that Stalker, as a similar RPG/FPS hybrid really did it for me. }}{{cite web|last=Chan|first=Norman|title=Stalker: Clear Sky|work=GamesRadar|publisher=Future US, Inc.|date=2008-09-17|url=http://www.gamesradar.com/stalker-clear-sky-review/|access-date=July 1, 2012|quote=Let's see a show of hands from those who played the original Stalker: Shadow of Chernobyl. All of you with your hands down: shame on you. Despite its lack of polish, the appeal of its immersive open world, shooter/RPG hybrid gameplay, and gritty atmosphere earned it an 85 percent score last year.}} Turkish developer TaleWorlds' hybrid series of RPG/medieval combat simulators, starting with Mount & Blade (2008);{{cite web|last=Hillier|first=Brenna|title=Mount&Blade: With Fire & Sword trailered|work=VG247|publisher=videogaming247 Ltd.|date=2011-02-01|url=http://www.vg247.com/2011/02/01/mountblade-with-fire-sword-trailered/|access-date=July 1, 2012|quote=If the whole thing passed you by, Mount&Blade: With Fire & Sword was announced at Paradox's New York event, and seems to be an entirely separate title, the first true follow up to medieval combat sim Mount&Blade.}}{{cite web|last=Meer|first=Alec|title=Pitched Battle: Mount & Blade Glasgow|website=Rock Paper Shotgun|date=2011-07-15|url=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2011/07/15/pitched-battle-mount-blade-glasgow/|access-date=July 1, 2012|quote=Gangs of Glasgow is what happens if medieval warfare sim Mount & Blade was transposed to modern Glasgow, Scotland – or at least an exaggerated version of it where the extreme football hooliganism, rioting and assorted other urban violence is worse than it already is/was.}} and Toby Fox's very-hard-to-describe console game-inspired RPG, Undertale (2015).{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}
The critically acclaimed Gothic series, by German developer Piranha Bytes, first appeared in 2001. Lauded for its complex interaction with other in-game characters and attractive graphics, it was nonetheless criticized for its difficult control scheme and high system requirements.{{cite web|title=Gothic|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/r_gothic|date=2002-01-15|access-date=January 16, 2009 |last=Taylor|first=Martin|work=Eurogamer|publisher=The Eurogamer Network}}{{cite web|title=Gothic PC Review|url=http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/gothic/review.html?om_act=convert&om_clk=gssummary&tag=summary;read-review|date=2001-12-18|access-date=January 16, 2009 |last=Park|first=Andrew|work=GameSpot|publisher=CBS Interactive Inc.}}{{cite web|title=Gothic|url=http://pc.ign.com/articles/164/164349p1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020414124729/http://pc.ign.com/articles/164/164349p1.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 14, 2002|date=2001-01-15|access-date=January 16, 2009 |last=Krause|first=Staci|work=IGN}} The third game in particular was notable for its performance issues at the time.{{Cite journal |last=Wilks |first=Daniel |date=January 2007 |title=Gothic 3 |journal=Hyper; Next Media |issue=159 |pages=76, 77 |issn=1320-7458}} Piranha Bytes split from publisher JoWood Productions in 2007, due to a contract dispute between the two companies. JoWooD retained the rights to the Gothic name and to current and future games released under that trademark.{{cite web |url=http://www.pluto13.de/docs/GothicRights-EN.pdf |title=Rights to "Gothic "|access-date=September 21, 2007 |author=Pluto 13 |date=2007-06-06 |quote=Specific rights to already or yet to be published games [...] were contractually granted to JoWooD [...] The same applies to [...] the trademark "GOTHIC". These contracts are extensive and confidential. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804052707/http://www.pluto13.de/docs/GothicRights-EN.pdf |archive-date=August 4, 2007 |url-status=dead }} Piranha Bytes have since gone on to develop the Risen series (2009–2014) with publisher Deep Silver, and ELEX (2017) with publisher THQ Nordic. A fourth, "casual" installment of the Gothic series, this time by developer Spellbound Entertainment, was published by JoWood in 2010.{{cite web |author=VoxClamant|title=Arcania Review|work= RPGWatch|date=2010-10-13 |url=http://www.rpgwatch.com/show/article?articleid=165&ref=0&id=280|access-date=November 6, 2010}} This was followed by an expansion in 2011. The rights to the Gothic series may have reverted to Piranha Bytes following the release of Risen II in 2012.{{cite web|last=Meer|first=Alec|title=Gothic Will Rise(n) Again|website=Rock Paper Shotgun|date=2011-04-12|url=http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2011/04/12/gothic-will-risen-again/|access-date=July 14, 2011}}
The Finnish independent development studio Almost Human released Legend of Grimrock, a Dungeon Master-inspired game, in 2012.{{cite magazine|url=http://www.edge-online.com/reviews/legend-grimrock-review|quote=Legend Of Grimrock isn't a love letter to Dungeon Master, the 1987 blend of subterranean exploration, survival, switches and traps. It's a near-facsimile. But that's not a fact Almost Human is trying to hide; it's the selling point. Legend Of Grimrock replicates a classic faithfully enough to massage the nostalgia glands of anyone who played the original, and it's a test of the timelessness of an almost universally loved game.|date=2012-04-12| title=Legend Of Grimrock review|magazine=Edge Magazine|publisher=Future Publishing Limited|access-date=May 9, 2012}} A reboot of the long-abandoned tile-based dungeon-crawler sub-genre, it was a commercial success that reached the top of Steam's "Top Sellers list" in April of that year.{{cite web|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/169062/How_Legend_of_Grimrocks_dev_rolled_the_dice_and_won.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427213549/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/169062/How_Legend_of_Grimrocks_dev_rolled_the_dice_and_won.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 27, 2012|first=Eric|last=Caoili|date=2012-04-25|title=How Legend of Grimrock's dev rolled the dice and won|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|access-date=May 9, 2012}} The Estonian development house ZA/UM released Disco Elysium to wide critical acclaim in 2019. Set in a large city still recovering from a war decades prior to the game's start, it features players taking the role of an amnesic detective charged with solving a murder mystery, who comes to recall events about his own past as well as current forces trying to affect the city. It won numerous awards, including "Best Narrative", "Best Independent Game", "Best Role-Playing Game" and "Fresh Indie Game" at The Game Awards 2019 held in Los Angeles.{{cite web |last=Van Allen |first=Eric |date=14 February 2020 |url=https://www.usgamer.net/articles/untitled-goose-game-wins-top-bill-at-the-2020-dice-awards |title=Untitled Goose Game Wins Top Bill at the 2020 D.I.C.E. Awards |website=USgamer |access-date=14 February 2020 |archive-date=February 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214054731/https://www.usgamer.net/articles/untitled-goose-game-wins-top-bill-at-the-2020-dice-awards |url-status=dead }}
Examples exist of developers leaving larger studios to form their own, independent development houses, as well. For instance, in 2009, a pair of developers left Obsidian Entertainment to form DoubleBear Productions, and began development of the post-apocalyptic zombie tactical RPG, Dead State (2014), using Iron Tower Studios' The Age of Decadence (2015) game engine.{{cite web|title=DoubleBear Productions|work=Blue's News|publisher=Stephen Heaslip|date=2009-08-06|url=http://www.bluesnews.com/cgi-bin/board.pl?action=viewstory&threadid=100792//|access-date=August 6, 2009}}{{cite web|first=Peter|last=Haas|title=Vampire the Masquerade: Bloodlines Writer Founds DoubleBear Productions|work=Cinema Blend|date=2009-08-06|url=http://www.cinemablend.com/games/Vampire-the-Masquerade-Bloodlines-Writer-Founds-DoubleBear-Productions-19082.html//|access-date=August 6, 2009|archive-date=November 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128173956/https://www.cinemablend.com/games/Vampire-the-Masquerade-Bloodlines-Writer-Founds-DoubleBear-Productions-19082.html|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|author=Edward_R_Murrow|title=This Is Like That Thing Annie Carlson Is Working On|work=RPG Codex|date=2009-08-05|url=http://www.rpgcodex.net/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=35137|access-date=August 5, 2009}} Three employees left BioWare in 2012 to form Stoic Studio and develop the tactical RPG The Banner Saga (2014) and its sequels. Dead State and The Banner Saga were both supported in part by the public through the crowdfunding website Kickstarter, a recent trend among independent video game developers.{{cite web|last=Curtis|first=Tom|title=The Banner Saga devs partner with Journey composer, external studios|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2012-04-06|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/168173/The_Banner_Saga_devs_partner_with_Journey_composer_external_studios.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410034257/http://gamasutra.com/view/news/168173/The_Banner_Saga_devs_partner_with_Journey_composer_external_studios.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 10, 2012|access-date=April 21, 2012}}{{cite web|last=Wang|first=Thomas|title='Shadowrun' Kickstarter Achieves $1.3M To Be Remade on Tablets|work=The Indie Game Magazine|publisher=Indie Game Magazine|date=2012-04-20|url=http://mobile.indiegamemag.com/shadownrun-kickstarter/|access-date=April 21, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424170154/http://mobile.indiegamemag.com/shadownrun-kickstarter/|archive-date=April 24, 2012|df=mdy-all}} Other examples of crowdfunded tactical RPGs include inXile Entertainment's Wasteland sequels (2014, 2020); and Harebrained Schemes' Shadowrun Returns (2013–2015) and BattleTech (2018) series.
Iron Tower Studios later went on to create Dungeon Rats (2016), a tactical RPG spin-off to The Age of Decadence. Their latest title, Colony Ship: A Post-Earth Role Playing Game, a Fallout homage was released for early access on 6 April 2021 and is currently still in development.{{Cite web |title=Colony Ship: A Post-Earth RPG – Content Roadmap for 2021 and 2022 |url=https://www.gfinityesports.com/colony-ship/colony-ship-a-post-earth-rpg-2021-roadmap-content-2022-updates-early-access/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=gfinityesports.com |language=en}}
=CD Projekt Red=
CD Projekt Red, best known for The Witcher series (2007–2015) and Cyberpunk 2077 (2020), was formed in 2002 in Warsaw by Polish video game retailers Marcin Iwiński and Michał Kiciński. The company began by translating major video-game releases into Polish, collaborating with Interplay Entertainment on two Baldur's Gate titles. When Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance was cancelled, the company decided to reuse the code for their own video game, The Witcher, based on the works of Andrzej Sapkowski.{{cite web|url=http://www.polygon.com/features/2014/7/16/5884227/cd-projekt-the-witcher-3|title=How The Team Behind The Witcher Conquered Poland|first=Russ|last=Pitts|work=Polygon|date=July 16, 2014 |access-date=21 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124165950/http://www.polygon.com/features/2014/7/16/5884227/cd-projekt-the-witcher-3|archive-date=24 November 2015|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2013-11-06-seeing-red-the-story-of-cd-projekt|title=Seeing Red: The story of CD Projekt|first=Robert|last=Purchese|work=Eurogamer|date=17 May 2015|access-date=21 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108032538/https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2013-11-06-seeing-red-the-story-of-cd-projekt|archive-date=8 January 2020|url-status=live}} After the release of The Witcher, CD Projekt worked on a console port called The Witcher: White Wolf; but development issues and increasing costs led the company to the brink of bankruptcy.{{cite web|url=http://www.destructoid.com/cd-projekt-almost-failed-before-the-witcher-2-265199.phtml|title=CD Projekt almost failed before The Witcher 2|first=Joshua|last=Derocher|date=11 August 2015|access-date=21 October 2015|work=Destructoid|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912135856/http://www.destructoid.com/cd-projekt-almost-failed-before-the-witcher-2-265199.phtml|archive-date=12 September 2015|url-status=live}} CD Projekt later released The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings in 2011 and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt in 2015, with the latter winning various Game of the Year awards.{{cite web|url=http://thewitcher.com/pl/news/view/2059|title=Wiedźmin 3: Dziki Gon – data premiery Edycji Gry Roku|date=11 August 2016|website=The Witcher|language=pl|archive-date=11 June 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170611142003/http://thewitcher.com/pl/news/view/2059|url-status=dead|access-date=24 August 2016}} In 2020, the company released Cyberpunk 2077, open-world role-playing game based on the Cyberpunk 2020 tabletop game system, for which it opened a new division in Wrocław.{{cite web|url=https://www.pcgamer.com/cd-projekt-red-launches-a-new-studio-to-support-cyberpunk-2077/|title=CD Projekt Red launches a new studio to support Cyberpunk 2077|first=Andy|last=Chalk|date=21 March 2018|website=PC Gamer|archive-date=10 April 2018|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180410093003/https://www.pcgamer.com/cd-projekt-red-launches-a-new-studio-to-support-cyberpunk-2077/|url-status=live|access-date=10 April 2018}}
Much-anticipated after a several-years-long wait, Cyberpunk 2077 received considerable praise for its narrative, setting, and graphics,{{cite web |last=Marks |first=Tom |date=7 December 2020 |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/cyberpunk-2077-review |title=Cyberpunk 2077 Review |website=IGN |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201207175528/https://www.ign.com/articles/cyberpunk-2077-review |archive-date=7 December 2020 |access-date=10 December 2020 |url-status=live}}{{cite web |last=Loveridge |first=Sam |date=7 December 2020 |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/cyberpunk-2077-review/ |title=Cyberpunk 2077 review: "What it lacks in length, it makes up for with depth and soul" |website=GamesRadar+ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201208135220/https://www.gamesradar.com/cyberpunk-2077-review/ |archive-date=8 December 2020 |access-date=10 December 2020 |url-status=live}}{{cite web |last1=Gough |first1=Owen |title=Cyberpunk 2077 review – CD Projekt Red's next-gen game |url=https://www.digitalspy.com/tech/best-tech-deals/a34888737/cyberpunk-2077-review/ |website=Digital Spy |access-date=10 December 2020 |date=7 December 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210002044/https://www.digitalspy.com/tech/best-tech-deals/a34888737/cyberpunk-2077-review/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Dammes |first1=Mathias |title=Cyberpunk 2077 im Test: Ein klasse RPG – Update mit Testvideo |url=https://www.pcgames.de/Cyberpunk-2077-Spiel-20697/Tests/Rollenspiel-RPG-Review-Fazit-Wertung-Meinung-1363144/2/ |website=PC Games |access-date=10 December 2020 |language=de |date=9 December 2020 |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208150025/https://www.pcgames.de/Cyberpunk-2077-Spiel-20697/Tests/Rollenspiel-RPG-Review-Fazit-Wertung-Meinung-1363144/2/ |url-status=live }} although several of its gameplay elements received mixed reviews.{{cite web |last=Plagge |first=Kallie |date=7 December 2020 |url=https://www.gamespot.com/reviews/cyberpunk-2077-review/1900-6417622/ |title=Cyberpunk 2077 Review |website=GameSpot |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201209173956/https://www.gamespot.com/reviews/cyberpunk-2077-review/1900-6417622/ |archive-date=9 December 2020 |access-date=10 December 2020 |url-status=live}} After viewing a pre-release trailer, however, writer William Gibson, credited with pioneering the cyberpunk genre, remarked that the game seemed like "GTA skinned-over with a generic 80s retro-future",{{cite web |url=https://www.pcgamer.com/william-gibson-doesnt-think-cyberpunk-2077-is-cyberpunk-enough/ |title=William Gibson doesn't think Cyberpunk 2077 is cyberpunk enough |first=Tyler |last=Wilde |date=11 June 2018 |website=PC Gamer |archive-date=11 June 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180611121945/https://www.pcgamer.com/william-gibson-doesnt-think-cyberpunk-2077-is-cyberpunk-enough/ |url-status=live}} although he later expressed an affinity toward the first gameplay demo.{{cite tweet |user=GreatDismal |author=William Gibson |number=1034156384743391232 |date=27 August 2018 |title=Looks *much* better to me than the earlier teaser. Has "dirt in the corners" texture. |archive-date=1 July 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200701053446/https://twitter.com/GreatDismal/status/1034156384743391232 |url-status=live}} Its themes and representation of transgender characters also received scrutiny.{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Adi |title=Cyberpunk 2077 is huge, ambitious, and safe |url=https://www.theverge.com/22157995/cyberpunk-2077-cd-projekt-red-review-xbox-ps4-ps5-pc-stadia |website=The Verge |language=en |date=7 December 2020 |access-date=23 December 2020 |archive-date=22 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222142059/https://www.theverge.com/22157995/cyberpunk-2077-cd-projekt-red-review-xbox-ps4-ps5-pc-stadia |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=How Cyberpunk 2077 Perpetuates Transphobia & Why Gamers Are Calling It an Act of Violence |url=https://www.cbr.com/cyberpunk-2077-transphobia/ |website=CBR |access-date=23 December 2020 |date=8 December 2020 |archive-date=19 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219222006/https://www.cbr.com/cyberpunk-2077-transphobia/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Cyberpunk 2077's Trans Representation Problems Explained |url=https://screenrant.com/cyberpunk-2077-trans-representation-problems-cdpr-controversy/ |website=ScreenRant |access-date=23 December 2020 |date=19 December 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220042900/https://screenrant.com/cyberpunk-2077-trans-representation-problems-cdpr-controversy/ |url-status=live }} Further, Cyberpunk 2077 was widely criticized for bugs, particularly in the console versions which suffered from severe performance issues.{{cite web |last1=Zamora |first1=Gabriel |title=Cyberpunk 2077 (for PC) Review |url=https://www.pcmag.com/reviews/cyberpunk-2077-for-pc |website=PC Magazine |access-date=10 December 2020 |language=en |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210164252/https://www.pcmag.com/reviews/cyberpunk-2077-for-pc |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Corden |first1=Jez |title=Cyberpunk 2077 review: A strong contender for best game ever made |url=https://www.windowscentral.com/cyberpunk-2077-review |website=Windows Central |date=7 December 2020 |access-date=10 December 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210073802/https://www.windowscentral.com/cyberpunk-2077-review |url-status=live }}{{Cite web|last=Hernandez|first=Patricia|date=9 December 2020|title=Cyberpunk 2077 on PS4 and Xbox One seems to have major problems|url=https://www.polygon.com/2020/12/9/22166912/cyberpunk-2077-base-ps4-xbox-one-bugs-issues-glitches-performance-trees-bushes|access-date=10 December 2020|website=Polygon|language=en|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210041359/https://www.polygon.com/2020/12/9/22166912/cyberpunk-2077-base-ps4-xbox-one-bugs-issues-glitches-performance-trees-bushes|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Cyberpunk 2077 Is Looking Rough On PS4 And Xbox One At The Moment|url=https://kotaku.com/cyberpunk-2077-is-looking-rough-on-ps4-and-xbox-one-at-1845848627|access-date=10 December 2020|website=Kotaku|date=December 10, 2020 |language=en-us|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210072801/https://kotaku.com/cyberpunk-2077-is-looking-rough-on-ps4-and-xbox-one-at-1845848627|url-status=live}} (Sony removed the game from the PlayStation Store soon after release.{{cite web|last=Dornbush|first=Jonathon|date=17 December 2020|title=Sony Removing Cyberpunk 2077 from PS Store, Will Offer Refunds to PlayStation Players Who Already Bought It|url=https://www.ign.com/articles/sony-removing-cyberpunk-2077-from-ps-store-will-offer-refunds-to-playstation-players-who-already-bought-it|access-date=17 December 2020|website=IGN|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218013950/https://www.ign.com/articles/sony-removing-cyberpunk-2077-from-ps-store-will-offer-refunds-to-playstation-players-who-already-bought-it|url-status=live}}) Later, CD Projekt would become subject to investigations and class-action lawsuits for their perceived attempts in downplaying the severity of the game's technical issues prior to its release.{{cite web | url = https://www.polygon.com/2020/12/24/22199252/cyberpunk-2077-cd-projekt-class-action-lawsuit-filed | title = CD Projekt facing class action lawsuit over Cyberpunk 2077 release | first = Nicole | last = Carpenter | date = 24 December 2020 | access-date = 24 December 2020 | work = Polygon | archive-date = 24 December 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201224214032/https://www.polygon.com/2020/12/24/22199252/cyberpunk-2077-cd-projekt-class-action-lawsuit-filed | url-status = live }}{{cite web | url = https://www.videogameschronicle.com/news/cd-projekt-responds-to-another-cyberpunk-2077-class-action-lawsuit/ | title = CD Projekt responds to another Cyberpunk 2077 class action lawsuit | first = Tom | last= Ivan | date = January 18, 2021 | access-date = January 18, 2021 | work = Video Games Chronicle }}
See also
Footnotes
{{Reflist|2|group="Note"}}
References
{{Reflist|2}}
Bibliography
{{refbegin|2}}
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- {{cite web|first=Matt|last=Barton|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1706/the_history_of_computer_.php|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120731023539/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1706/the_history_of_computer_.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 31, 2012|title=The History of Computer Role-Playing Games Part 2: The Golden Age (1985–1993)|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2007-02-23|access-date=September 12, 2010|ref=barton_1706}}
- {{cite web|first=Matt|last=Barton|url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1571/the_history_of_computer_.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027033906/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1571/the_history_of_computer_.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 27, 2007|title=The History of Computer Role-Playing Games Part III: The Platinum and Modern Ages (1994–2004)|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=2007-04-11|access-date=September 5, 2010 |ref=barton_1571}}
- {{citation|title=Vintage Games: An Insider Look at the History of Grand Theft Auto, Super Mario, and the Most Influential Games of All Time|first1=Bill|last1=Loguidice|first2=Matt|last2=Barton|publisher=Focal Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-240-81146-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M_bFdsP9L7oC|ref=vintage_log}}
- {{Cite book|first=Matt|last=Barton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMXu61GbTqMC|title=Dungeons & Desktops: The History of Computer Role-Playing Games|publisher=A K Peters, Ltd.|year=2008|access-date=September 8, 2010 |isbn=978-1-56881-411-7|ref=barton_ddesktops}}
- {{Cite book|first1=Brad|last1=King|first2=John M.|last2=Borland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CvxOAAAAMAAJ|title=Dungeons and Dreamers: The Rise of Computer Game Culture from Geek to Chic|publisher=McGraw-Hill/Osborne|year=2003|access-date=September 25, 2010|isbn=0-07-222888-1|ref=borlanddd}}
- {{cite web|last=Harris|first=John|title=Game Design Essentials: 20 RPGs|url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/game-design-essentials-20-rpgs|work=Gamasutra|publisher=UBM TechWeb|date=July 2, 2009|ref=gama_20ess}}
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{{refend}}
External links
- {{cite web|author=Drunken Irishman|url=http://www.mobygames.com/featured_article/feature,31/|title=The World of Western RPGs|publisher=MobyGames|date=2008-07-21|access-date=July 17, 2011|archive-date=April 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424121341/https://www.mobygames.com/featured_article/feature,31/|url-status=dead}}
{{Good article}}