Hominini

{{see|Human taxonomy}}

Concerning membership, when Hominini is taken to exclude Pan, Panini ("panins"){{cite journal |last=Delson |title=Catarrhine phylogeny and classification: principles, methods and comments |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=6 |year=1977 |issue=5 |page=450 |doi=10.1016/S0047-2484(77)80057-2|bibcode=1977JHumE...6..433D }} may refer to the tribe containing Pan as its only genus.{{cite book |last=Potts |url=https://archive.org/details/whatdoesitmeanto0000pott/page/34/mode/2up |title=What does it mean to be human? |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4262-0606-1 |location=Washington |page=34 |url-access=registration}}{{cite book |quote="Conventionally, taxonomists now refer to the great ape family (including humans) as 'hominids', while all members of the lineage leading to modern humans that arose after the split with the [Homo-Pan] LCA are referred to as 'hominins'. The older literature used the terms hominoids and hominids respectively." |last1=Dunbar |first1=Robin |title=Human evolution |date=2014 |publisher=Pelican |isbn=978-0-14-197531-3 }} Or perhaps place Pan with other dryopithecine genera, making the whole tribe or subtribe of Panini or Panina together. Minority dissenting nomenclatures include Gorilla in Hominini and Pan in Homo (Goodman et al. 1998), or both Pan and Gorilla in Homo (Watson et al. 2001).

By convention, the adjectival term "hominin" (or nominalized "hominins") refers to the tribe Hominini, whereas the members of the subtribe Hominina (and thus all archaic human species) are referred to as "homininan" ("homininans").{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789047416616_013 |chapter=The Last Common Ancestor of Apes and Humans |title=Interpreting the Past |year=2005 |pages=103–121 |isbn=978-90-474-1661-6 |s2cid=203884394 |last1=Andrews |first1=Peter |last2=Harrison |first2=Terry }}{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9781118524756.ch8 |chapter=Origin, Development, and Evolution of Primate Muscles, with Notes on Human Anatomical Variations and Anomalies |title=Developmental Approaches to Human Evolution |year=2015 |last1=Diogo |first1=Rui |last2=Wood |first2=Bernard |pages=167–204 |isbn=978-1-118-52475-6 }}{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|1038821782}} |first=Steven |last=Worthington |title=New approaches to late Miocene hominoid systematics: Ranking morphological characters by phylogenetic signal |date=2012 }} This follows the proposal by Mann and Weiss (1996), which presents tribe Hominini as including both Pan and Homo, placed in separate subtribes. The genus Pan is referred to subtribe Panina, and genus Homo is included in the subtribe Hominina (see below).{{cite journal |author1=Mann, Alan |author2=Weiss, Mark |year=1996 |title=Hominoid phylogeny and taxonomy: a consideration of the molecular and fossil evidence in an historical perspective |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=169–181 |doi=10.1006/mpev.1996.0011 |pmid=8673284|doi-access=free |bibcode=1996MolPE...5..169M }}

The alternative convention uses "hominin" to exclude members of Panina: for Homo; or for human and australopithecine species. This alternative convention is referenced in e.g. Coyne (2009){{cite book |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |year=2009 |title=Why evolution is true |pages=197–208, 244, 248 |isbn=978-0-670-02053-9 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |quote="Anthropologists apply the term hominin to all the species on the "human" side of our family tree after it split from the branch that became modern chimps." (p.197)"}} and in Dunbar (2014). Potts (2010) in addition uses the name Hominini in a different sense, as excluding Pan, and uses "hominins" for this, while a separate tribe (rather than subtribe) for chimpanzees is introduced, under the name Panini. In this recent convention, contra Arambourg, the term "hominin" is applied to Homo, Australopithecus, Ardipithecus, and others that arose after the split from the line that led to chimpanzees (see cladogram below);{{Cite Q|Q24646554}}{{cite journal |last1=Wood |last2=Richmond |first2=B. G. |year=2000 |title=Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology |journal=Journal of Anatomy |volume=197 |pages=19–60 |pmid=10999270 |pmc=1468107 |doi=10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x |issue=Pt 1 |quote="Thus human evolution is the study of the lineage, or clade, comprising species more closely related to modern humans than to chimpanzees. Its stem species is the so-called 'common hominin ancestor', and its only extant member is Homo sapiens. This clade contains all the species more closely related to modern humans than to any other living primate. Until recently, these species were all subsumed into a family, Hominidae, but this group is now more usually recognised as a tribe, the Hominini."}} that is, they distinguish fossil members on the human side of the split, as "hominins", from those on the chimpanzee side, as "not hominins" (or "non-hominin hominids").

This cladogram shows the clade of superfamily Hominoidea and its descendant clades, focused on the division of Hominini (omitting detail on clades not ancestral to Hominini). The family Hominidae ("hominids") comprises the tribes Ponginae (including orangutans), Gorillini (including gorillas) and Hominini, the latter two forming the subfamily of Homininae. Hominini is divided into Panina (chimpanzees) and Australopithecina (australopithecines). The Hominina (humans) are usually held to have emerged within the Australopithecina (which would roughly correspond to the alternative definition of Hominini according to the alternative definition which excludes Pan).

Genetic analysis combined with fossil evidence indicates that hominoids diverged from the Old World monkeys about 25 million years ago (Mya), near the Oligocene-Miocene boundary.{{cite journal |last1=Balter |first1=Michael |title=Fossils May Pinpoint Critical Split Between Apes and Monkeys |journal=Science |date=15 May 2013 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/fossils-may-pinpoint-critical-split-between-apes-and-monkeys }} The most recent common ancestors (MRCA) of the subfamilies Homininae and Ponginae lived about 15 million years ago. The best-known fossil genus of Ponginae is Sivapithecus, consisting of several species from 12.5 million to 8.5 million years ago. It differs from orangutans in dentition and postcranial morphology.{{cite web |title=Old men of the woods |last=Taylor |first=C. |year=2011 |publisher=Palaeos |url=http://palaeos.com/vertebrates/primates/ponginae.html |access-date=4 April 2013}} In the following cladogram, the approximate time the clades radiated newer clades is indicated in millions of years ago (Mya).

{{clade|{{clade

|1=Hylobatidae (gibbons)

|label2=Hominidae (15.7)

|2={{clade

|1=Ponginae (orangutans)

|label2=Homininae (8.8)

|2={{clade

|1=Gorillini (gorillas)

|label2=Hominini (6.3)

|2={{clade

|1=Panina (chimpanzees)

|label2=Hominina (4)

|sublabel2=Australopithecina

|2={{clade

|1=Ardipithecus (†)

|label2=Australopithecus

|2={{clade

|1=Praeanthropus (†)

|2={{clade

|1=Australopithecus/Paranthropus robustus (†2)

|2={{clade

|1=Australopithecus garhi (†2.5)

|2=Homo (humans)

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}}}}}|label1=Hominoidea (20.4 Mya)}}

{{Human timeline}}

{{see|Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor}}

Both Sahelanthropus and Orrorin existed during the estimated duration of the ancestral chimpanzee–human speciation events, within the range of eight to four million years ago (Mya). Very few fossil specimens have been found that can be considered directly ancestral to genus Pan. News of the first fossil chimpanzee, found in Kenya, was published in 2005. However, it is dated to very recent times—between 545 and 284 thousand years ago.{{cite journal |author1=McBrearty, Sally |author2=Jablonski, Nina G. |year=2005 |title=First fossil chimpanzee |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7055 |pages=105–108 |doi=10.1038/nature04008 |pmid=16136135 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..105M |s2cid=4423286}} The divergence of a "proto-human" or "pre-human" lineage separate from Pan appears to have been a process of complex speciation-hybridization rather than a clean split, taking place over the period of anywhere between 13 Mya (close to the age of the tribe Hominini itself) and some 4 Mya. Different chromosomes appear to have split at different times, with broad-scale hybridization activity occurring between the two emerging lineages as late as the period 6.3 to 5.4 Mya, according to Patterson et al. (2006),{{cite journal |last1=Patterson |first1=N. |last2=Richter |first2=D. J. |last3=Gnerre |first3=S. |last4=Lander |first4=E. S. |last5=Reich |first5=D. |title=Genetic evidence for complex speciation of humans and chimpanzees |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7097 |pages=1103–8 |date=June 2006 |pmid=16710306 |doi=10.1038/nature04789 |bibcode=2006Natur.441.1103P |s2cid=2325560}} This research group noted that one hypothetical late hybridization period was based in particular on the similarity of X chromosomes in the proto-humans and stem chimpanzees, suggesting that the final divergence was even as recent as 4 Mya. Wakeley (2008) rejected these hypotheses; he suggested alternative explanations, including selection pressure on the X chromosome in the ancestral populations prior to the chimpanzee–human last common ancestor (CHLCA).{{cite journal |last=Wakeley |first=J. |title=Complex speciation of humans and chimpanzees |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7184 |pages=E3–4; discussion E4 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18337768 |doi=10.1038/nature06805 |bibcode=2008Natur.452....3W |s2cid=4367089 |quote="Patterson et al. suggest that the apparently short divergence time between humans and chimpanzees on the X chromosome is explained by a massive interspecific hybridization event in the ancestry of these two species. However, Patterson et al. do not statistically test their own null model of simple speciation before concluding that speciation was complex, and—even if the null model could be rejected—they do not consider other explanations of a short divergence time on the X chromosome. These include natural selection on the X chromosome in the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, changes in the ratio of male-to-female mutation rates over time, and less extreme versions of divergence with gene flow. I therefore believe that their claim of hybridization is unwarranted."}}

Most DNA studies find that humans and Pan are 99% identical,{{cite thesis |first=Mary-Claire |last=King |year=1973 |title=Protein polymorphisms in chimpanzee and human evolution |oclc=923094595 }}{{cite news |first=Kate |last=Wong |title=Tiny genetic differences between humans and other primates pervade the genome |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/tiny-genetic-differences-between-humans-and-other-primates-pervade-the-genome/ |publisher=Scientific American |date=1 September 2014}} but one study found only 94% commonality, with some of the difference occurring in non-coding DNA.{{cite journal |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=human-chimp-gene-gap-wide |date=19 December 2006 |title=Humans and chimps: close but not that close |journal=Scientific American |author=Minkel, J. R.}} It is most likely that the australopithecines, dating from 4.4 to 3 Mya, evolved into the earliest members of genus Homo.{{cite book |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |year=2009 |title=Why evolution is true |pages=202–204 |isbn=978-0-670-02053-9 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |quote="After A. afarensis, the fossil record shows a confusing melange of gracile australopithecine species lasting up to about two million years ago. … [T]he late australopithecines, already bipedal, were beginning to show changes in teeth, skull, and brain that presage modern humans. It is very likely that the lineage that gave rise to modern humans included at least one of these species."}}{{cite journal |title=Early hominin speciation at the Plio/Pleistocene transition. |journal=Homo: Journal of Comparative Human Biology |date=2003 |last=Cameron |first=D. W. |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |pmid=12968420 |doi=10.1078/0018-442x-00057}} In the year 2000, the discovery of Orrorin tugenensis, dated as early as 6.2 Mya, briefly challenged critical elements of that hypothesis,{{cite book |last=Potts |year=2010 |title=What does it mean to be human? |pages=38–39 |isbn=978-1-4262-0606-1 |publisher=National Geographic Society |location=Washington}} as it suggested that Homo did not in fact derive from australopithecine ancestors.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrJ1lmjMakoC&pg=PA116 |title=African genesis: perspectives on hominin evolution |isbn=978-1-107-01995-9 |last1=Reynolds |first1=Sally C. |last2=Gallagher |first2=Andrew |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |quote="The discovery of Orrorin has ... radically modified interpretations of human origins and the environmental context in which the African apes/hominoid transition occurred, although ... the less likely hypothesis of derivation of Homo from the australopithecines still holds primacy in the minds of most palaeoanthropologists."}}

All the listed fossil genera are evaluated for two traits that could identify them as hominins:

1. probability of being ancestral to Homo, and
2. whether they are more closely related to Homo than to any other living primate.

Some, including Paranthropus, Ardipithecus, and Australopithecus, are broadly thought to be ancestral and closely related to Homo;{{cite book |last=Potts |year=2010 |title=What does it mean to be human? |pages=31–424 |isbn=978-1-4262-0606-1 |publisher=National Geographic Society |location=Washington}} others, especially earlier genera, including Sahelanthropus (and perhaps Orrorin), are supported by one community of scientists but doubted by another.{{cite journal |last1=Brunet |first1=M. |title=A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa |journal=Nature |volume=418 |pages=145–151 |quote=Sahelanthropus is the oldest and most primitive known member of the hominid clade, close to the divergence of hominids and chimpanzees. |date=July 2002 |doi=10.1038/nature00879 |pmid=12110880 |issue=6894 |last2=Guy |first2=F. |last3=Pilbeam |first3=D. |display-authors=3 |last4=MacKaye |first4=H. T. |last5=Likius |first5=A. |last6=Ahounta |first6=D. |last7=Beauvilain |first7=A. |last8=Blondel |first8=C. |last9=Bocherens |first9=H. |last10=Boisserie |first10=J. R. |last11=De Bonis |first11=L. |last12=Coppens |first12=Y. |last13=Dejax |first13=J. |last14=Denys |first14=C. |last15=Duringer |first15=P. |last16=Eisenmann |first16=V. |last17=Fanone |first17=G. |last18=Fronty |first18=P. |last19=Geraads |first19=D. |last20=Lehmann |first20=T. |last21=Lihoreau |first21=F. |last22=Louchart |first22=A. |last23=Mahamat |first23=A. |last24=Merceron |first24=G. |last25=Mouchelin |first25=G. |last26=Otero |first26=O. |last27=Pelaez Campomanes |first27=P. |last28=Ponce De Leon |first28=M. |last29=Rage |first29=J. C. |last30=Sapanet |first30=M. |bibcode=2002Natur.418..145B |s2cid=1316969|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/13388/files/PAL_E190.pdf }}{{cite journal |last1=Wolpoff |first1=Milford |title=Sahelanthropus or 'Sahelpithecus'? |journal=Nature |volume=419 |issue=6907 |pages=581–582 |quote=Sahelanthropus tchadensis is an enigmatic new Miocene species, whose characteristics are a mix of those of apes and Homo erectus and which has been proclaimed by Brunet et al. to be the earliest hominid. However, we believe that features of the dentition, face and cranial base that are said to define unique links between this Toumaï specimen and the hominid clade are either not diagnostic or are consequences of biomechanical adaptations. To represent a valid clade, hominids must share unique defining features, and Sahelanthropus does not appear to have been an obligate biped. |date=October 2002 |doi=10.1038/419581a |pmid=12374970 |last2=Senut |first2=Brigitte |last3=Pickford |first3=Martin |last4=Hawks |first4=John |bibcode=2002Natur.419..581W |hdl=2027.42/62951 |s2cid=205029762 |hdl-access=free }}

Extant species are in bold.

{{Div col|small=yes}}

• Sahelanthropus tchadensis
• Orrorin tugenensis
• Ardipithecus kadabba
• Ardipithecus ramidus
• Australopithecus anamensis
• Australopithecus afarensis
• Australopithecus deyiremeda
• Australopithecus garhi
• Kenyanthropus platyops
• Australopithecus africanus
• Australopithecus sediba
• Paranthropus aethiopicus
• Paranthropus boisei
• Paranthropus robustus
• Pan troglodytes
• Pan paniscus
• Homo habilis
• Homo rudolfensis
• Homo ergaster
• Homo erectus
• Homo antecessor
• Homo heidelbergensis
• Homo naledi
• Homo neanderthalensis
• Homo denisova
• Homo sapiens
• Homo floresiensis
• Homo luzonensis

{{Div col end}}

{{Gallery |align=left |title= |width=200 |height=200 |File:Sahelanthropus tchadensis - TM 266-01-060-1.jpg |Cast of a skull of Sahelanthropus tchadensis, nick-named ″Toumaï″ |File:KNM ER 1470 (H. rudolfensis).png |Skull of Homo rudolfensis }}

{{clear}}

{{portal|Evolutionary biology|Paleontology|Primates}}

• History of hominoid taxonomy
• Human evolution
• Human taxonomy
• Human timeline
• List of human evolution fossils

{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{Wikispecies}}

• [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive Human Timeline (Interactive)] – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

{{Great apes}}

{{Hominidae nav}}

{{Human evolution}}

{{Haplorhini|Ho.}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q107588}}

Category:Homininae

Category:Human evolution

Category:Mammal tribes

Category:Taxa named by Camille Arambourg

Category:Taxa described in 1948