Information security#Authenticity

{{Main|Information security standards}}

Information security standards are techniques generally outlined in published materials that attempt to protect the information of a user or organization.{{Cite web |title=ITU-T Recommendation database |url=http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/recommendations/rec.aspx?rec=9136}} This environment includes users themselves, networks, devices, all software, processes, information in storage or transit, applications, services, and systems that can be connected directly or indirectly to networks.

The principal objective is to reduce the risks, including preventing or mitigating attacks. These published materials consist of tools, policies, security concepts, security safeguards, guidelines, risk management approaches, actions, training, best practices, assurance and technologies.File:CIAJMK1209-en.svg, Integrity and Availability (CIA). Information Systems are composed in three main portions, hardware, software and communications with the purpose to help identify and apply information security industry standards, as mechanisms of protection and prevention, at three levels or layers: physical, personal and organizational. Essentially, procedures or policies are implemented to tell administrators, users and operators how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations.Cherdantseva Y. and Hilton J.: "Information Security and Information Assurance. The Discussion about the Meaning, Scope and Goals". In: Organizational, Legal, and Technological Dimensions of Information System Administrator. Almeida F., Portela, I. (eds.). IGI Global Publishing. (2013)]]

Various definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different sources:

1. "Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition, other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be involved." (ISO/IEC 27000:2018)ISO/IEC 27000:2018 (E). (2018). Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Overview and vocabulary. ISO/IEC.
2. "The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity, and availability." (CNSS, 2010)Committee on National Security Systems: National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary, CNSS Instruction No. 4009, 26 April 2010.
3. "Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete information (integrity) when required (availability)." (ISACA, 2008){{cite web|website=ISACA|year= 2008|title= Glossary of terms, 2008|url=http://www.isaca.org/Knowledge-Center/Documents/Glossary/glossary.pdf}}
4. "Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation." (Pipkin, 2000)Pipkin, D. (2000). Information security: Protecting the global enterprise. New York: Hewlett-Packard Company.
5. "...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business." (McDermott and Geer, 2001)B., McDermott, E., & Geer, D. (2001). Information security is information risk management. In Proceedings of the 2001 Workshop on New Security Paradigms NSPW ‘01, (pp. 97 – 104). ACM. {{doi|10.1145/508171.508187}}
6. "A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance." (Anderson, J., 2003){{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=J. M. |year=2003 |title=Why we need a new definition of information security |journal=Computers & Security |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=308–313 |doi=10.1016/S0167-4048(03)00407-3}}
7. "Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties." (Venter and Eloff, 2003){{cite journal |last1=Venter |first1=H. S. |last2=Eloff |first2=J. H. P. |year=2003 |title=A taxonomy for information security technologies |journal=Computers & Security |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=299–307 |doi=10.1016/S0167-4048(03)00406-1}}
8. "Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.{{Cite journal |last=Gold |first=S |date=December 2004 |title=Threats looming beyond the perimeter |journal=Information Security Technical Report |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=12–14 |doi=10.1016/S1742-6847(04)00129-6 |issn=1363-4127}}
9. Information and information resource security using telecommunication system or devices means protecting information, information systems or books from unauthorized access, damage, theft, or destruction (Kurose and Ross, 2010).{{Cite journal |last1=Бучик |first1=С. С. |last2=Юдін |first2=О. К. |last3=Нетребко |first3=Р. В. |date=2016-12-21 |title=The analysis of methods of determination of functional types of security of the information-telecommunication system from an unauthorized access |journal=Problems of Informatization and Management |volume=4 |issue=56 |doi=10.18372/2073-4751.4.13135 |issn=2073-4751 |doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Threat (computer security)}}

Information security threats come in many different forms.{{Cite book|last=Rahim|first=Noor H.|title=Human Rights and Internal Security in Malaysia: Rhetoric and Reality.|date=March 2006|publisher=Defense Technical Information Center |oclc=74288358}} Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion.{{Cite journal|date=2018-09-14|title=Nuclear theft and sabotage threats remain high, report warns|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/pt.6.2.20180914a|journal=Physics Today |doi=10.1063/pt.6.2.20180914a|issn=1945-0699|last=Kramer|first=David|issue=9 |page=30951 |bibcode=2018PhT..2018i0951K |s2cid=240223415}}{{Cite book|first=Edward |last=Wilding|title=Information risk and security : preventing and investigating workplace computer crime|date=2 March 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-92755-0|oclc=1052118207}} Viruses,{{Cite book|title=CISSP Study Guide|last=Stewart |first=James|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-1-118-31417-3|location=Canada|pages=255–257}} worms, phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks. The theft of intellectual property has also been an extensive issue for many businesses.{{cite book| chapter=Why has productivity growth declined?| chapter-url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-denmark-2009/why-has-productivity-growth-declined_eco_surveys-dnk-2009-4-en| publisher=OECD| pages=65–96| date=2009| access-date=30 November 2023| doi=10.1787/eco_surveys-dnk-2009-4-en| title=OECD Economic Surveys: Denmark 2009| isbn=9789264076556}} Identity theft is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information through social engineering.{{Cite journal|date=2007|journal=Issues in Information Systems|doi=10.48009/2_iis_2007_297-302|issn=1529-7314|doi-access=free |title=Identity Theft: The Newest Digital Attackking Industry Must Take Seriously}}{{Cite book|first1=Anna|last1=Wendel-Persson|first2=Fredrik|last2=Ronnhed|title=IT-säkerhet och människan : De har världens starkaste mur men porten står alltid på glänt|date=2017|publisher=Umeå universitet, Institutionen för informatik|oclc=1233659973}} Sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organization's website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers.{{Cite journal|last1=Shao|first1=Ruodan|last2=Skarlicki |first2=Daniel P.|date=2014|title=Sabotage toward the Customers who Mistreated Employees Scale |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/t31653-000|access-date=2021-05-28|website=PsycTESTS Dataset|doi=10.1037/t31653-000}} Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with ransomware.{{Cite journal|last=Kitchen|first=Julie |date=June 2008|title=7side – Company Information, Company Formations and Property Searches |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1472669608000364|journal=Legal Information Management|volume=8|issue=2|pages=146 |doi=10.1017/s1472669608000364|s2cid=144325193|issn=1472-6696}} One of the most functional precautions against these attacks is to conduct periodical user awareness.{{Citation|last=Young|first=Courtenay|title=Working with panic attacks|date=2018-05-08|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429475474-32|work=Help Yourself Towards Mental Health|pages=209–214|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429475474-32|isbn=978-0-429-47547-4|access-date=2021-05-28}}

Governments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals, non-profit organizations, and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status.{{Cite book| title=Table 7.7 France: Comparison of the profit shares of non-financial corporations and non-financial corporations plus unincorporated enterprises | author1=Lequiller, F.| author2=Blades, D.| url=https://www.oecd.org/sdd/UNA-2014.pdf| publisher=OECD| page=217| date=2014| access-date=1 December 2023| doi=10.1787/9789264214637-en| isbn=978-92-64-21462-0}} Should confidential information about a business's customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or hacker, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation.{{Citation|title=How Did it All Come About? |work=The Compliance Business and Its Customers|year=2012|place=Basingstoke |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|doi=10.1057/9781137271150_3 |isbn=978-1-137-27115-0 |last1=Kasabov |first1=Edward |last2=Warlow |first2=Alex |pages=11–20 }} From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.{{Cite journal|first1=Lawrence A. |last1=Gordon|author-link1=Lawrence A. Gordon |first2=Martin P. |last2=Loeb |author-link2=Martin P. Loeb|journal=ACM Transactions on Information and System Security|volume=5 |issue=4| pages=438–457|doi=10.1145/581271.581274|title= The Economics of Information Security Investment|s2cid=1500788 |url=http://tissec.acm.org/|date=November 2002}}

For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in various cultures.{{Cite journal|last1=Cho Kim|first1=Byung|last2=Khansa|first2=Lara|last3=James|first3=Tabitha|date=July 2011 |title=Individual Trust and Consumer Risk Perception |journal=Journal of Information Privacy and Security |volume=7|issue=3 |pages=3–22 |doi=10.1080/15536548.2011.10855915 |s2cid=144643691 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15536548.2011.10855915 |issn=1553-6548}}

Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering.{{Cite journal |last=Larsen |first=Daniel |date=2019-10-31 |title=Creating An American Culture Of Secrecy: Cryptography In Wilson-Era Diplomacy |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhz046 |journal=Diplomatic History |doi=10.1093/dh/dhz046 |issn=0145-2096}} Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands.{{Citation|title=Introduction : Caesar Is Dead. Long Live Caesar!|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474245784.0005|work=Julius Caesar's Self-Created Image and Its Dramatic Afterlife|year=2018|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|doi=10.5040/9781474245784.0005|isbn=978-1-4742-4578-4|access-date=2021-05-29}} However, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.{{cite book|first1=Gaius|last1=Suetonius Tranquillus|title=Lives of the Caesars (Oxford World's Classics)|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-953756-3|page=28|author-link=Suetonius}}{{cite book |title=The Code Book |last=Singh |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Singh |year=2000 |publisher=Anchor |isbn=978-0-385-49532-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/codebook00simo/page/289 289–290] |title-link=The Code Book }} Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box.{{Cite thesis|title=Towards trusted and secure communications in a vehicular environment|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.32657/10356/72758|publisher=Nanyang Technological University|first=Heng Chuan|last=Tan|year=2017|doi=10.32657/10356/72758}} As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653{{cite book |first=John |last=Johnson |title=The Evolution of British Sigint: 1653–1939 |year=1997 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |asin=B00GYX1GX2}}).

In the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity.{{cite journal| title=Were Banks Special? Contrasting Viewpoints in Mid-Nineteenth Century Britain| author=Willison, M.| url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3249510| journal=Monetary Economics: International Financial Flows| date=21 September 2018| access-date=1 December 2023| doi=10.2139/ssrn.3249510}} For example, the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in 1889.{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8WoNp2vI-cC&pg=PA589 |chapter=Official Secrets Act (1889; New 1911; Amended 1920, 1939, 1989) |title=Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: An Encyclopedia of American Espionage |volume=2 |author=Ruppert, K. |editor=Hastedt, G.P. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |pages=589–590 |isbn=9781851098088}} Section 1 of the law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of information, while Section 2 dealt with breaches of official trust.{{Cite book|chapter=2. The Clayton Act: A consideration of section 2, defining unlawful price discrimination|date=1930-12-31|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7312/dunn93452-003|title=The Federal Anti-Trust Law|pages=18–28|publisher=Columbia University Press|doi=10.7312/dunn93452-003|isbn=978-0-231-89377-0|access-date=2021-05-29}} A public interest defense was soon added to defend disclosures in the interest of the state.{{cite web|last1=Maer|first1=Lucinda|last2=Gay|date=30 December 2008|title=Official Secrecy|url=https://fas.org/irp/world/uk/secrecy.pdf|website=Federation of American Scientists}} A similar law was passed in India in 1889, The Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated with the British colonial era and used to crack down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies.{{Citation|title=The Official Secrets Act 1989 which replaced section 2 of the 1911 Act |date=2016-06-10 |work=Espionage and Secrecy (Routledge Revivals)|pages=267–282|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315542515 |isbn=978-1-315-54251-5 |last1=Thomas |first1=Rosamund }} A newer version was passed in 1923 that extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for governance.{{cite web|date=2019-03-08|title=Official Secrets Act: what it covers; when it has been used, questioned|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/official-secrets-act-what-it-covers-when-it-has-been-used-questioned-rafale-deal-5616457/|access-date=2020-08-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en}} By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters.{{Cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Gajendra|date=November 2015|title="Breaking the Chains with Which We were Bound": The Interrogation Chamber, the Indian National Army and the Negation of Military Identities, 1941–1947|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2352-3786_dlws1_b9789004211452_019|journal=Brill's Digital Library of World War I|doi=10.1163/2352-3786_dlws1_b9789004211452_019|access-date=2021-05-28}} Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information.{{Cite journal|last=Duncanson|first=Dennis|date=June 1982|title=The scramble to unscramble French Indochina|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03068378208730070|journal=Asian Affairs|volume=13|issue=2|pages=161–170|doi=10.1080/03068378208730070|issn=0306-8374}}

The establishment of computer security inaugurated the history of information security. The need for such appeared during World War II.{{Sfn|Whitman|Mattord|5=2017|p=|pp=3}} The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls.{{Citation|title=Allied Power. Mobilizing Hydro-Electricity During Canada'S Second World War|date=2015-12-31|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/9781442617117-003|work=Allied Power|pages=1–2|publisher=University of Toronto Press|doi=10.3138/9781442617117-003|isbn=978-1-4426-1711-7|access-date=2021-05-29}} An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed.{{Citation|last=Glatthaar|first=Joseph T.|title=Officers and Enlisted Men|date=2011-06-15|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5149/9780807877869_glatthaar.11|work=Soldiering in the Army of Northern Virginia|pages=83–96|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|doi=10.5149/9780807877869_glatthaar.11|isbn=978-0-8078-3492-3|access-date=2021-05-28}} The Enigma Machine, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.{{cite book |title=Enigma: The Battle for the Code |author=Sebag–Montefiore, H. |publisher=Orion |pages=576 |year=2011 |isbn=9781780221236}} Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture of U-570).

Various mainframe computers were connected online during the Cold War to complete more sophisticated tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing magnetic tapes back and forth by computer centers. As such, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), of the United States Department of Defense, started researching the feasibility of a networked system of communication to trade information within the United States Armed Forces. In 1968, the ARPANET project was formulated by Larry Roberts, which would later evolve into what is known as the internet.{{Sfn|Whitman|Mattord|5=2017|pp=4-5}}

In 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer Robert Metcalfe to have many flaws such as the: "vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack of safety procedures for dial-up connections; and nonexistent user identification and authorizations", aside from the lack of controls and safeguards to keep data safe from unauthorized access. Hackers had effortless access to ARPANET, as phone numbers were known by the public.{{Sfn|Whitman|Mattord|5=2017|p=5}} Due to these problems, coupled with the constant violation of computer security, as well as the exponential increase in the number of hosts and users of the system, "network security" was often alluded to as "network insecurity".{{Sfn|Whitman|Mattord|5=2017|p=5}}

File:Posters for information security for the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation.jpg]]

The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption.{{Cite book|title=Thomas Merton: Twentieth-Century Wisdom for Twenty-First-Century Living|date=2012-04-26|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1cg4k28.13|author=Dekar, Paul R.|pages=160–184|publisher=The Lutterworth Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1cg4k28.13|isbn=978-0-7188-4069-3|access-date=2021-05-29}} The availability of smaller, more powerful, and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and home users.{{Cite report|last=Murphy|first=Richard C.|date=2009-09-01|title=Building more powerful less expensive supercomputers using Processing-In-Memory (PIM) LDRD final report|doi=10.2172/993898|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/993898}} The establishment of Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP) in the early 1980s enabled different types of computers to communicate.{{cite web|title=A Brief History of the Internet|url=https://www.usg.edu/galileo/skills/unit07/internet07_02.phtml|access-date=2020-08-07|website=www.usg.edu}} These computers quickly became interconnected through the internet.{{Cite journal|date=October 2001|title=Walking through the view of Delft - on Internet|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0097-8493(01)00149-2|journal=Computers & Graphics|volume=25|issue=5|pages=927|doi=10.1016/s0097-8493(01)00149-2|issn=0097-8493}}

The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process, and transmit.{{cite book |chapter=Chapter 24: A History of Internet Security |title=The History of Information Security: A Comprehensive Handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/historyinformati00leeu |url-access=limited |author=DeNardis, L. |editor1=de Leeuw, K.M.M.|editor2=Bergstra, J. |publisher=Elsevier |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyinformati00leeu/page/n661 681]–704 |year=2007 |isbn=9780080550589}} The academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.{{Cite book |last1=Parrish |first1=Allen |last2=Impagliazzo |first2=John |last3=Raj |first3=Rajendra K. |last4=Santos |first4=Henrique |last5=Asghar |first5=Muhammad Rizwan |last6=Jøsang |first6=Audun |last7=Pereira |first7=Teresa |last8=Stavrou |first8=Eliana |chapter=Global perspectives on cybersecurity education for 2030: A case for a meta-discipline |date=2018-07-02 |title=Proceedings Companion of the 23rd Annual ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3293881.3295778 |language=en |publisher=ACM |pages=36–54 |doi=10.1145/3293881.3295778 |hdl=1822/71620 |isbn=978-1-4503-6223-8|s2cid=58004425 }}

The "CIA triad" of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security.{{cite web|last=Perrin|first=Chad|title=The CIA Triad|date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/security/the-cia-triad/488|access-date=31 May 2012}} The concept was introduced in the Anderson Report in 1972 and later repeated in The Protection of Information in Computer Systems. The abbreviation was coined by Steve Lipner around 1986.{{Cite journal |last=Ham |first=Jeroen Van Der |date=2021-06-08 |title=Toward a Better Understanding of "Cybersecurity" |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3442445 |journal=Digital Threats: Research and Practice |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1145/3442445 |issn=2692-1626}}

Debate continues about whether or not this triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security and privacy. Other principles such as "accountability" have sometimes been proposed; it has been pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core concepts.{{cite web |title=Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security |year=2004 |url=http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-27A/SP800-27-RevA.pdf |publisher=csrc.nist.gov |doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-27rA |last1=Stoneburner |first1=G. |last2=Hayden |first2=C. |last3=Feringa |first3=A. |access-date=2011-08-28 |archive-date=2011-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815124528/http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-27A/SP800-27-RevA.pdf |url-status=dead }}

In information security, confidentiality "is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes."{{cite book |author=Beckers, K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvdICAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |title=Pattern and Security Requirements: Engineering-Based Establishment of Security Standards |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=9783319166643 |page=100}} While similar to "privacy", the two words are not interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from unauthorized viewers.{{Citation |last1=Fienberg |first1=Stephen E. |title=International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science |date=2011 |pages=342–345 |chapter=Data Privacy and Confidentiality |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-04898-2_202 |isbn=978-3-642-04897-5 |last2=Slavković |first2=Aleksandra B.}} Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.{{cite book |author=Andress, J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9NI0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=The Basics of Information Security: Understanding the Fundamentals of InfoSec in Theory and Practice |publisher=Syngress |year=2014 |isbn=9780128008126 |pages=240}}

In IT security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle.{{cite journal |last=Boritz |first=J. Efrim |year=2005 |title=IS Practitioners' Views on Core Concepts of Information Integrity |journal=International Journal of Accounting Information Systems |publisher=Elsevier |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=260–279 |doi=10.1016/j.accinf.2005.07.001}} This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner.{{Cite journal |last=Hryshko |first=I. |date=2020 |title=Unauthorized Occupation of Land and Unauthorized Construction: Concepts and Types of Tactical Means of Investigation |journal=International Humanitarian University Herald. Jurisprudence |issue=43 |pages=180–184 |doi=10.32841/2307-1745.2020.43.40 |issn=2307-1745 |doi-access=free}} This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of transaction processing.{{Citation |last=Kim |first=Bonn-Oh |title=Referential Integrity for Database Design |date=2000-09-21 |work=High-Performance Web Databases |pages=427–434 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420031560-34 |access-date=2021-05-29 |publisher=Auerbach Publications |doi=10.1201/9781420031560-34 |isbn=978-0-429-11600-1}} Information security systems typically incorporate controls to ensure their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or core functions against both deliberate and accidental threats.{{Cite journal |last=Pevnev |first=V. |date=2018 |title=Model Threats and Ensure the Integrity of Information |journal=Systems and Technologies |volume=2 |issue=56 |pages=80–95 |doi=10.32836/2521-6643-2018.2-56.6 |issn=2521-6643 |doi-access=free}} Multi-purpose and multi-user computer systems aim to compartmentalize the data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact another: the controls may not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware infections, hacks, data theft, fraud, and privacy breaches.{{Cite journal |last1=Fan |first1=Lejun |last2=Wang |first2=Yuanzhuo |last3=Cheng |first3=Xueqi |last4=Li |first4=Jinming |last5=Jin |first5=Shuyuan |date=2013-02-26 |title=Privacy theft malware multi-process collaboration analysis |journal=Security and Communication Networks |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=51–67 |doi=10.1002/sec.705 |issn=1939-0114 |doi-access=free}}

More broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human/social, process, and commercial integrity, as well as data integrity. As such it touches on aspects such as credibility, consistency, truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.{{Cite book |title=Measuring Data Quality for Ongoing Improvement |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-397033-6 |series=MK Series on Business Intelligence |pages=e11–e19 |chapter=Completeness, Consistency, and Integrity of the Data Model |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-397033-6.00030-4 |access-date=2021-05-29 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-397033-6.00030-4}}

For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed.{{Cite video |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2266326.5459349132001 |title=Video from SPIE - the International Society for Optics and Photonics |access-date=2021-05-29 |doi=10.1117/12.2266326.5459349132001}} This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly.{{Cite journal |date=2005 |title=Communication Skills Used by Information Systems Graduates |journal=Issues in Information Systems |doi=10.48009/1_iis_2005_311-317 |issn=1529-7314 |doi-access=free}} High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.{{Cite report |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5083196/ |title=Outages of electric power supply resulting from cable failures Boston Edison Company system |date=1980-07-01 |doi=10.2172/5083196 |osti=5083196 |access-date=18 January 2022}} Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.{{Cite journal |last1=Loukas |first1=G. |last2=Oke |first2=G. |date=September 2010 |title=Protection Against Denial of Service Attacks: A Survey |url=http://staffweb.cms.gre.ac.uk/~lg47/publications/LoukasOke-DoSSurveyComputerJournal.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Comput. J. |volume=53 |issue=7 |pages=1020–1037 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxp078 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324115835/http://staffweb.cms.gre.ac.uk/~lg47/publications/LoukasOke-DoSSurveyComputerJournal.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-24 |access-date=2015-08-28 |orig-year=August 2009}}

In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders expect.{{Citation |title=Be Able To Perform a Clinical Activity |date=2020-02-02 |work=Definitions |publisher=Qeios |doi=10.32388/dine5x |s2cid=241238722|doi-access=free }} This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails.{{Cite book |last1=Ohta |first1=Mai |title=2011 IEEE International Symposium on Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks (DySPAN) |last2=Fujii |first2=Takeo |date=May 2011 |publisher=IEEE |isbn=978-1-4577-0177-1 |pages=623–627 |chapter=Iterative cooperative sensing on shared primary spectrum for improving sensing ability |doi=10.1109/dyspan.2011.5936257 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/dyspan.2011.5936257 |s2cid=15119653}} Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response, and policy/change management.{{Citation |title=Information technology. Information security incident management |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/30387743 |access-date=2021-05-29 |publisher=BSI British Standards |doi=10.3403/30387743}} A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the "CIA" triad to be provided effectively.{{Citation |last=Blum |first=Dan |title=Identify and Align Security-Related Roles |date=2020 |work=Rational Cybersecurity for Business |pages=31–60 |place=Berkeley, CA |publisher=Apress |doi=10.1007/978-1-4842-5952-8_2 |isbn=978-1-4842-5951-1 |s2cid=226626983|doi-access=free }}

In addition to the classic CIA triad of security goals, some organisations may want to include security goals like authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation, and reliability.

In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.{{cite book |author=McCarthy, C. |title=Handbook of Information Security, Threats, Vulnerabilities, Prevention, Detection, and Management |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2006 |isbn=9780470051214 |editor=Bidgoli, H. |volume=3 |pages=49–76 |chapter=Digital Libraries: Security and Preservation Considerations |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0RfANAwOUdIC&pg=PA65}}

It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology.{{Citation |title=Information technology. Open systems interconnection. Security frameworks for open systems |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/01110206u |access-date=2021-05-29 |publisher=BSI British Standards |doi=10.3403/01110206u}} It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity).{{Citation |last=Christofori |first=Ralf |editor-first1=Reinhard |editor-first2=Merz |editor-last1=Hauff |editor-last2=Akademie |title=Thus could it have been |date=2014-01-01 |work=Julio Rondo - O.k., Meta Memory |publisher=Wilhelm Fink Verlag |doi=10.30965/9783846757673 |isbn=978-3-7705-5767-7}} The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised.{{Cite journal |last=Atkins |first=D. |date=May 2021 |title=Use of the Walnut Digital Signature Algorithm with CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE) |url=https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc9021 |doi=10.17487/rfc9021 |s2cid=182252627 |access-date=18 January 2022 |doi-access=free |s2cid-access=free |website=RFC Editor}} The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation).{{Citation |last=Le May |first=I. |title=Structural Integrity in the Petrochemical Industry |date=2003 |work=Comprehensive Structural Integrity |pages=125–149 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043749-4/01001-6 |access-date=2021-05-29 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b0-08-043749-4/01001-6 |isbn=978-0-08-043749-1}}

In 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/22/15582260.pdf |title=oecd.org |access-date=2014-01-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516085505/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/22/15582260.pdf |archive-date=May 16, 2011 }} proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment.{{Cite journal|date=January 1996|title=GSSP (Generally-Accepted system Security Principles): A trip to abilene|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-4048(96)82630-7|journal=Computers & Security|volume=15|issue=5|pages=417|doi=10.1016/0167-4048(96)82630-7|issn=0167-4048}} Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security proposed 33 principles.

In 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic "CIA" triad that he called the six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.{{cite web|last=Slade|first=Rob|url=http://blog.isc2.org/isc2_blog/2008/12/cia-triad-versus-parkerian-hexad.html|title=(ICS)2 Blog|access-date=November 17, 2017|archive-date=November 17, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117003743/http://blog.isc2.org/isc2_blog/2008/12/cia-triad-versus-parkerian-hexad.html|url-status=dead}}

In 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.{{cite web|last=Aceituno|first=Vicente|title=Open Information Security Maturity Model|url=http://www.ism3.com/node/39|access-date=12 February 2017}} This standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called "security objectives", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance, and technical (4).

{{Main|Risk management}}

Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset).{{Cite journal|last1=Sodjahin|first1=Amos|last2=Champagne|first2=Claudia|last3=Coggins|first3=Frank|last4=Gillet|first4=Roland|date=2017-01-11|title=Leading or lagging indicators of risk? The informational content of extra-financial performance scores |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/s41260-016-0039-y|journal=Journal of Asset Management|volume=18|issue=5|pages=347–370 |doi=10.1057/s41260-016-0039-y|s2cid=157485290|issn=1470-8272}} A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the potential to cause harm.{{Cite journal|last=Reynolds|first=E H|date=1995-07-22|title=Folate has potential to cause harm |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.311.6999.257|journal=BMJ|volume=311|issue=6999|pages=257|doi=10.1136/bmj.311.6999.257|pmid=7503870|issn=0959-8138|pmc=2550299}} The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact.{{Citation|last=Randall|first=Alan|title=Harm, risk, and threat|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511974557.003|work=Risk and Precaution|year=2011|pages=31–42|place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511974557.003|isbn=978-0-511-97455-7|access-date=2021-05-29}} In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kqoyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |title=Legal Issues in Information Security |author=Grama, J.L. |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |pages=550 |year=2014 |isbn=9781284151046}}

The Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006 defines risk management as "the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures,{{Cite book|last=Cannon|first=David L.|title=CISA: Certified Information Systems Auditor Study Guide|date=2016-03-04|isbn=9781119056249 |edition=Fourth|pages=139–214|chapter=Audit Process|doi=10.1002/9781119419211.ch3|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119419211.ch3}} if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization."{{cite book|title=CISA Review Manual 2006|publisher=Information Systems Audit and Control Association|year=2006|isbn=978-1-933284-15-6|page=85}}

There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day.{{Cite journal|last=Kadlec |first=Jaroslav|date=2012-11-02|title=Two-dimensional process modeling (2DPM) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14637151211283320 |journal=Business Process Management Journal|volume=18|issue=6|pages=849–875 |doi=10.1108/14637151211283320|issn=1463-7154}} Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.{{Citation|title=All Countermeasures Have Some Value, But No Countermeasure Is Perfect |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/0-387-21712-6_14|work=Beyond Fear|year=2003|pages=207–232|place=New York|publisher=Springer-Verlag |doi=10.1007/0-387-21712-6_14|isbn=0-387-02620-7|access-date=2021-05-29}} Furthermore, these processes have limitations as security breaches are generally rare and emerge in a specific context which may not be easily duplicated.{{Cite journal |date=October 2017|title=Data breaches: Deloitte suffers serious hit while more details emerge about Equifax and Yahoo |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1361-3723(17)30086-6|journal=Computer Fraud & Security|volume=2017|issue=10|pages=1–3 |doi=10.1016/s1361-3723(17)30086-6|issn=1361-3723}} Thus, any process and countermeasure should itself be evaluated for vulnerabilities.{{cite journal|last=Spagnoletti|first=Paolo|author2=Resca A.|title=The duality of Information Security Management: fighting against predictable and unpredictable threats|journal=Journal of Information System Security|year=2008 |volume=4|issue=3|pages=46–62|url=http://eprints.luiss.it/955/}} It is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called "residual risk".{{Cite journal|last1=Yusoff|first1=Nor Hashim|last2=Yusof |first2=Mohd Radzuan|date=2009-08-04|title=Managing HSE Risk in Harsh Environment|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/122545-ms |journal=All Days|publisher=SPE|doi=10.2118/122545-ms}}

A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business.{{Cite thesis |title=Sold out: how Ottawa's downtown business improvement areas have secured and valorized urban space |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.22215/etd/2010-09016|publisher=Carleton University|first=Wesley|last=Baxter|year=2010 |doi=10.22215/etd/2010-09016}} Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed.{{Cite web|last1=de Souza|first1=André|last2=Lynch|first2=Anthony|date=June 2012|title=Does Mutual Fund Performance Vary over the Business Cycle?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w18137|location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w18137|s2cid=262620435 }} The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.

Research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator, designer, or other human.{{cite book|last1=Kiountouzis| first1=E.A.|last2=Kokolakis|first2=S.A.|title=Information systems security: facing the information society of the 21st century|publisher=Chapman & Hall, Ltd.|location= London|isbn=978-0-412-78120-9| date=1996-05-31}} The ISO/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:

• security policy,
• organization of information security,
• asset management,
• human resources security,
• physical and environmental security,
• communications and operations management,
• access control,
• information systems acquisition, development, and maintenance,
• information security incident management,
• business continuity management
• regulatory compliance.

In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:{{cite book |title=A Practical Introduction to Security and Risk Management |author=Newsome, B. |publisher=SAGE Publications |pages=208 |year=2013 |isbn=9781483324852}}{{cite book |title=Management of Information Security |author1=Whitman, M.E.|author2=Mattord, H.J. |publisher=Cengage Learning |edition=5th |pages=592 |year=2016 |isbn=9781305501256}}

1. Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.{{Citation|date=2013-03-20|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780080958392-20|work=Illustrated Theatre Production Guide|pages=203–232|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780080958392-20|isbn=978-0-08-095839-2|access-date=2021-05-29|title=Hardware, Fabrics, Adhesives, and Other Theatrical Supplies}}
2. Conduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization.{{Citation|last=Reason|first=James|title=Perceptions of Unsafe Acts|date=2017-03-02|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315239125-7|work=The Human Contribution|pages=69–103|publisher=CRC Press|doi=10.1201/9781315239125-7|isbn=978-1-315-23912-5|access-date=2021-05-29}}
3. Conduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security, quality control, technical security.{{Citation|title=Information Security Procedures and Standards|date=2017-03-27|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315372785-5|work=Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards|pages=81–92|location=Boca Raton, FL|publisher=Auerbach Publications|doi=10.1201/9781315372785-5|isbn=978-1-315-37278-5|access-date=2021-05-29}}
4. Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis.{{Cite journal|title=Figure S1: Analysis of the prognostic impact of each single signature gene |journal=PeerJ|date=25 June 2020|volume=8|pages=e9437 |doi=10.7717/peerj.9437/supp-1|last1=Zhuang|first1=Haifeng|last2=Chen|first2=Yu|last3=Sheng|first3=Xianfu|last4=Hong|first4=Lili |last5=Gao|first5=Ruilan|last6=Zhuang|first6=Xiaofen |doi-access=free }}
5. Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.{{Cite journal|last1=Standaert|first1=B.|last2=Ethgen|first2=O.|last3=Emerson|first3=R.A.|date=June 2012|title=CO4 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis - Appropriate for All Situations?|journal=Value in Health|volume=15|issue=4|pages=A2 |doi=10.1016/j.jval.2012.03.015|issn=1098-3015|doi-access=free}}
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.{{Cite journal|date=November 1996|title=GRP canopies provide cost-effective over-door protection|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0034-3617(96)91328-4|journal=Reinforced Plastics|volume=40|issue=11|pages=8 |doi=10.1016/s0034-3617(96)91328-4|issn=0034-3617}}

For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business.{{Cite web|title=Figure 2.3. Relative risk of being a low performer depending on personal circumstances (2012)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933171410|access-date=2021-05-29 |doi=10.1787/888933171410}} Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.{{cite web|url=https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-30/archive/2002-07-01 |title=NIST SP 800-30 Risk Management Guide for Information Technology Systems |year=2002 |doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-30 |access-date=18 January 2022|last1=Stoneburner |first1=Gary |last2=Goguen |first2=Alice |last3=Feringa |first3=Alexis }} The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.{{Citation|title=May I Choose? Can I Choose? Oppression and Choice |work=A Theory of Freedom|year=2012|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|doi=10.1057/9781137295026_4 |isbn=978-1-137-29502-6 |last1=Welch |first1=Shay |pages=53–72 }}

{{Main|security controls}}

Selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to acceptable levels.{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=Donn B.|date=January 1994|title=A Guide to Selecting and Implementing Security Controls |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10658989409342459|journal=Information Systems Security|volume=3|issue=2|pages=75–86 |doi=10.1080/10658989409342459|issn=1065-898X}} Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment.{{Cite journal|last1=Zoccali|first1=Carmine|last2=Mallamaci|first2=Francesca|last3=Tripepi|first3=Giovanni|date=2007-09-25 |title=Guest Editor: Rajiv Agarwal: Cardiovascular Risk Profile Assessment and Medication Control Should Come First |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-139x.2007.00317.x|journal=Seminars in Dialysis|volume=20|issue=5|pages=405–408 |doi=10.1111/j.1525-139x.2007.00317.x|pmid=17897245|s2cid=33256127|issn=0894-0959}} Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. ISO/IEC 27001 has defined controls in different areas.{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/9780580829109|title=Guide to the Implementation and Auditing of ISMS Controls based on ISO/IEC 27001|date=2013-11-01|publisher=BSI British Standards|isbn=978-0-580-82910-9 |location=London|doi=10.3403/9780580829109}} Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7SYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |title=Security Controls Evaluation, Testing, and Assessment Handbook |author=Johnson, L. |publisher=Syngress |pages=678 |year=2015 |isbn=9780128025642}} ISO/IEC 27002 offers a guideline for organizational information security standards.{{Citation|title=Information technology. Security techniques. Mapping the revised editions of ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO/IEC 27002 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/30310928|publisher=BSI British Standards|doi=10.3403/30310928|access-date=2021-05-29}}

File:Defense In Depth - Onion Model.svg of defense in depth]]

{{Main|Defense in depth (computing)}}

Defense in depth is a fundamental security philosophy that relies on overlapping security systems designed to maintain protection even if individual components fail. Rather than depending on a single security measure, it combines multiple layers of security controls both in the cloud and at network endpoints. This approach includes combinations like firewalls with intrusion-detection systems, email filtering services with desktop anti-virus, and cloud-based security alongside traditional network defenses.[https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2006/02/security_in_the.html Schneier on Security: Security in the Cloud]

The concept can be implemented through three distinct layers of administrative, logical, and physical controls,{{Citation|title=Administrative Controls|date=2003-03-26|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780203507933-6|work=Occupational Ergonomics|pages=443–666|publisher=CRC Press|doi=10.1201/9780203507933-6|isbn=978-0-429-21155-3|access-date=2021-05-29}} or visualized as an onion model with data at the core, surrounded by people, network security, host-based security, and application security layers.{{Cite book|chapter=Security Onion Control Scripts|date=2014|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-417208-1.09986-4|title=Applied Network Security Monitoring|pages=451–456|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-417208-1.09986-4|isbn=978-0-12-417208-1|access-date=2021-05-29}} The strategy emphasizes that security involves not just technology, but also people and processes working together, with real-time monitoring and response being crucial components.

An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information.{{Citation|title=Overview|date=2001-12-20 |work=Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards|publisher=Auerbach Publications|doi=10.1201/9780849390326 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9780849390326-5/overview-information-protection-fundamentals |isbn=978-0-8493-1137-6 |last1=Peltier |first1=Thomas R. }} Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection.{{Citation|title=Electrical protection relays. Information and requirements for all protection relays|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/bs142-1|publisher=BSI British Standards|doi=10.3403/bs142-1|access-date=2021-05-29}} This requires information to be assigned a security classification.{{Cite journal|title=Supplemental Information 4: List of all combined families in alphabetical order assigned in MEGAN vers. 5.11.3.|journal=PeerJ|date=6 February 2019|volume=7|pages=e6379|doi=10.7717/peerj.6379/supp-4|last1=Dibattista|first1=Joseph D.|last2=Reimer|first2=James D.|last3=Stat|first3=Michael|last4=Masucci|first4=Giovanni D.|last5=Biondi|first5=Piera|last6=Brauwer|first6=Maarten De|last7=Bunce|first7=Michael |doi-access=free }} The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy.{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Sung-Won|date=2006-03-31|title=A Quantitative Analysis of Classification Classes and Classified Information Resources of Directory|journal=Journal of Information Management|volume=37|issue=1|pages=83–103|doi=10.1633/jim.2006.37.1.083|issn=0254-3621|doi-access=free}} The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxPhvm1EP3EC&pg=PA59 |chapter=Chapter 4: Information Classification |title=Enterprise Information Security and Privacy |author=Bayuk, J. |editor1=Axelrod, C.W.|editor2=Bayuk, J.L.|editor3=Schutzer, D. |publisher=Artech House |year=2009 |pages=59–70 |isbn=9781596931916}}

Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete.{{Citation|title=Welcome to the Information Age|date=2015-09-11|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119200642.ch5|work=Overload!|pages=43–65|place=Hoboken, NJ, US|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781119200642.ch5|isbn=978-1-119-20064-2|access-date=2021-05-29}} Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information.{{Cite book|last=Crooks|first=S.|date=2006|chapter=102. Case Study: When Exposure Control Efforts Override Other Important Design Considerations |title=AIHce 2006|pages=V102 |publisher=AIHA|doi=10.3320/1.2759009|doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 }} The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA) and its Business Model for Information Security also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.{{cite web |url=https://www.isaca.org/KNOWLEDGE-CENTER/BMIS/Pages/Business-Model-for-Information-Security.aspx |title=Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) |publisher=ISACA |access-date=25 January 2018 |archive-date=26 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126072505/https://www.isaca.org/KNOWLEDGE-CENTER/BMIS/Pages/Business-Model-for-Information-Security.aspx |url-status=dead }}

The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:

• In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.
• In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret, and their non-English equivalents.{{Cite journal|last=McAuliffe|first=Leo|date=January 1987|title=Top secret/trade secret: Accessing and safeguarding restricted information|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0740-624x(87)90068-2|journal=Government Information Quarterly|volume=4|issue=1|pages=123–124|doi=10.1016/0740-624x(87)90068-2|issn=0740-624X}}
• In cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green, Amber, and Red.
• In the personal sector, one label such as Financial. This includes activities related to managing money, such as online banking.{{Cite journal |last1=Iqbal |first1=Javaid |last2=Soroya |first2=Saira Hanif |last3=Mahmood |first3=Khalid |date=2023-01-05 |title=Financial information security behavior in online banking |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/02666669221149346 |journal=Information Development |volume=40 |issue=4 |language=en |pages=550–565 |doi=10.1177/02666669221149346 |s2cid=255742685 |issn=0266-6669}}

All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification.{{Cite journal|last1=Khairuddin|first1=Ismail Mohd|last2=Sidek|first2=Shahrul Naim|last3=Abdul Majeed|first3=Anwar P.P.|last4=Razman|first4=Mohd Azraai Mohd|last5=Puzi|first5=Asmarani Ahmad|last6=Yusof|first6=Hazlina Md|date=25 February 2021|title=Figure 7: Classification accuracy for each model for all features.|journal=PeerJ Computer Science|volume=7|pages=e379|doi=10.7717/peerj-cs.379/fig-7|doi-access=free }} The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.{{Citation|title=Asset Classification|date=2013-10-16|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b15573-18|work=Information Security Fundamentals|pages=327–356|publisher=Auerbach Publications|doi=10.1201/b15573-18|isbn=978-0-429-13028-1|access-date=2021-06-01}}

Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information.{{Cite book |last1=Almehmadi |first1=Abdulaziz |last2=El-Khatib |first2=Khalil |title=Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Security of Information and Networks |chapter=Authorized! Access denied, unauthorized! Access granted |date=2013 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2523514.2523612 |series=Sin '13 |pages=363–367 |location=New York, New York, US |publisher=ACM Press |doi=10.1145/2523514.2523612 |isbn=978-1-4503-2498-4 |s2cid=17260474}} The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized.{{Citation|last=Peiss|first=Kathy|title=The Country of the Mind Must Also Attack|work=Information Hunters |year=2020|pages=16–39 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190944612.003.0003 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190944612.003.0003|isbn=978-0-19-094461-2|access-date=2021-06-01}} This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information. The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be.{{Cite journal|last1=Fugini|first1=M.G. |last2=Martella|first2=G. |date=January 1988|title=A petri-net model of access control mechanisms |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0306-4379(88)90026-9 |journal=Information Systems|volume=13 |issue=1|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/0306-4379(88)90026-9 |issn=0306-4379}} The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.{{Citation|title=Information technology. Personal identification. ISO-compliant driving licence |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/30170670u |publisher=BSI British Standards |doi=10.3403/30170670u |access-date=2021-06-01}}

Access control is generally considered in three steps: identification, authentication, and authorization.{{Cite book |first=Omar|last=Santos|title=Ccna security 210-260 official cert guide.|date=2015|publisher=Cisco press|isbn=978-1-58720-566-8 |oclc=951897116}}

Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement "Hello, my name is John Doe" they are making a claim of who they are.{{Citation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203169186_chapter_one|work=ASSERTION TRAINING|pages=1–7|place=Abingdon, UK|publisher=Taylor & Francis|doi=10.4324/9780203169186_chapter_one|isbn=978-0-203-28556-5|access-date=2021-06-01|title=What is Assertion?|year=1991}} However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe.{{Cite journal|last=Doe|first=John|date=1960|title=Field Season In Illinois Begins May 2|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2136/sh1960.2.0010|journal=Soil Horizons|volume=1|issue=2|pages=10|doi=10.2136/sh1960.2.0010|doi-broken-date=January 29, 2025 |issn=2163-2812}} Typically the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are claiming "I am the person the username belongs to".{{Cite web|last=Leech|first=M.|date=March 1996|title=Username/Password Authentication for SOCKS V5|doi=10.17487/rfc1929|url=https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1929|access-date=18 January 2022}}

Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe, a claim of identity.{{Citation|last1=Kirk|first1=John|title=Teller, Seller, Union Activist: Class Formation and Changing Bank Worker Identities|date=2011|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230305625_6|work=Work and Identity|pages=124–148|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-349-36871-6|access-date=2021-06-01|last2=Wall|first2=Christine|doi=10.1057/9780230305625_6}} The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license.{{Cite journal|last=Dewi|first=Mila Nurmala|title=Perbandingan Kinerja Teller Kriya Dan Teller Organik Pt. Bank Syariah Mandiri|date=2020-12-23|journal=Nisbah: Jurnal Perbankan Syariah|volume=6|issue=2|pages=75|doi=10.30997/jn.v6i2.1932|s2cid=234420571|issn=2528-6633|doi-access=free}} The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe.{{Citation|last=Vile|first=John|title=License Checks|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452234243.n462|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Fourth Amendment|year=2013|place=Washington DC|publisher=CQ Press|doi=10.4135/9781452234243.n462|isbn=978-1-60426-589-7|access-date=2021-06-01}} If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he/she is the person the username belongs to.{{Citation|title=He Said/She Said|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv6wgjjv.6|work=My Ghost Has a Name|pages=17–32|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv6wgjjv.6|isbn=978-1-61117-827-2|access-date=2021-05-29}}

There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:{{Cite journal |title=Supplemental Information 8: Methods used to monitor different types of contact |journal=PeerJ |date=26 October 2020 |volume=8 |pages=e10221 |doi=10.7717/peerj.10221/supp-8 |last1=Bacigalupo |first1=Sonny A. |last2=Dixon |first2=Linda K. |last3=Gubbins |first3=Simon |last4=Kucharski |first4=Adam J. |last5=Drewe |first5=Julian A. |doi-access=free }}{{Cite book |last1=Igelnik |first1=Boris M. |last2=Zurada |first2=Jacek |title=Efficiency and scalability methods for computational intellect |year=2013 |publisher=Information Science Reference |isbn=978-1-4666-3942-3 |oclc=833130899}}

• Something you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name{{Citation|title=The Insurance Superbill Must Have Your Name as the Provider |date=2005-01-01|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203020289-11|work=Before You See Your First Client|pages=37–38|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203020289-11|isbn=978-0-203-02028-9|access-date=2021-06-01}}{{Cite book|first=Joe|last=Kissell|title=Take Control of Your Passwords|date=April 11, 2019 |publisher=alt concepts Incorporated |isbn=978-1-4920-6638-5|oclc=1029606129}}
• Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card{{Cite journal|date=July 2009|title=New smart Queensland driver license announced|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0965-2590(09)70126-4|journal=Card Technology Today|volume=21|issue=7 |pages=5|doi=10.1016/s0965-2590(09)70126-4|issn=0965-2590}}{{Cite book|author=Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. United States. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical Information|title=A human engineering and ergonomic evaluation of the security access panel interface.|date=1995|publisher=United States. Dept. of Energy|oclc=727181384}}
• Something you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints, and retina (eye) scans{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Paul|date=April 2017|title=Prints charming: how fingerprints are trailblazing mainstream biometrics|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0969-4765(17)30074-7|journal=Biometric Technology Today|volume=2017|issue=4|pages=8–11|doi=10.1016/s0969-4765(17)30074-7|issn=0969-4765}}

Strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor authentication).{{Cite encyclopedia|chapter=Two-Factor Authentication|doi=10.1007/0-387-23483-7_443 |title=Encyclopedia of Cryptography and Security |date=2005 |last1=Landrock |first1=Peter |page=638 |isbn=978-0-387-23473-1 }} The username is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication.{{Cite web|title=Figure 1.5. Marriage remains the most common form of partnership among couples, 2000-07|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932392533|access-date=2021-06-01|doi=10.1787/888932392533}} Usernames and passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.{{cite book|last1=Akpeninor|first1=James Ohwofasa|title=Modern Concepts of Security|date=2013|publisher=AuthorHouse|location=Bloomington, IN|isbn=978-1-4817-8232-6|page=135|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1481782320|access-date=18 January 2018}} Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as time-based one-time password algorithms.{{Cite web |last=Richards|first=G.|date=April 2012|title=One-Time Password (OTP) Pre-Authentication|doi=10.17487/rfc6560|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17487/rfc6560}}

After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change).{{Cite book|last=Schumacher|first=Dietmar|title=International Conference and Exhibition, Barcelona, Spain, 3-6 April 2016 |chapter=Surface geochemical exploration after 85 years: What has been accomplished and what more must be done |date=2016-04-03|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/ice2016-6522983.1|series=SEG Global Meeting Abstracts|pages=100|publisher=Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Association of Petroleum Geologists|doi=10.1190/ice2016-6522983.1}} This is called authorization. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures.{{Citation|title=Authorization And Approval Program|date=2015-10-23|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119203964.ch10|work=Internal Controls Policies and Procedures|pages=69–72|place=Hoboken, NJ, US|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781119203964.ch10|isbn=978-1-119-20396-4|access-date=2021-06-01}} The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies.{{Citation|title=What responses under what conditions?|date=2019-10-02|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqc6hn1.12|work=Local Policies and the European Social Fund|pages=81–102|publisher=Policy Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctvqc6hn1.12|isbn=978-1-4473-4652-4|s2cid=241438707|access-date=2021-06-01}} Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms.{{Cite book|last1=Cheng|first1=Liang|last2=Zhang|first2=Yang|last3=Han|first3=Zhihui|title=2013 IEEE 7th International Conference on Software Security and Reliability |chapter=Quantitatively Measure Access Control Mechanisms across Different Operating Systems |date=June 2013|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/sere.2013.12|pages=50–59|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.1109/sere.2013.12|isbn=978-1-4799-0406-8|s2cid=13261344}} The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.

The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration.{{Citation|chapter=discretionary access control|doi=10.1007/1-4020-0613-6_5225 |title=Computer Science and Communications Dictionary |date=2000 |last1=Weik |first1=Martin H. |page=426 |isbn=978-0-7923-8425-0 }} The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform.{{cite journal| title=Individual Subunits of the Glutamate Transporter EAAC1 Homotrimer Function Independently of Each Other| author1=Grewer, C.| author2=Balani, P.| author3= Weidenfeller, C.| author4=Bartusel, T.| author5= Zhen Tao| author6=Rauen, T.| journal=Biochemistry| volume=44| issue=35| pages=11913–11923| date=10 August 2005| doi=10.1021/bi050987n| pmid=16128593| pmc=2459315}}{{Cite book|first=Jeanne|last=Ellis Ormrod|title=Essentials of educational psychology: big ideas to guide effective teaching|date=2012|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-13-136727-2|oclc=663953375}} The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources. In the mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.

Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access control, available in many advanced database management systems; simple file permissions provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems;{{Cite book|last1=Belim|first1=S. V.|last2=Bogachenko|first2=N. F.|last3=Kabanov|first3=A. N. |title=2018 Dynamics of Systems, Mechanisms and Machines (Dynamics) |chapter=Severity Level of Permissions in Role-Based Access Control |date=November 2018|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/dynamics.2018.8601460|pages=1–5|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.1109/dynamics.2018.8601460|arxiv=1812.11404|isbn=978-1-5386-5941-0|s2cid=57189531}} Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems; and Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers.{{Citation|title=Configuring TACACS and Extended TACACS|date=2002-05-15 |work=Securing and Controlling Cisco Routers |publisher=Auerbach Publications|doi=10.1201/9781420031454|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.1201/9781420031454-18/con%EF%AC%81guring-tacacs-extended-tacacs-peter-davis |isbn=978-0-8493-1290-8 |last1=Davis |first1=Peter T. }}

To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions.{{Citation|title=Developing Effective Security Policies|date=2009-12-18 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420078718-18|work=Risk Analysis and Security Countermeasure Selection|pages=261–274 |publisher=CRC Press|doi=10.1201/9781420078718-18|isbn=978-0-429-24979-2|access-date=2021-06-01}} The U.S. Treasury's guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail.{{cite web|url=https://www.treasury.gov/tigta/auditreports/2004reports/200420131fr.html|title=The Use of Audit Trails to Monitor Key Networks and Systems Should Remain Part of the Computer Security Material Weakness |website=www.treasury.gov|access-date=2017-10-06}}

Also, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions.{{Cite journal|title=fixing-canadas-access-to-medicines-regime-what-you-need-to-know-about-bill-c398|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9902-0152|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Human Rights Documents online|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9902-0152}} This principle is used in the government when dealing with difference clearances.{{Cite journal|last=Salazar|first=Mary K.|date=January 2006|title=Dealing with Uncertain Risks—When to Apply the Precautionary Principle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/216507990605400102|journal=AAOHN Journal|volume=54|issue=1|pages=11–13|doi=10.1177/216507990605400102|s2cid=87769508|issn=0891-0162}} Even though two employees in different departments have a top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privilege to prevent employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to.{{Cite journal|title=We Need to Know More About How the Government Censors Its Employees|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9970-2016117|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Human Rights Documents Online|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9970-2016117}} Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.{{Citation|last=Pournelle|first=Jerry|chapter=1001 Computer Words You Need to Know|date=2004-04-22|chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/40772/chapter-abstract/348693201|title=1001 Computer Words You Need to Know: The Ultimate Guide To The Language Of Computers |publisher=Oxford University Press |series= Oxford Scholarship Online|language=en|doi=10.1093/oso/9780195167757.003.0007|isbn=978-0-19-516775-7|access-date=2021-07-30}}

{{Main|Cryptography}}

Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption.{{Citation|last=Easttom|first=William|title=Elliptic Curve Cryptography|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63115-4_11|work=Modern Cryptography|year=2021|pages=245–256|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-63115-4_11|isbn=978-3-030-63114-7|s2cid=234106555|access-date=2021-06-01}} Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption.{{Cite thesis|date=2014-03-01|title=From Someone Who Has Been There: Information Seeking in Mentoring|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.9776/14322|journal=IConference 2014 Proceedings|publisher=iSchools|doi=10.9776/14322|hdl=1903/14292|isbn=978-0-9884900-1-7|last1=Follman|first1=Rebecca|type=Thesis|hdl-access=free}} Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.

Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and encrypted network communications.{{Citation|last=Weiss|first=Jason|title=Message Digests, Message Authentication Codes, and Digital Signatures|date=2004|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-012742751-5/50012-8|work=Java Cryptography Extensions|pages=101–118|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-012742751-5/50012-8|isbn=978-0-12-742751-5|access-date=2021-06-05}} Older, less secure applications such as Telnet and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as Secure Shell (SSH) that use encrypted network communications.{{cite web| title=Use of RSA Keys with SHA-256 and SHA-512 in the Secure Shell (SSH) Protocol| author=Bider, D.| url=https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/pdfrfc/rfc8332.txt.pdf| publisher=The RFC Series| date=March 2018| access-date=30 November 2023| doi=10.17487/RFC8332}} Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as WPA/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP. Wired communications (such as ITU‑T G.hn) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for authentication and key exchange.{{Cite book|last1=Noh|first1=Jaewon|last2=Kim|first2=Jeehyeong|last3=Kwon|first3=Giwon|last4=Cho|first4=Sunghyun|title=2016 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics-Asia (ICCE-Asia) |chapter=Secure key exchange scheme for WPA/WPA2-PSK using public key cryptography |date=October 2016|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icce-asia.2016.7804782|pages=1–4|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.1109/icce-asia.2016.7804782|isbn=978-1-5090-2743-9|s2cid=10595698}} Software applications such as GnuPG or PGP can be used to encrypt data files and email.{{Cite journal|last=Van Buren|first=Roy F.|date=May 1990|title=How you can use the data encryption standard to encrypt your files and data bases|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/101126.101130|journal=ACM SIGSAC Review|volume=8|issue=2|pages=33–39|doi=10.1145/101126.101130|issn=0277-920X}}

Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly.{{Citation|last=Bonneau|first=Joseph|title=Why Buy when You Can Rent? |date=2016|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53357-4_2|work=Financial Cryptography and Data Security|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|volume=9604|pages=19–26|place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-53357-4_2|isbn=978-3-662-53356-7|s2cid=18122687 |access-date=2021-06-05}} Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography.{{Citation|last1=Coleman|first1=Heather|title=What GIS Experts and Policy Professionals Need to Know about Using Marxan in Multiobjective Planning Processes|date=2015-08-01|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17128/9781589483651_2|work=Ocean Solutions, Earth Solutions|publisher=Esri Press|isbn=978-1-58948-365-1|access-date=2021-06-05|last2=Andron|first2=Jeff|doi=10.17128/9781589483651_2}} The length and strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration.{{Citation|chapter=Key Encryption Key|doi=10.1007/0-387-23483-7_220 |title=Encyclopedia of Cryptography and Security |date=2005 |last1=Landrock |first1=Peter |pages=326–327 |isbn=978-0-387-23473-1 }} A key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption. The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information.{{Citation|last1=Giri|first1=Debasis|date=2010|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13365-7_9|pages=86–96|place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-13364-0|access-date=2021-06-05|last2=Barua|first2=Prithayan|last3=Srivastava|first3=P. D.|last4=Jana|first4=Biswapati|title=Information Security and Assurance |chapter=A Cryptosystem for Encryption and Decryption of Long Confidential Messages |series=Communications in Computer and Information Science |volume=76|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-13365-7_9|bibcode=2010isa..conf...86G}} They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction, and they must be available when needed.{{Citation needed| reason=link no longer works|date=November 2023}} Public key infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround key management.

U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvYbQr9MV_sC&pg=PA288 |title=Corporate Management, Governance, and Ethics Best Practices |author=Vallabhaneni, S.R. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |page=288 |year=2008 |isbn=9780470255803}}

In the field of information security, Harris{{cite book|author=Shon Harris|author-link=Shon Harris|title=All-in-one CISSP Certification Exam Guide|edition=2nd|publisher=McGraw-Hill/Osborne|year=2003|location=Emeryville, California|isbn=978-0-07-222966-0}}

offers the following definitions of due care and due diligence:

"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees{{Cite journal|last=Boncardo|first=Robert|date=2018-09-20|title=Jean-Claude Milner's Mallarmé: Nothing Has Taken Place|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474429528.003.0005|journal=Edinburgh University Press|volume=1|doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474429528.003.0005|s2cid=172045429}}." And, [Due diligence are the] "continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational."{{Citation|title=The Importance of Operational Due Diligence|date=2015-10-16|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119197485.ch2|work=Hedge Fund Operational Due Diligence|pages=49–67|place=Hoboken, NJ, US|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781119197485.ch2|isbn=978-1-119-19748-5|access-date=2021-06-05}}

Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions.{{Cite journal|last=Hall|first=Gaylord C.|date=March 1917|title=Some Important Diagnostic Points the General {{sic|Pract|ioner|nolink=y}} Should Know About the Nose |journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=10|issue=3|pages=211 |doi=10.1097/00007611-191703000-00007 |doi-broken-date=January 29, 2025 |url=https://sma.org/southern-medical-journal/article/some-important-diagnostic-points-the-general-practioner-should-know-about-the-nose/ |issn=0038-4348}}{{Cite book|first=J.|last=Renes|title=Landschappen van Maas en Peel: een toegepast historisch-geografisch onderzoek in het streekplangebied Noord- en Midden-Limburg.|date=1999|publisher=Eisma |isbn=90-74252-84-2|oclc=782897414}} First, in due care, steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts.{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Brook|date=2017-06-22|title=Minding Previous Steps Taken|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190456368.003.0002|journal=Oxford Scholarship Online |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190456368.003.0002|isbn=978-0-19-045639-9}}{{Cite book|last=Lundgren|first=Regina E. |title=Risk communication : a handbook for communicating environmental, safety, and health risks|year=2018|publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-119-45613-1|oclc=1043389392}} Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.{{Citation|last=Jensen|first=Eric Talbot|title=Due Diligence in Cyber Activities|date=2020-12-03|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198869900.003.0015|work=Due Diligence in the International Legal Order|pages=252–270|publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198869900.003.0015|isbn=978-0-19-886990-0|access-date=2021-06-05}}

Organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security. The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA){{cite web|url=https://docra.org/|title=The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard|website=DoCRA|access-date=2018-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814170112/https://docra.org/|archive-date=2018-08-14|url-status=dead}} provides principles and practices for evaluating risk.{{Citation|last1=Sutton|first1=Adam|title=Evaluating crime prevention|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511804601.006|work=Crime Prevention|pages=70–90|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-80460-1|access-date=2021-06-05|last2=Cherney|first2=Adrian|last3=White|first3=Rob|year=2008|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511804601.006}} It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks.{{Cite journal|last=Check|first=Erika|date=2004-09-15|title=FDA considers antidepressant risks for kids|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/news040913-15|journal=Nature|doi=10.1038/news040913-15|issn=0028-0836}} DoCRA helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden.{{Cite journal|last=Auckland|first=Cressida|date=2017-08-16|title=Protecting me from my Directive: Ensuring Appropriate Safeguards for Advance Directives in Dementia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwx037|journal=Medical Law Review|volume=26|issue=1|pages=73–97|doi=10.1093/medlaw/fwx037|pmid=28981694|issn=0967-0742}} With increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.{{Citation|last=Takach|first=George S.|title=Preparing for Breach Litigation|date=2016|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-803451-4.00009-5|work=Data Breach Preparation and Response|pages=217–230|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-803451-4.00009-5|isbn=978-0-12-803451-4|access-date=2021-06-05}}

{{Main|Computer security incident management}}

Computer security incident management is a specialized form of incident management focused on monitoring, detecting, and responding to security events on computers and networks in a predictable way.{{cite web | title =ISO 17799{{!}}ISO/IEC 17799:2005(E) | work =Information technology - Security techniques - Code of practice for information security management | publisher =ISO copyright office | date =2005-06-15 | pages = 90–94 | url = http://www.iso.org }}

Organizations implement this through incident response plans (IRPs) that are activated when security breaches are detected.{{Citation|last=Fowler|first=Kevvie|title=Developing a Computer Security Incident Response Plan|date=2016|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-803451-4.00003-4|work=Data Breach Preparation and Response|pages=49–77|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-803451-4.00003-4|isbn=978-0-12-803451-4}} These plans typically involve an incident response team (IRT) with specialized skills in areas like penetration testing, computer forensics, and network security.{{Citation|last=Johnson|first=Leighton R.|title=Part 1. Incident Response Team|date=2014|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-59749-996-5.00038-8|work=Computer Incident Response and Forensics Team Management|pages=17–19|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-1-59749-996-5.00038-8|isbn=978-1-59749-996-5|access-date=2021-06-05}}

{{Main|Change management (ITSM)}}

Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment.{{Cite journal|last=Kampfner|first=Roberto R.|date=1985|title=Formal specification of information systems requirements |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0306-4573(85)90086-x|journal=Information Processing & Management|volume=21|issue=5|pages=401–414 |doi=10.1016/0306-4573(85)90086-x|issn=0306-4573}}{{Cite book|last=Jenner|first=H.A.|title=Assessment of ecotoxicological risks of element leaching from pulverized coal ashes|date=1995|publisher=s.n.]|oclc=905474381}} This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers, and software.{{Cite book|chapter=Desktop Computers: Software |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28058-8_3|title=Practical Pathology Informatics|year=2006|pages=51–82|place=New York |publisher=Springer-Verlag|doi=10.1007/0-387-28058-8_3|isbn=0-387-28057-X|access-date=2021-06-05}} The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made.{{Cite journal|last1=Wilby|first1=R.L.|last2=Orr|first2=H.G. |last3=Hedger|first3=M.|last4=Forrow|first4=D.|last5=Blackmore|first5=M.|date=December 2006|title=Risks posed by climate change to the delivery of Water Framework Directive objectives in the UK|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2006.06.017 |journal=Environment International|volume=32|issue=8|pages=1043–1055|doi=10.1016/j.envint.2006.06.017|pmid=16857260|bibcode=2006EnInt..32.1043W |issn=0160-4120}} It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbWiDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 |chapter=Chapter 14: Secure Systems Development |title=Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation |author=Campbell, T. |publisher=Apress |year=2016 |page=218 |isbn=9781484216859}}{{Cite book|last=Koppelman|first=Kent L.|title=Understanding human differences : multicultural education for a diverse America|date=2011|publisher=Pearson/Allyn & Bacon |oclc=1245910610}}

Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk.{{Cite book|chapter=Post-processing|date=2013-04-12|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780240821351-9|title=Simple Scene, Sensational Shot|pages=128–147|publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780240821351-9|isbn=978-0-240-82135-1|access-date=2021-06-05}} Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects.{{Cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Binay|last2=Mahto|first2=Tulsi|last3=Kumari|first3=Vinita|last4=Ravi |first4=Binod Kumar|last5=Deepmala|date=2016|title=Quackery: How It Can Prove Fatal Even in Apparently Simple Cases-A Case Report |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-1283.2016.00063.3|journal=Medico-Legal Update|volume=16|issue=2|pages=75|doi=10.5958/0974-1283.2016.00063.3|issn=0971-720X}} One of management's many responsibilities is the management of risk.{{Cite journal |last=Priest|first=Sally|date=2019-02-22|title=Shared roles and responsibilities in flood risk management |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12528|journal=Journal of Flood Risk Management|volume=12|issue=1|pages=e12528 |doi=10.1111/jfr3.12528|bibcode=2019JFRM...12E2528P |s2cid=133789858|issn=1753-318X}}{{Cite book|author=United States. Department of Energy. Office of Inspector General. Office of Scientific and Technical Information|title=Audit Report, "Fire Protection Deficiencies at Los Alamos National Laboratory."|date=2009|publisher=United States. Dept. of Energy|oclc=727225166}} Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment.{{Cite journal|last=Toms|first=Elaine G.|date=January 1992|title=Managing change in libraries and information services; A systems approach |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0306-4573(92)90052-2|journal=Information Processing & Management|volume=28|issue=2|pages=281–282 |doi=10.1016/0306-4573(92)90052-2|issn=0306-4573}} Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.{{Cite book|last=Abolhassan|first=Ferri|chapter=The Change Management Process Implemented at IDS Scheer|date=2003 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-24703-6_2|title=Business Process Change Management|pages=15–22|place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-24703-6_2|isbn=978-3-642-05532-4|access-date=2021-06-05}}

Not every change needs to be managed.{{Cite book|last=Dawson|first=Chris|date=2020-07-01|title=Leading Culture Change |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780804774673|doi=10.1515/9780804774673|isbn=9780804774673|s2cid=242348822}}{{Cite book |author=McCormick, Douglas P.|title=Family Inc. : using business principles to maximize your family's wealth|date=22 March 2016 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-21976-7|oclc=945632737}} Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment.{{Cite journal |last=Schuler|first=Rainer|date=August 1995|title=Some properties of sets tractable under every polynomial-time computable distribution|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-0190(95)00108-o|journal=Information Processing Letters|volume=55|issue=4|pages=179–184|doi=10.1016/0020-0190(95)00108-o|issn=0020-0190}} Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management.{{Cite web|title=Figure 12.2. Share of own-account workers who generally do not have more than one client|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933881610|access-date=2021-06-05 |doi=10.1787/888933881610|format=Excel}} However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity.{{Cite journal |date=June 1987|title=Multi-user file server for DOS LANs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-3664(87)90353-7|journal=Computer Communications|volume=10|issue=3|pages=153|doi=10.1016/0140-3664(87)90353-7|issn=0140-3664}} The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.{{Citation|title=Defining Organizational Change|date=2011-04-19|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444340372.ch1|work=Organizational Change|pages=21–51|place=Oxford, UK|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444340372.ch1|isbn=978-1-4443-4037-2|access-date=2021-06-05}}

Change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key business areas,{{Citation|last1=Kirchmer|first1=Mathias|title=Change Management — Key for Business Process Excellence|date=2003|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-24703-6_1|work=Business Process Change Management|pages=1–14|place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-05532-4|access-date=2021-06-05|last2=Scheer|first2=August-Wilhelm|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-24703-6_1}} security, networking, systems administrators, database administration, application developers, desktop support, and the help desk.{{Citation|last1=More|first1=Josh|title=Tier 2—Advanced Help Desk—Help Desk Supervisor|date=2016|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-800783-9.00029-x|work=Breaking Into Information Security|pages=111–113|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-800783-9|access-date=2021-06-05|last2=Stieber|first2=Anthony J.|last3=Liu|first3=Chris|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-800783-9.00029-x}} The tasks of the change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application.{{Citation|title=An Application of Bayesian Networks in Automated Scoring of Computerized Simulation Tasks|date=2006-04-04|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780415963572-10|work=Automated Scoring of Complex Tasks in Computer-Based Testing|pages=212–264|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780415963572-10|isbn=978-0-415-96357-2|access-date=2021-06-05}} The responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change management procedures are followed.{{Cite journal|last=Kavanagh|first=Michael J.|date=June 1994|title=Change, Change, Change|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1059601194192001|journal=Group & Organization Management|volume=19|issue=2|pages=139–140|doi=10.1177/1059601194192001|s2cid=144169263|issn=1059-6011}} The change management process is as follows{{cite book |chapter=Chapter 10: Understanding the Project Change Process |title=Project Scheduling and Cost Control: Planning, Monitoring and Controlling the Baseline |author=Taylor, J. |publisher=J. Ross Publishing |year=2008 |pages=187–214 |isbn=9781932159110}}

• Request: Anyone can request a change.{{Citation|title=17. Innovation and Change: Can Anyone Do This?|date=2017-12-31 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824860936-019|work=Backstage in a Bureaucracy|pages=87–96|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |doi=10.1515/9780824860936-019|isbn=978-0-8248-6093-6|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{Cite book|last=Braun|first=Adam |title=Promise of a pencil : how an ordinary person can create extraordinary change|date=3 February 2015|publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4767-3063-9|oclc=902912775}} The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change.{{Citation|title=Describing Within-Person Change Over Time|date=2015-01-30 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315744094-14|work=Longitudinal Analysis|pages=235–306 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315744094-14|isbn=978-1-315-74409-4|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{Cite book |first1=Carolyn|last1=Ingraham |first2=Patricia W.|last2=Ban|title=Legislating bureaucratic change : the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978|date=1984 |publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=0-87395-886-1|oclc=10300171}} When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.{{Cite journal|last=Wei|first=J. |date=2000-05-04|title=Preliminary Change Request for the SNS 1.3 GeV-Compatible Ring|doi=10.2172/1157253|osti=1157253 |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1157253/|access-date=18 January 2022 |website=OSTI.GOV}}
• Approve: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change.{{Cite book|last=Chen Liang|title=2011 International Conference on Business Management and Electronic Information |chapter=Allocation priority management of agricultural water resources based on the theory of virtual water |date=May 2011|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icbmei.2011.5917018|volume=1|pages=644–647|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.1109/icbmei.2011.5917018|isbn=978-1-61284-108-3|s2cid=29137725}} Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices.{{Citation|title=Change risks and best practices in Business Change Management Unmanaged change risk leads to problems for change management|date=2013-07-18 |work=Leading and Implementing Business Change Management|pages=32–74|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203073957 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203073957-2/change-risks-best-practices-business-change-management-david-jones-ronald-recardo |isbn=978-0-203-07395-7 |last1=Jones |first1=David J. |last2=Recardo |first2=Ronald J. }}{{Cite book|last=Bragg|first=Steven M.|title=Accounting Best Practices|date=2016|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-118-41780-5|oclc=946625204}} Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.{{Cite journal|date=2008-10-17|title=Successful change requires more than change management |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/hrmid.2008.04416gad.005|journal=Human Resource Management International Digest|volume=16|issue=7 |doi=10.1108/hrmid.2008.04416gad.005|issn=0967-0734}}
• Plan: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing, and documenting both implementation and back-out plans.{{Citation|title=Planning for water resources under climate change|date=2010-09-13|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203846537-20|work=Spatial Planning and Climate Change|pages=287–313|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203846537-20|isbn=978-0-203-84653-7|access-date=2021-06-05}} Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.{{Cite journal|last=Rowan|first=John|date=January 1967|title=Answering the computer back|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb000776|journal=Management Decision|volume=1|issue=1|pages=51–54|doi=10.1108/eb000776|issn=0025-1747}}
• Test: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment.{{Cite journal|last1=Biswas|first1=Margaret R.|last2=Biswas|first2=Asit K.|date=February 1981|title=Climatic change and food production|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-1131(81)90050-3|journal=Agriculture and Environment|volume=5|issue=4|pages=332|doi=10.1016/0304-1131(81)90050-3|issn=0304-1131}} The backout plan must also be tested.{{Citation|chapter=backout|doi=10.1007/1-4020-0613-6_1259 |title=Computer Science and Communications Dictionary |date=2000 |last1=Weik |first1=Martin H. |page=96 |isbn=978-0-7923-8425-0 }}
• Schedule: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.{{Citation|title=Editorial Advisory and Review Board|date=2011-12-06|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/s2043-9059(2011)0000003005|work=Business and Sustainability: Concepts, Strategies and Changes|series=Critical Studies on Corporate Responsibility, Governance and Sustainability|volume=3|pages=xv–xvii|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited|doi=10.1108/s2043-9059(2011)0000003005|isbn=978-1-78052-438-2|access-date=2021-06-05}}
• Communicate: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated.{{Citation|title=Where a Mirage Has Once Been, Life Must Be|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv6sj8d1.65|work=New and Selected Poems|year=2014|pages=103|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv6sj8d1.65|isbn=978-1-61117-323-9|access-date=2021-06-05}} The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change.{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Marvin |title=Two, When There Might Have Been Three |journal=The Antioch Review |date=1983 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=209 |doi=10.2307/4611230 |jstor=4611230 }} The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a change is about to occur.{{Cite journal|title=We can also make change|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-0148-2015175|access-date=2021-06-05|website=Human Rights Documents Online|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-0148-2015175}} Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.{{cite SSRN|last1=Mazikana |first1=Anthony Tapiwa |title='Change Is the Law of Life. and Those Who Look only to the past or Present Are Certain to Miss the Future- John F. Kennedy' Assessing This Statement with References to Organizations in Zimbabwe Who Have Been Affected by Change. |date=5 November 2020|ssrn=3725707 }}{{Cite book|editor-last=Ramanadham|editor-first=V. V.|title=Privatisation in the UK|isbn=978-0-429-19973-8|oclc=1085890184}}
• Implement: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented.{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-22|title=More complex/realistic rheology must be implemented; Numerical convergence tests must be performed|doi=10.5194/gmd-2020-107-rc2|s2cid=241597573 |doi-access=free |journal= Geoloscientific Model Development Discussions}}{{Cite book |author=Stone, Edward|title=Edward C. Stone Collection|oclc=733102101}} Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan.{{Cite book|last=Lientz|first=B|chapter=Develop Your Improvement Implementation Plan|date=2002|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-449984-3.50011-8|title=Achieve Lasting Process Improvement |pages=151–171|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-449984-3.50011-8|isbn=978-0-12-449984-3|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{Cite book|last=Smeets|first=Peter|title=Expeditie agroparken : ontwerpend onderzoek naar metropolitane landbouw en duurzame ontwikkeling|date=2009|publisher=s.n.]|isbn=978-90-8585-515-6 |oclc=441821141}} If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.{{Cite web|title=Figure 1.3. About 50 percent of the Going for Growth recommendations have been implemented or are in process of implementation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933323735|access-date=2021-06-05|doi=10.1787/888933323735}}
• Document: All changes must be documented.{{Citation|last=Kekes|first=John|title=Must Justice Be Done at All Costs?|date=2019-02-21|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190919986.003.0005|work=Hard Questions|pages=98–126|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780190919986.003.0005|isbn=978-0-19-091998-6|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{Cite book |last=Forrester|first=Kellie|title=Macroeconomic implications of changes in the composition of the labor force|year=2014|publisher=University of California, Santa Barbara |isbn=978-1-321-34938-2|oclc=974418780}} The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation,{{Cite journal|last1=Choudhury|first1=Gagan L.|last2=Rappaport|first2=Stephen S.|date=October 1981 |title=Demand assigned multiple access systems using collision type request channels|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1013879.802667 |journal=ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review|volume=11|issue=4|pages=136–148|doi=10.1145/1013879.802667|issn=0146-4833}} testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was implemented,{{Cite journal|last=Crinson|first=Mark|date=2013|title="Certain Old and Lovely Things, Whose Signified Is Abstract, Out of Date": James Stirling and Nostalgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cot.2013.0000|journal=Change over Time|volume=3|issue=1|pages=116–135|doi=10.1353/cot.2013.0000|s2cid=144451363 |issn=2153-0548}} who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.{{Cite book|last1=Ahwidy|first1=Mansour|last2=Pemberton|first2=Lyn|title=Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies for Ageing Well and e-Health |chapter=What Changes Need to be Made within the LNHS for Ehealth Systems to be Successfully Implemented? |date=2016|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5220/0005620400710079|pages=71–79|publisher=Scitepress|doi=10.5220/0005620400710079|isbn=978-989-758-180-9}}{{Cite book|last=Mortimer|first=John|title=Paradise postponed|date=April 2010|publisher=Penguin Adult |isbn=978-0-14-104952-6 |oclc=495596392}}
• Post-change review: The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of changes.{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41577-021-00544-9 | title=Concerns about SARS-CoV-2 evolution should not hold back efforts to expand vaccination | year=2021 | last1=Cobey | first1=Sarah | last2=Larremore | first2=Daniel B. | last3=Grad | first3=Yonatan H. | last4=Lipsitch | first4=Marc | journal=Nature Reviews Immunology | volume=21 | issue=5 | pages=330–335 | pmid=33795856 | pmc=8014893 }} It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.

Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment.{{Citation|last=Frampton|first=Michael|title=Processing Data with Map Reduce|date=2014-12-26|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-0094-0_4|work=Big Data Made Easy|pages=85–120|place=Berkeley, CA|publisher=Apress|doi=10.1007/978-1-4842-0094-0_4|isbn=978-1-4842-0095-7|access-date=2021-06-05}} Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented.{{Cite journal|date=2016-02-23|title=Good study overall, but several procedures need fixing|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/preprints/hess-2015-520/hess-2015-520-RC2.pdf|doi=10.5194/hess-2015-520-rc2|access-date=18 January 2022 |doi-access=free|journal= Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions}} This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation, and communication.{{cite web|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA313949 |id={{DTIC|ADA313949}} |last1=Harrison |first1=Kent |last2=Craft |first2=Walter M. |last3=Hiller |first3=Jack |last4=McCluskey |first4=Michael R.|author5=BDM Federal Inc Seaside CA |date=July 1996 |title=Peer Review Coordinating Draft. Task Analysis for Conduct Intelligence Planning (Critical Combat Function 1): As Accomplished by a Battalion Task Force }}

ISO/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps[http://www.itpi.org/home/visibleops2.php itpi.org] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210081531/http://www.itpi.org/home/visibleops2.php |date=December 10, 2013 }} (Full book summary),{{cite web|url=http://www.wikisummaries.org/wiki/Visible_Ops |title=book summary of The Visible Ops Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps |publisher=wikisummaries.org |access-date=2016-06-22}} and ITIL all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security.{{Citation|last=Bigelow|first=Michelle|title=Change Control and Change Management|date=2020-09-23|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003126294-17|work=Implementing Information Security in Healthcare|pages=203–214|publisher=HIMSS Publishing|doi=10.4324/9781003126294-17|isbn=978-1-003-12629-4|s2cid=224866307|access-date=2021-06-05}}

{{Main|Business continuity planning}}

Business continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects.{{Citation|title=Business continuity management. Guidance on organization recovery following disruptive incidents |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/30194308|publisher=BSI British Standards|doi=10.3403/30194308|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{Cite book|last=Hoanh|first=Chu Thai|title=Development of a computerized aid to integrated land use planning (cailup) at regional level in irrigated areas : a case study for the Quan Lo Phung Hiep region in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam|date=1996|publisher=ITC |isbn=90-6164-120-9|oclc=906763535}} BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual.1{{Citation|last=Hibberd|first=Gary|title=Developing a BCM Strategy in Line with Business Strategy|date=2015-09-11|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119205883.ch2|work=The Definitive Handbook of Business Continuity Management|pages=23–30|place=Hoboken, NJ, US|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781119205883.ch2 |isbn=978-1-119-20588-3|access-date=2021-06-05}} The BCM should be included in an organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.{{cite book |last1=Hotchkiss |first1=Stuart |title=Business Continuity Management: In Practice |date=2010 |publisher=BCS Learning & Development Limited |isbn=978-1-906124-72-4 }}{{page needed|date=January 2023}}

It encompasses:

• Analysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;{{Citation|title=Identifying Potential Failure Causes |date=2009|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.tb.sfa.t52780025|work=Systems Failure Analysis|pages=25–33|publisher=ASM International|doi=10.31399/asm.tb.sfa.t52780025|isbn=978-1-62708-268-6|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{Cite book|last=Clemens |first=Jeffrey|title=Risks to the returns to medical innovation : the case of myriad genetics|oclc=919958196}}
• Specification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum acceptable periods of data loss);{{Citation|last=Goatcher|first=Genevieve|title=Maximum Acceptable Outage |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452275956.n204|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Crisis Management|year=2013|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|doi=10.4135/9781452275956.n204|isbn=978-1-4522-2612-5|access-date=2021-06-05}}
• Architecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability,{{Citation|title=Segment Design Tradeoffs|date=2002-01-17 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/047121664x.ch6|work=Software Radio Architecture|pages=236–243|place=New York, US|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/047121664x.ch6|isbn=978-0-471-21664-3|access-date=2021-06-05}} avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g., evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage/situation{{Cite book|last=Blundell|first=S.|title=IEE Seminar Using ITS in Public Transport and in Emergency Services |chapter=IN-EMERGENCY - integrated incident management, emergency healthcare and environmental monitoring in road networks |date=1998|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/ic:19981090 |volume=1998|page=9|publisher=IEE|doi=10.1049/ic:19981090}} assessment and invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);{{Cite journal|last=King|first=Jonathan R.|title=Contingency Plans and Business Recovery|date=January 1993|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10580539308906959|journal=Information Systems Management|volume=10|issue=4|pages=56–59|doi=10.1080/10580539308906959|issn=1058-0530}}
• Implementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;
• Testing, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;{{Citation|last1=Phillips|first1=Brenda D.|title=Strengthening and testing your business continuity plan|date=2021|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813844-1.00001-4|work=Business Continuity Planning|pages=131–153|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-813844-1|access-date=2021-06-05|last2=Landahl|first2=Mark|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-813844-1.00001-4|s2cid=230582246}}
• Management, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities{{Citation|last=Schnurr|first=Stephanie|title=The 'Other' Side of Leadership Discourse: Humour and the Performance of Relational Leadership Activities|date=2009|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230594692_3|work=Leadership Discourse at Work|pages=42–60|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|doi=10.1057/9780230594692_3|isbn=978-1-349-30001-3|access-date=2021-06-05}} (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate investment;{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}
• Assurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing, and reporting key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.{{Citation|title=Specified time relays for industrial use|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3403/02011580u|publisher=BSI British Standards|doi=10.3403/02011580u|access-date=2021-06-05}}

Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster.{{Cite book|chapter=Sample Generic Plan and Procedure: Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) for Operations/Data Center|date=2010|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-85617-698-9.00025-4|title=Workplace Violence|pages=253–270|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-1-85617-698-9.00025-4|isbn=978-1-85617-698-9|access-date=2021-06-05}} A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure.{{Cite book|chapter=Information Technology Disaster Recovery Plan|date=2015|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-84334-730-9.00019-3|title=Disaster Planning for Libraries|series=Chandos Information Professional Series|pages=187–197|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-1-84334-730-9.00019-3|isbn=978-1-84334-730-9|access-date=2021-06-05}} Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.{{cite web|title=The Disaster Recovery Plan|url=http://www.sans.org/reading_room/whitepapers/recovery/disaster-recovery-plan_1164|publisher=Sans Institute|access-date=7 February 2012}}

File:Privacy International 2007 privacy ranking map.png 2007 privacy ranking
green: Protections and safeguards
red: Endemic surveillance societies]]

Below is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security.{{Cite journal|title=Figure 1.10. Regulations in non-manufacturing sector have significant impact on the manufacturing sector |author=OECD |date=2016 |journal=Economic Policy Reforms 2016: Going for Growth Interim Report |series=Economic Policy Reforms |publisher=OECD Publishing |place=Paris |doi=10.1787/growth-2016-en |isbn=9789264250079 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933323807|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{Cite book |title=Ahupuaʻa [electronic resource] : World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008, May 12-16, 2008, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi|date=2008|publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers|isbn=978-0-7844-0976-3 |oclc=233033926}} Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security.

• The UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information.{{Cite book |author=Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons|title=Data protection [H.L.] A bill [as amended in standing committee d] intituled an act to make new provision for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information|date=2007|publisher=Proquest LLC|oclc=877574826}}{{Citation|title=Data protection, access to personal information and privacy protection|date=2019 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781784518998.chapter-002|work=Government and Information Rights: The Law Relating to Access, Disclosure and their Regulation|publisher=Bloomsbury Professional|doi=10.5040/9781784518998.chapter-002|isbn=978-1-78451-896-7|s2cid=239376648|access-date=2021-06-05}} The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all E.U. members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the E.U.{{Cite book|last=Lehtonen|first=Lasse A.|chapter=Genetic Information and the Data Protection Directive of the European Union|date=2017-07-05|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315240350-8|title=The Data Protection Directive and Medical Research Across Europe|pages=103–112|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315240350-8|isbn=978-1-315-24035-0|access-date=2021-06-05}}{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/29/contents |title=Data Protection Act 1998 |work=legislation.gov.uk |publisher=The National Archives |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the U.K. Parliament making computer crime (e.g., hacking) a criminal offense.{{Cite book|chapter=Computer Misuse Act 1990|date=2013-06-17|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203722763-42|title=Criminal Law Statutes 2011-2012|pages=114–118|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203722763-42|isbn=978-0-203-72276-3|access-date=2021-06-05}} The act has become a model upon which several other countries,{{Cite web|last1=Dharmapala|first1=Dhammika|last2=Hines|first2=James|date=December 2006|title=Which Countries Become Tax Havens?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w12802|series=Working Paper Series|location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w12802}} including Canada and Ireland, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.{{Cite web|title=Figure 1.14. Participation rates have risen but labour force growth has slowed in several countries|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933367391|access-date=2021-06-05|doi=10.1787/888933367391}}{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/18/contents |title=Computer Misuse Act 1990 |work=legislation.gov.uk |publisher=The National Archives |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• The E.U.'s Data Retention Directive (annulled) required internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years.{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32006L0024 |title=Directive 2006/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2006 |publisher=European Union |work=EUR-Lex |date=15 March 2006 |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) ({{usc|20|1232}} g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records.{{Cite book|chapter=Defamation, Student Records, and the Federal Family Education Rights and Privacy Act|date=2010-12-14|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203846940-22|title=Higher Education Law|pages=361–394|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203846940-22|isbn=978-0-203-84694-0|access-date=2021-06-05}} The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education.{{Cite journal|date=2004|title=Alabama Schools Receive NCLB Grant To Improve Student Achievement|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e486682006-001|access-date=2021-06-05|website=PsycEXTRA Dataset|doi=10.1037/e486682006-001}} Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student{{Cite book|first=Karen|last=Turner-Gottschang |title=China bound : a guide to academic life and work in the PRC : for the Committee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China, National Academy of Sciences, American Council of Learned Societies, Social Science Research Council|date=1987 |publisher=National Academy Press|isbn=0-309-56739-4|oclc=326709779}} in order to release any information from a student's education record.Codified at {{UnitedStatesCode|20|1232g}}, with implementing regulations in title 34, part 99 of the Code of Federal Regulations
• The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.{{cite web |url=https://ithandbook.ffiec.gov/it-booklets/audit.aspx |title=Audit Booklet |publisher=FFIEC |work=Information Technology Examination Handbook |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers.{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Ray|first=Amy W.|title=Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412950602.n369|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Health Care Management|year=2004|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|doi=10.4135/9781412950602.n369|isbn=978-0-7619-2674-0|access-date=2021-06-05}} Additionally, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.{{cite web |url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ191/content-detail.html |title=Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 |publisher=U.S. Government Publishing Office |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.{{cite web |url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-113/pdf/STATUTE-113-Pg1338.pdf |title=Public Law 106 - 102 - Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 |publisher=U.S. Government Publishing Office |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year.{{Cite thesis|title=The impact of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) on small-sized publicly traded companies and their communities|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17760/d20204801|publisher=Northeastern University Library|first=Abayomi Oluwatosin|last=Alase|year=2016|doi=10.17760/d20204801}} Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy, and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data.{{Cite thesis|title=Educational and Professional Trends of Chief Financial Officers|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.15760/honors.763|publisher=Portland State University Library|first=Lupita|last=Solis|year=2019|doi=10.15760/honors.763}} The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.{{cite web |url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ204/html/PLAW-107publ204.htm |title=Public Law 107 - 204 - Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 |publisher=U.S. Government Publishing Office |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security.{{Citation|title=Pci Dss Glossary, Abbreviations, and Acronyms|date=2015-09-18|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119197218.gloss|work=Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard Handbook|pages=185–199|place=Hoboken, NJ, US|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781119197218.gloss|isbn=978-1-119-19721-8|access-date=2021-06-05}} It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council — including American Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide,{{Citation|title=PCI Breakdown (Control Objectives and Associated Standards)|date=2015-09-18|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119197218.part2|work=Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard Handbook|pages=61|place=Hoboken, NJ, US|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781119197218.part2|isbn=978-1-119-19721-8|access-date=2021-06-05}} and Visa International — to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis.{{Cite web|last1=Ravallion|first1=Martin|last2=Chen|first2=Shaohua|date=August 2017|title=Welfare-Consistent Global Poverty Measures|series=Working Paper Series |url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w23739 |access-date=18 January 2022|doi=10.3386/w23739}} The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software design, and other critical protective measures.{{cite web |url=https://www.pcisecuritystandards.org/documents/PCI_DSS_v3-2.pdf |title=Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard: Requirements and Security Assessment Procedures - Version 3.2 |publisher=Security Standards Council |date=April 2016 |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• State security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted "personal information" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.{{cite web |url=http://www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-technology/security-breach-notification-laws.aspx |title=Security Breach Notification Laws |publisher=National Conference of State Legislatures |date=12 April 2017 |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• The Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) of Canada supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances,{{Cite book|editor1-last=Stein|editor1-first=Stuart G.|editor2-last=Schaberg|editor2-first=Richard A.|editor3-last=Biddle|editor3-first=Laura R.|title=Financial institutions answer book, 2015 : law, governance, compliance|date=23 June 2015|publisher=Practising Law Institute |isbn=978-1-4024-2405-2|oclc=911952833}}{{Citation|title=Personal Information and Data Protection|date=2019|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781509924882.ch-002|work=Protecting Personal Information|publisher=Hart Publishing|doi=10.5040/9781509924882.ch-002|isbn=978-1-5099-2485-1|s2cid=239275871|access-date=2021-06-05}} by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.{{Cite book|title=Chapter 5. An Act to support and promote electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances, by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act|date=2000|publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada|oclc=61417862}}{{Cite journal|date=1984|title=Comments|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/slr/5.1.184|journal=Statute Law Review|volume=5|issue=1|pages=184–188|doi=10.1093/slr/5.1.184|issn=0144-3593}}{{cite web |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/P-8.6.pdf |title=Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act |publisher=Canadian Minister of Justice |access-date=25 January 2018}}
• Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165/2011) establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and/or services in Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality.{{Cite journal|last=Werner|first=Martin|date=2011-05-11|title=Privacy-protected communication for location-based services|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sec.330|journal=Security and Communication Networks|volume=9|issue=2|pages=130–138|doi=10.1002/sec.330|issn=1939-0114}} These include both managerial and technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).{{cite web |url=http://www.adae.gr/fileadmin/docs/nomoi/kanonismoi/ADAE_REGULATION_165.2011.pdf |title=Regulation for the Assurance of Confidentiality in Electronic Communications |work=Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic |publisher=Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy |date=17 November 2011 |access-date=25 January 2018 |archive-date=June 25, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625211034/http://www.adae.gr/fileadmin/docs/nomoi/kanonismoi/ADAE_REGULATION_165.2011.pdf |url-status=dead }}
• Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205/2013) concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data offered by Greek telecommunication companies.{{Citation|last=de Guise|first=Preston|title=Security, Privacy, Ethical, and Legal Considerations|date=2020-04-29|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780367463496-9|work=Data Protection|pages=91–108|publisher=Auerbach Publications|doi=10.1201/9780367463496-9|isbn=978-0-367-46349-6|s2cid=219013948|access-date=2021-06-05}} The law forces these and other related companies to build, deploy, and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant infrastructures.{{cite web |url=http://www.adae.gr/fileadmin/docs/nomoi/kanonismoi/Kanonismos_FEK_1742_B_15_07_2013_asfaleia_akeraiotita__ADAE_205_2013.pdf |title=Αριθμ. απόφ. 205/2013 |work=Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic |publisher=Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy |date=15 July 2013 |access-date=25 January 2018 |archive-date=February 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204010458/http://www.adae.gr/fileadmin/docs/nomoi/kanonismoi/Kanonismos_FEK_1742_B_15_07_2013_asfaleia_akeraiotita__ADAE_205_2013.pdf |url-status=dead }}

The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.[https://library.iated.org/view/ANDERSON2019CYB Andersson and Reimers, 2019, CYBER SECURITY EMPLOYMENT POLICY AND WORKPLACE DEMAND IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT, EDULEARN19 Proceedings, Publication year: 2019 Pages: 7858-786]

Describing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both positive and negative ways.{{cite web|url=https://securitycultureframework.net/definition-of-security-culture/|title=Definition of Security Culture|date=9 April 2014|website=The Security Culture Framework|access-date=January 27, 2019|archive-date=January 27, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127205759/https://securitycultureframework.net/definition-of-security-culture/|url-status=dead}} Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization. The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Roer & Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of information security culture in organizations:{{Cite book|title=The 2017 Security Culture Report - In depth insights into the human factor|last1=Roer|first1=Kai|last2=Petric|first2=Gregor|publisher=CLTRe North America, Inc|year=2017|isbn=978-1544933948|pages=42–43}}

• Attitudes: employees' feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the organizational security of information.{{Cite book|date=2018-03-21|editor-last=Akhtar|editor-first=Salman|title=Good Feelings|publisher=Routledge|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429475313|doi=10.4324/9780429475313|isbn=9780429475313}}
• Behaviors: actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or indirect impact on information security.
• Cognition: employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices, activities, and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.
• Communication: ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support for security issues, and incident reporting.
• Compliance: adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.
• Norms: perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-communication technologies.
• Responsibilities: employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the organization.

Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization Information Security "effort" and often take actions that ignore organizational information security best interests.Anderson, D., Reimers, K. and Barretto, C. (March 2014). Post-Secondary Education Network Security: Results of Addressing the End-User Challenge.publication date Mar 11, 2014 publication description INTED2014 (International Technology, Education, and Development Conference) Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change, authors commented, "It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.{{cite journal|last1=Schlienger|first1=Thomas|last2=Teufel|first2=Stephanie|date=December 2003|title=Information security culture - from analysis to change|journal=South African Computer Society (SAICSIT)|volume=2003|issue=31|pages=46–52|hdl=10520/EJC27949}}

• Pre-evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze current security policy
• Strategic planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets. Clustering people is helpful to achieve it
• Operative planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness, and training programs
• Implementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees
• Post-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous improvement

{{colbegin}}

• Backup
• Capability-based security
• Data-centric security
• Enterprise information security architecture
• Gordon–Loeb model for information security investments
• Identity-based security
• Information infrastructure
• Information privacy
• Information security indicators
• Information technology
• IT risk
• ITIL security management
• Kill chain
• List of computer security certifications
• Mobile security
• Network Security Services
• Privacy engineering
• Privacy-enhancing technologies
• Security convergence
• Security information management
• Security level management
• Security of Information Act
• Security service (telecommunication)
• Verification and validation

{{colend}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Refbegin|35em}}

• {{cite book|last=Allen|first=Julia H.|title=The CERT Guide to System and Network Security Practices|publisher=Addison-Wesley|year=2001|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-201-73723-3|url=https://archive.org/details/certguidetosyste00alle}}
• {{cite book|last=Krutz|first=Ronald L.|author2=Russell Dean Vines|title=The CISSP Prep Guide|edition=Gold|publisher=Wiley|year=2003|location=Indianapolis, IN| isbn=978-0-471-26802-4}}
• {{cite book|last=Layton|first=Timothy P.|title=Information Security: Design, Implementation, Measurement, and Compliance|publisher=Auerbach publications|year=2007| location=Boca Raton, FL|isbn=978-0-8493-7087-8 }}
• {{cite book|last=McNab|first=Chris|title=Network Security Assessment|publisher=O'Reilly|year=2004|location=Sebastopol, CA|isbn=978-0-596-00611-2}}
• {{cite book|last=Peltier|first=Thomas R.|title=Information Security Risk Analysis|publisher=Auerbach publications|year=2001|location=Boca Raton, FL|isbn=978-0-8493-0880-2}}
• {{cite book|last=Peltier|first=Thomas R.|title=Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards: guidelines for effective information security management| publisher=Auerbach publications|year=2002|location=Boca Raton, FL|isbn=978-0-8493-1137-6}}
• {{cite book|last=White|first=Gregory|title=All-in-one Security+ Certification Exam Guide|publisher=McGraw-Hill/Osborne|year=2003|location=Emeryville, CA|isbn= 978-0-07-222633-1}}
• {{cite book|last=Dhillon|first=Gurpreet|title=Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2007|location=NY|isbn=978-0-471-45056-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofinfo0000dhil}}
• {{Cite book|last1=Whitman|first1=Michael|title=Principles of Information Security|last2=Mattord|first2=Herbert|publisher=Cengage|year=2017|isbn=978-1337102063}}

{{Refend}}

{{Refbegin|35em}}

• Anderson, K., "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080402234040/http://www.scmagazineus.com/IT-security-professionals-must-evolve-for-changing-market/article/33990/ IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market]", SC Magazine, October 12, 2006.
• Aceituno, V., "On Information Security Paradigms", ISSA Journal, September 2005.
• Easttom, C., Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition) Pearson Education, 2011.
• Lambo, T., "ISO/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification", ISSA Journal, November 2006.
• Dustin, D., " [http://blog.brisbanedatarecovery.com.au/2017/05/awareness-of-how-your-data-is-being.html Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It]", "CDR Blog", May 2017.
• Dhillon, G., "[https://www.jissec.org/Contents/V19/N2/V19N2-Dhillon-p91.pdf The intellectual core of Information Systems Security]", Journal of Information Systems Security, Vol. 19, No 2.

{{Refend}}

{{Commons category}}

• [http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/ia_policychart.html DoD IA Policy Chart] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906012808/http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/ia_policychart.html |date=2011-09-06 }} on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.
• [http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms998382.aspx patterns & practices Security Engineering Explained]
• [http://www.iwar.org.uk/comsec/ IWS – Information Security Chapter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108164220/http://www.iwar.org.uk/comsec/ |date=2019-11-08 }}
• [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/book.html Ross Anderson's book "Security Engineering"]

{{Computer science}}

{{SecurityType}}

{{Information security}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Data security

Category:Security

Category:Crime prevention

Category:National security

Category:Cryptography

Category:Information governance