Internal structure of Earth

File:Earth Internal Structure.svg

The internal structure of Earth are the layers of the Earth, excluding its atmosphere and hydrosphere. The structure consists of an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous asthenosphere, and solid mantle, a liquid outer core whose flow generates the Earth's magnetic field, and a solid inner core.

Scientific understanding of the internal structure of Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of Earth's deep interior.

Global properties

class="wikitable"

|+Chemical composition of the upper internal structure of Earth{{Cite book |url=http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7559.pdf |title=The Structure of Earth and Its Constituents |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=4}}

!Chemical element

!Continental crust (%)

!Upper mantle (%)

!Pyrolite model (%)

!Chondrite model (1) (%)

!Chondrite model (2) (%)

MgO

|4.4

|36.6

|38.1

|26.3

|38.1

Al₂O₃

|15.8

|4.6

|2.7

|3.9

SiO₂

|59.1

|45.4

|45.1

|29.8

|43.2

CaO

|6.4

|3.7

|3.1

|2.6

|3.9

FeO

|6.6

|8.1

|7.9

|6.4

|9.3

Other oxides

|7.7

|1.4

|1.2

|N/A

|5.5

|N/A

|25.8

|N/A

|1.7

|N/A

|3.5

|N/A

Note: In chondrite model (1), the light element in the core is assumed to be Si. Chondrite model (2) is a model of chemical composition of the mantle corresponding to the model of core shown in chondrite model (1).File:The Blue Marble (remastered).jpg taken by the crew of Apollo 17 in 1972. A processed version became widely known as The Blue Marble.{{cite journal |last=Petsko |first=Gregory A. |author-link=Gregory Petsko |date=28 April 2011 |title=The blue marble |journal=Genome Biology |volume=12 |issue=4 |page=112 |doi=10.1186/gb-2011-12-4-112 |pmc=3218853 |pmid=21554751 |doi-access=free }}{{cite web |date=1 November 2012 |title=Apollo Imagery – AS17-148-22727 |url=https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/apollo17/html/as17-148-22727.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420043021/https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/apollo17/html/as17-148-22727.html |archive-date=20 April 2019 |access-date=22 October 2020 |publisher=NASA}}]]Measurements of the force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites. Earth's average density can be determined through gravimetric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums. The mass of Earth is about {{val|6|e=24|u=kg}}.M_E = 5·9722×10²⁴ kg ± 6×10²⁰ kg. "[http://asa.usno.navy.mil/static/files/2016/Astronomical_Constants_2016.pdf 2016 Selected Astronomical Constants] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215143441/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/static/files/2016/Astronomical_Constants_2016.pdf |date=2016-02-15 }}" in {{citation |title=The Astronomical Almanac Online |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/ |publisher=USNO–UKHO |access-date=2016-02-18 |archive-date=2016-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224174302/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/static/files/2016/Astronomical_Constants_2016.pdf |url-status=dead }} The average density of Earth is {{val|5.515|u=g/cm³}}.{{cite web |title=Planetary Fact Sheet |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/ |access-date=2 January 2009 |work=Lunar and Planetary Science |publisher=NASA |archive-date=24 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324033129/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/ |url-status=live }}

Layers

The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth are at increasing depths below the surface.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Earth's structure, global |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |last=Montagner |first=Jean-Paul |date=2011 |editor-last1=Gupta |editor-first1=Harsh |isbn=9789048187010}}{{Rp|page=146}}

= Crust and lithosphere =

File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg, which are:{{Hlist|{{Legend inline|#fee6aa|Pacific Plate}}|{{Legend inline|#fb9a7a|African Plate}}|{{Legend inline|#ac8d7f|North American Plate}}|{{Legend inline|#7fa172|Eurasian Plate}}|{{Legend inline|#8a9dbe|Antarctic Plate}}|{{Legend inline|#fcb482|Indo-Australian Plate}}|{{Legend inline|#ad82b0|South American Plate}}}}]]

Earth's crust ranges from {{convert|5|to(-)|70|km}}{{cite news |url=https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-abc/layers-earth-structure/ |title=What are the layers of the Earth? |date=21 August 2018 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Mihai |last=Andrei |work=ZME Science |archive-date=12 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512013554/https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-abc/layers-earth-structure/ |url-status=live }} in depth and is the outermost layer.{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/earths-structure-crust-inner-core-16911.html |title=Earth's Structure From the Crust to the Inner Core |date=25 April 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Lisa |last=Chinn |work=Sciencing |publisher=Leaf Group Media |archive-date=30 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730091442/https://sciencing.com/earths-structure-crust-inner-core-16911.html |url-status=live }} The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlies the ocean basins (5–10 km) and is mafic-rich{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WA9ST5S_2v0C&pg=PA44 |title=An Introduction to Our Dynamic Planet |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press and The Open University |isbn=978-0-521-49424-3 |editor-last=Rogers |editor-first=N. |page=19 |access-date=2022-08-08 |archive-date=2016-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502212957/https://books.google.com/books?id=WA9ST5S_2v0C&pg=PA44 |url-status=live }} (dense iron-magnesium silicate mineral or igneous rock).{{cite book |title=Glossary of Geology |date=1997 |publisher=American Geological Institute |isbn=0922152349 |editor1-last=Jackson |editor1-first=Julia A. |edition=4th |location=Alexandria, Virginia |chapter=mafic}} The thicker crust is the continental crust, which is less dense{{cite encyclopedia |author= |title=Continental crust |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=5 September 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/continental-crust |access-date=6 October 2024 }} and is felsic-rich (igneous rocks rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz).{{cite book |last1=Schmidt |first1=Victor A. |url=http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/other/contents.html |title=Planet Earth and the New Geosciences |last2=Harbert |first2=William |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7872-4296-1 |edition=3rd |page=442 |chapter=The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics |publisher=Kendall/Hunt |access-date=2008-01-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124060304/http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/other/contents.html |archive-date=2010-01-24 |url-status=dead}} {{cite web |title=Unit 3: The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics |website=Planet Earth and the New Geosciences |first1=Victor A. |last1=Schmidt |first2=William |last2=Harbert |publisher=Adam Mickiewicz University |location=Poznańb|url=http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/c_iii/chap03.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328212854/http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/c_iii/chap03.html |archive-date=2010-03-28}} The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories – sial (aluminium silicate) and sima (magnesium silicate).{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=H. |date=1955-01-01 |title=The oceanic crust |url=https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal_of_marine_research/854 |journal=Journal of Marine Research |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=424 |quote=It has been common practice to subdivide the crust into sial and sima. These terms refer to generalized compositions, sial being those rocks rich in Si and Al and sima those rich in Si and Mg.}} It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity,{{cite book |last1=Kearey |first1=P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYqZntfg25UC&dq=%22conrad+discontinuity%22&pg=PA19 |title=Global Tectonics |last2=Klepeis |first2=K. A. |last3=Vine |first3=F. J. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2009 |isbn=9781405107778 |edition=3 |pages=19–21 |accessdate=30 June 2012}} though the discontinuity is not distinct and can be absent in some continental regions.{{cite book |last=Lowrie |first=W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7vR2RJSIGVoC&dq=%22conrad+discontinuity%22&pg=PA149 |title=Fundamentals of Geophysics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780521467285 |pages=149 |accessdate=30 June 2012}}

Earth's lithosphere consists of the crust and the uppermost mantle.{{Cite book |url= |title=Human Geoscience |publisher=Springer Science+Business Media |year=2020 |isbn=978-981-329-224-6 |editor-last=Himiyama |editor-first=Yukio |location=Singapore |page=27 |oclc=1121043185 |editor-last2=Satake |editor-first2=Kenji |editor-last3=Oki |editor-first3=Taikan}} The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different phenomena. The Mohorovičić discontinuity is a distinct change of seismic wave velocity. This is caused by a change in the rock's density{{Citation |last1=Rudnick |first1=R. L. |title=3.01 – Composition of the Continental Crust |date=2003-01-01 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080437516030164 |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |volume=3 |page=659 |editor-last=Holland |editor-first=Heinrich D. |publisher=Pergamon |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R |doi=10.1016/b0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |access-date=2019-11-21 |last2=Gao |first2=S. |editor2-last=Turekian |editor2-first=Karl K.|url-access=subscription }} – immediately above the Moho, the velocities of primary seismic waves (P wave) are consistent with those through basalt (6.7–7.2 km/s), and below they are similar to those through peridotite or dunite (7.6–8.6 km/s).{{cite book |first1=R. B. |last1=Cathcart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bZBEM31K1MC&pg=PA169 |title=Macro-engineering: a challenge for the future |first2=M. M. |last2=Ćirković |date=2006 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-3739-9 |editor1-first=Viorel |editor1-last=Badescu |page=169 |editor2-first=Richard Brook |editor2-last=Cathcart |editor2-link=Richard Cathcart |editor3-first=Roelof D. |editor3-last=Schuiling |name-list-style=amp}} Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.{{Clarify|reason=Too technical, a simpler explanation is warranted|date=August 2022}}

Many rocks making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are about 4.4 billion years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least 4.4 billion years.{{cite web |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0101/14earthwater/ |title=Oldest rock shows Earth was a hospitable young planet |agency=National Science Foundation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628164134/http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0101/14earthwater/ |archive-date=2009-06-28 |website=Spaceflight Now |date=2001-01-14 |access-date=2012-01-27}}

= Mantle =

File:Subduction-en.svg between bottom of crust and solid uppermost mantle]]

Earth's mantle extends to a depth of {{convert|2,890|km|abbr=on}}, making it the planet's thickest layer.{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2016/01/16/layers-of-the-earth-lies-beneath-earths-crust/ |title=Layers Of The Earth: What Lies Beneath Earth's Crust |first=Trevor |last=Nace |date=16 January 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |magazine=Forbes |archive-date=5 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305220618/https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2016/01/16/layers-of-the-earth-lies-beneath-earths-crust/ |url-status=live }}

[This is 45% of the

{{convert|6,371|km|abbr=on}} radius, and 83.7% of the volume - 0.6% of the volume is the crust].

The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle{{cite journal |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mantle/ |title=Mantle |first=Jeannie |last=Evers |date=11 August 2015 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=National Geographic |publisher=National Geographic Society |archive-date=12 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512171916/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/mantle/ |url-status=live }} separated by a transition zone.{{cite journal |journal=Nat Commun |volume=9 |date=28 March 2018 |issue=9 |page=1266 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-03654-6 |pmc=5872023 |pmid=29593266 |title=Compositional heterogeneity near the base of the mantle transition zone beneath Hawaii |first1=Chunquan |last1=Yu |first2=Elizabeth A. |last2=Day |first3=Maarten V. |last3=de Hoop |first4=Michel |last4=Campillo |first5=Saskia |last5=Goes |first6=Rachel A. |last6=Blythe |first7=Robert D. |last7=van der Hilst |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.1266Y }} The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the D″ (D-double-prime) layer.{{cite news |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/d-layer-demystified |title=D Layer Demystified |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |magazine=Science News |date=24 March 2004 |access-date=5 November 2016 |last=Krieger |first=Kim |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710170436/https://www.science.org/content/article/d-layer-demystified |url-status=live }} The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 GPa (1.4 Matm).{{cite journal |url=https://www.unr.edu/Documents/science/mackay/coring%20the%20earth.pdf |title=Coring the Earth |first=Rachel |last=Dolbier |journal=W. M. Keck Earth Science and Mineral Engineering Museum |publisher=University of Nevada, Reno |pages=5 |access-date=28 June 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907215534/http://www.unr.edu/Documents/science/mackay/coring%20the%20earth.pdf |url-status=dead }} The mantle is composed of silicate rocks richer in iron and magnesium than the overlying crust.{{cite news |url=https://www.universetoday.com/40229/what-is-the-earths-mantle-made-of/ |title=What is the Earth's Mantle Made Of? |date=26 March 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Fraser |last=Cain |work=Universe Today |archive-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106115153/https://www.universetoday.com/40229/what-is-the-earths-mantle-made-of/ |url-status=live }} Although solid, the mantle's extremely hot silicate material can flow over very long timescales.{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/different-properties-asthenosphere-lithosphere-8447830.html |title=The Different Properties of the Asthenosphere & the Lithosphere |date=22 October 2018 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Ethan |last=Shaw |work=Sciencing |publisher=Leaf Group Media |archive-date=30 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730055603/https://sciencing.com/different-properties-asthenosphere-lithosphere-8447830.html |url-status=live }} Convection of the mantle propels the motion of the tectonic plates in the crust. The source of heat that drives this motion is the decay of radioactive isotopes in Earth's crust and mantle combined with the initial heat from the planet's formation{{cite journal|last=Preuss|first=Paul|date=July 17, 2011|title=What Keeps the Earth Cooking?|url=http://newscenter.lbl.gov/2011/07/17/kamland-geoneutrinos/|journal=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory|publisher=University of California, Berkeley|access-date=28 June 2019|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121083440/https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2011/07/17/kamland-geoneutrinos/|url-status=live }} (from the potential energy released by collapsing a large amount of matter into a gravity well, and the kinetic energy of accreted matter).

Due to increasing pressure deeper in the mantle, the lower part flows less easily, though chemical changes within the mantle may also be important. The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 10²¹ and 10²⁴ pascal-second, increasing with depth.{{cite journal |first1=Uwe |last1=Walzer |first2=Roland |last2=Hendel |first3=John |last3=Baumgardner |author3-link=John Baumgardner |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826020002/http://www.chemie.uni-jena.de/geowiss/geodyn/poster2.html |title=Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective Downwellings |url=http://www.chemie.uni-jena.de/geowiss/geodyn/poster2.html |archive-date=26 August 2006 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=Los Alamos National Laboratory |publisher=Universität Heidelberg}} In comparison, the viscosity of water at {{convert|300|K}} is 0.89 millipascal-second {{Cite book |url= |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |publisher=CRC Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4987-5429-3 |editor-last=Haynes |editor-first=William M. |edition=97th |location=Boca Raton, Florida |at=Section 6 page 247 |oclc=957751024 |editor-last2=David R. |editor-first2=Lide |editor-last3=Bruno |editor-first3=Thomas J.}} and pitch is (2.3 ± 0.5) × 10⁸ pascal-second.{{cite web |last1=Edgeworth |first1=R. |last2=Dalton |first2=B.J. |last3=Parnell |first3=T. |title=The Pitch Drop Experiment |url=http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/physics_museum/pitchdrop.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328064508/http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/physics_museum/pitchdrop.shtml |archive-date=28 March 2013 |access-date=15 October 2007 |publisher=The University of Queensland Australia}}

= Core =

{{Main|Earth's inner core|Earth's outer core}}File:Dynamo Theory - Outer core convection and magnetic field generation.svg, silicon dioxide, and iron(II) oxide]]

Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about {{convert|2260|km|mi|abbr=on}} in height (i.e. distance from the highest point to the lowest point at the edge of the inner core) [36% of the Earth's radius, 15.6% of the volume] and composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle.{{cite web |title=Earth's Interior |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/earths-interior/ |website=Science & Innovation |publisher=National Geographic |access-date=14 November 2018 |date=18 January 2017 |archive-date=18 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190118060622/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/earths-interior/ |url-status=dead }} Its outer boundary lies {{convert|2890|km|mi|abbr=on}} beneath Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately {{convert|5150|km|mi|abbr=on}} beneath Earth's surface. Earth's inner core is the innermost geologic layer of the planet Earth. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about {{cvt|1220|km|mi}}, which is about 19% of Earth's radius [0.7% of volume] or 70% of the Moon's radius.

{{cite journal |first1=Marc |last1=Monnereau |first2=Marie |last2=Calvet |first3=Ludovic |last3=Margerin

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The inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is composed primarily of iron and some nickel. Since this layer is able to transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it must be solid. Experimental evidence has at times been inconsistent with current crystal models of the core.{{Cite journal | first1=Lars | last1=Stixrude | first2=R.E. | last2=Cohen | title=Constraints on the crystalline structure of the inner core: Mechanical instability of BCC iron at high pressure | journal=Geophysical Research Letters | date=January 15, 1995 | volume=22 | issue=2 | pages=125–28 | doi=10.1029/94GL02742 | bibcode=1995GeoRL..22..125S | url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/135995/ | access-date=January 2, 2019 | archive-date=August 8, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808131935/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/135995/ | url-status=live }} Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies.{{Cite journal | first1=A. | last1=Benuzzi-Mounaix | first2=M. | last2=Koenig | first3=A. | last3=Ravasio | first4=T. | last4=Vinci | title=Laser-driven shock waves for the study of extreme matter states | journal=Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion | year=2006 | volume=48 | issue=12B | pages=B347 | doi=10.1088/0741-3335/48/12B/S32 |bibcode = 2006PPCF...48B.347B | s2cid=121164044 }}{{Cite journal | first1=Bruce A. | last1=Remington | first2=R. Paul | last2=Drake | first3=Dmitri D. | last3=Ryutov | title=Experimental astrophysics with high power lasers and Z pinches | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2006 | volume=78 | issue=3 | pages=755 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.78.755 | bibcode=2006RvMP...78..755R | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1233971 | access-date=2019-06-26 | archive-date=2020-05-23 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523055212/https://zenodo.org/record/1233971 | url-status=live }} The laser studies create plasma,{{Cite journal | first1=A. | last1=Benuzzi-Mounaix | first2=M. | last2=Koenig | first3=G. | last3=Husar | first4=B. | last4=Faral | title=Absolute equation of state measurements of iron using laser driven shocks | journal=Physics of Plasmas | date=June 2002 | volume=9 | issue=6 | pages=2466 | doi=10.1063/1.1478557 |bibcode = 2002PhPl....9.2466B }} and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.

In early stages of Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal.{{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Michael |chapter-url=http://www.psc.edu/science/Cohen_Stix/cohen_stix.html |chapter=Crystal at the Center of the Earth |title=Projects in Scientific Computing, 1996 |publisher=Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center |date=1996 |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-date=5 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205041442/http://www.psc.edu/science/Cohen_Stix/cohen_stix.html |url-status=live }}{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.267.5206.1972|title=High-Pressure Elasticity of Iron and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core|year=1995|last1=Stixrude|first1=L.|last2=Cohen|first2=R.E.|journal=Science|volume=267|issue=5206|pages=1972–75|pmid=17770110|bibcode = 1995Sci...267.1972S |s2cid=39711239}}

Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the core-like pressure by gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips (diamond anvil cell), and then heating to approximately 4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14678004 BBC News, "What is at the centre of the Earth?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523084941/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14678004 |date=2020-05-23 }}. BBC.co.uk (2011-08-31). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1208265|pmid=22076374|title=Phase Transition of FeO and Stratification in Earth's Outer Core|year=2011|last1=Ozawa|first1=H.|last2=al.|first2=et|journal=Science|volume=334|issue=6057|pages=792–94|bibcode = 2011Sci...334..792O |s2cid=1785237}}

The composition of Earth bears strong similarities to that of certain chondrite meteorites, and even to some elements in the outer portion of the Sun.{{cite journal|author=Herndon, J.M.|title=The chemical composition of the interior shells of the Earth|journal= Proc. R. Soc. Lond.|year=1980|volume=A372|pages=149–54|jstor=2398362|issue=1748|doi=10.1098/rspa.1980.0106|bibcode=1980RSPSA.372..149H|s2cid=97600604}}{{cite journal|author=Herndon, J.M.|title=Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth's composition|journal=Current Science|year=2005|volume=88|issue=7|pages=1034–37|url=http://nuclearplanet.com/CS50410.pdf|access-date=2012-01-27|archive-date=2020-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730081139/http://nuclearplanet.com/CS50410.pdf|url-status=live}} Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth. This ignores the less abundant enstatite chondrites, which formed under extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth.{{cn|date=November 2023}}

Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field in Earth's outer core is estimated to measure {{convert|2.5|mT|abbr=off}}, 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature09643|title=Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic field|year=2010|last1=Buffett|first1=Bruce A.|journal=Nature|volume=468|issue=7326|pages=952–94|pmid=21164483|bibcode=2010Natur.468..952B|s2cid=4431270}}

The magnetic field generated by core flow is essential to protect life from interplanetary radiation and prevent the atmosphere from dissipating in the solar wind. The rate of cooling by conduction and convection is uncertain,{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/earths-core-cooling-faster-previously-thought-researchers-say-rcna12732 |title=Earth's core cooling faster than previously thought, researchers say |date=19 January 2022 |author=David K. Li |publisher=NBC News}} but one estimate is that the core would not be expected to freeze up for approximately 91 billion years, which is well after the Sun is expected to expand, sterilize the surface of the planet, and then burn out.{{cite web |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/core/ |access-date=15 July 2024 |title=Core |publisher=National Geographic}}{{better source needed|date=July 2024}}

Seismology

The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.

References

External links

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Category:Geology

Category:Geophysics

Category:Vertical distributions

Internal structure of Earth

Global properties

Layers

= Crust and lithosphere =

= Mantle =

= Core =

Seismology

See also

References

Further reading

External links