James Joyce

{{Infobox writer

| name = James Joyce

| image = Revolutionary Joyce Better Contrast.jpg

| alt = Photograph of Joyce in profile

| caption = Joyce in Zurich {{circa|1918}}

| birth_date = {{Birth date|1882|02|02|df=yes}}

| birth_place = Rathgar, Dublin, Ireland

| death_date = {{Death date and age|1941|01|13|1882|02|02|df=yes}}

| death_place = Zurich, Switzerland

| occupation = Author

| notableworks = {{Plainlist|

Dubliners (1914)
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916)
Ulysses (1922)
Finnegans Wake (1939)}}

| spouse = Nora Barnacle

| children = 2, including Lucia

}}

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novel Ulysses (1922) is a landmark in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularly stream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Finnegans Wake (1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism.

Joyce was born in Dublin into a middle-class family. He attended the Jesuit Clongowes Wood College in County Kildare, then, briefly, the Christian Brothers–run O'Connell School. Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the Jesuit Belvedere College and graduated from University College Dublin in 1902. In 1904, he met his future wife, Nora Barnacle, and they moved to mainland Europe. He briefly worked in Pola and then moved to Trieste in Austria-Hungary, working as an English instructor. Except for an eight-month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce lived there until 1915. In Trieste, he published his book of poems Chamber Music and his short story collection Dubliners, and began serially publishing A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the English magazine The Egoist. During most of World War I, Joyce lived in Zurich, Switzerland, and worked on Ulysses. After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and in 1920 moved to Paris, which was his primary residence until 1940.

Ulysses was first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity. Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed up until the mid-1930s when publication became legal. Joyce started his next major work, Finnegans Wake, in 1923, publishing it sixteen years later in 1939. Between these years, Joyce travelled widely. He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1931. He made several trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter, Lucia. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zurich in 1940. He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer at age 58.

Ulysses frequently ranks high in lists of great books, and academic literature analysing Joyce's work is extensive and ongoing. Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use of interior monologue, wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there. Ulysses is set in the streets and alleyways of the city. Joyce is quoted as saying, "For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal."{{Sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/505 505]; 789, n. 27|ps=: Cited from {{cite book|title=From an Old Waterford House|last=Power|first=Arthur|date=n.d.|location=London|pages=63–64|ref=none}} }}

Early life

File:James Joyce age six, 1888.jpg

Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square, Rathgar, Dublin, Ireland,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/19 19]}} to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane "May" ({{nee}} Murray). He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings. He was baptised as James Augustine Joyce{{efn|Joyce was named after his paternal grandfather,{{sfn|Costello|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/53 53]}} but his middle name was mistakenly registered as Augusta at the time of his birth.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/21 21]}} }} according to the rites of the Roman Catholic Church in the nearby St Joseph's Church in Terenure on 5 February 1882 by Rev. John O'Mulloy.{{efn|Joyce acquired his saint's name Aloysius at his confirmation{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/30 30]}} in 1891.{{sfn|Costello|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/81 81]}} }} His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/19 19]|Ellmann|1982|2p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/23 23]}} John Stanislaus Joyce's family came from Fermoy in County Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's paternal grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties in Cork City. Her family claimed kinship with the political leader Daniel O'Connell, who had helped secure Catholic emancipation for the Irish in 1829.{{sfn|Jackson|Costello|1998|p=[https://archive.org/details/johnstanislausjo00jack/page/20 20]}}

Joyce's father was appointed rate collector by Dublin Corporation in 1887. The family moved to the fashionable small town of Bray, {{convert|12|mi|km}} from Dublin. Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, leading to his lifelong fear of dogs.{{sfnm|Beach|1959|1p=[https://archive.org/details/shakespearecompa00beac/page/37 37]|Joyce|1958|2p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/4 4]}}{{efn|Joyce's fear of dogs may have been exaggerated.{{sfn|Spielberg|1964|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486441?seq=1 42–44]}} }} He later developed a fear of thunderstorms,{{sfnm|Beach|1959|1p= [https://archive.org/details/shakespearecompa00beac/page/43 43]|Gorman|1939|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/328 328]|Joyce|1958|3p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/18 18]}} from a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God's wrath.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/25 25]|Costello|1992|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/63 63–64]}}{{efn| According to Irish artist Arthur Power, Joyce, who sometimes took his children and Power on a ride, once ordered the driver to turn home when a storm broke out. When Power asked "Why are you so afraid of thunder? Your children don't mind it." Joyce answered "Ah, they have no religion".{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/513 513–514]|ps=: Vignette cited from {{cite book|title=From an Old Waterford House|last=Power|first=Arthur|date=n.d.|location=London|page=71|ref=none}} }} }}

In 1891, nine-year-old Joyce wrote the poem "Et Tu, Healy" on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell that his father printed and distributed to friends.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/38 38]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/33 33]|Joyce|1958|3pp=[https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/44 44–45]}} The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce,{{sfnm|1a1=Ellmann|1y=1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/33 33]|2a1=Jackson|2a2=Costello|2y=1998|2p=[https://archive.org/details/johnstanislausjo00jack/page/170 170]}} who was angry at Parnell's apparent betrayal by the Irish Catholic Church, the Irish Parliamentary Party, and the British Liberal Party that resulted in a collaborative failure to secure Irish Home Rule in the British Parliament.{{sfn|McCaffrey|2006|pp= [https://archive.org/details/insearchofirelan0000mcca/page/198 198–199]}} This sense of betrayal, particularly by the Church, left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art.{{sfn|McCaffrey|2006|p= [https://archive.org/details/insearchofirelan0000mcca/page/200 200]}}

That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.{{sfnm|1a1=Ellmann|1y=1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/34 34–35]|2a1=Jackson|2a2=Costello|2y=1998|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/johnstanislausjo00jack/page/172 172–173]}} John Joyce's name was published in Stubbs' Gazette, a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.{{sfnm|1a1=Bowker|1y=2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/38 38]|2a1=Jackson|2a2=Costello|2y=1998|2p=[https://archive.org/details/johnstanislausjo00jack/page/173 173]}} In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension.{{sfnm|1a1=Ellmann|1y=1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/34 34]|2a1=Jackson|2a2=Costello|2y=1998|2p=[https://archive.org/details/johnstanislausjo00jack/page/176 176]}}

Joyce began his education in 1888 at Clongowes Wood College, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/27 27, 32, 34]}} He studied at home and briefly attended the Christian Brothers O'Connell School on North Richmond Street, Dublin. Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priest John Conmee, who knew the family. Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brother Stanislaus to attend the Jesuits' Dublin school, Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/35 35]}} In 1895, Joyce, now 13, was elected by his peers to join the Sodality of Our Lady.{{sfnm|Costello|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/132 132]|McCourt|1999a|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/22 22]}} Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in the Ratio Studiorum (Plan of Studies).{{sfn|Sullivan|1958|pp= [https://archive.org/details/joyceamongjesuit00sull/page/9 9–10]}} He won first place for English composition in his final two years{{sfn|Sullivan|1958|p= [https://archive.org/details/joyceamongjesuit00sull/page/105 105]}} before graduating in 1898.{{sfn|Manglaviti|2000|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25474127?seq=2 215]}}

University years

File:Newman House, Dublin.jpg

Joyce enrolled at University College{{efn|University College was part of the Royal University of Ireland.{{sfn|White|2001|p=[{{Google books|id=d7AJjQU333IC|pg=PA5|plainurl=yes}} 5]}} It became University College Dublin, one of three colleges in the new National University of Ireland, in 1908. The others were University College Galway and University College Cork.{{sfn|Coolahan|2010|pp=[{{Google books|id=PfFXarIhGqEC|pg=PA757|plainurl=yes}} 757]–[{{Google books|id=PfFXarIhGqEC|pg=PA758|plainurl=yes}} 758]}}}} in 1898 to study English, French and Italian.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/58 58–60]}} While there, he was exposed to the scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.{{sfnm|Noon|1957|1p=[https://archive.org/details/joyceaquinas0000noon/page/6 6]|Sullivan|1958|2p= [https://archive.org/details/joyceamongjesuit00sull/page/170 170]}} He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles. His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation including George Clancy, Tom Kettle and Francis Sheehy-Skeffington.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/60 61]}} Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.{{sfn|Davies|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/86 86]}} His first publication—a laudatory review of Henrik Ibsen's When We Dead Awaken—was printed in The Fortnightly Review in 1900. Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegian{{sfnm|Davies|1982|1pp =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/72 72–73]|Ellmann|1982|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/86 86–87]}}{{efn|Ibsen did not reply to the fan letter,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/79 79]}} but he had previously asked the Scottish critic William Archer to thank Joyce for his "very benevolent" review.{{sfn|Joyce|1959|p=[https://archive.org/details/criticalwritings00joyc/page/47 47]|ps=: "Ibsen's New Drama"}}}} and wrote a play, A Brilliant Career,{{sfnm|Costello|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/168 158]|Joyce|1950|2p =[https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/115 115]}} which he later destroyed.{{sfn|Beja|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/27 27]}}{{efn|Joyce's dedicatory page to the play is all that is left: "To My own Soul I dedicate the first true work of my life."{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/78 78]}} }}

In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) in Clontarf, Dublin.{{sfn|NAI|n.d.}} During this year he became friends with Oliver St. John Gogarty,{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/77 77]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/77 77]|O'Connor|1970|3p= [https://archive.org/details/bashintunneljame0000ryan/page/76 76]}} the model for Buck Mulligan in Ulysses.{{sfn|Davies|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/86 86]}} In November, Joyce wrote an article, The Day of the Rabblement, criticising the Irish Literary Theatre for its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen, Leo Tolstoy, and Gerhart Hauptmann.{{sfn|Joyce|1901|pp= [https://archive.org/details/twoessaysforgott00skefrich/page/7 7–8]}} He protested against nostalgic Irish populism and argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.{{sfn|Fogarty|2014|p= [https://archive.org/details/ecojoyceenvironm0000unse xv]}} Because he mentioned Gabriele D'Annunzio's novel {{lang|it|Il fuoco}} (The Flame),{{sfn|Cope|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/joycescitiesarch0000cope/page/34 34]}} which was on the Roman Catholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it. Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed. Arthur Griffith decried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaper United Irishman.{{sfnm|Jordan|2012|1loc=|Kenny|2020|2p= [{{Google books|id=-TbLDwAAQBAJ|pg=PP84|plainurl=yes}} 84], [{{Google books|id=-TbLDwAAQBAJ|pg=PP149|plainurl=yes}} 149]}}

Joyce graduated from the Royal University of Ireland in October 1902. He considered studying medicine{{sfn|Davies|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/91 91]}} and began attending lectures at the Catholic University Medical School in Dublin.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/90 90]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/104 104]|Hutchins|1957|3p= [{{Google books|id=OFSFCwAAQBAJ|pg=PA53|plainurl=yes}} 53]}} When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris,{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/92 92–93]|Davies|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/92 91]|Ellmann|1982|3pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/104 104–106]}} where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/112 112–113]}} By the end of January 1903 he had given up plans to study medicine,{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/100 100]|Davies|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/98 98]|Ellmann|1982|3p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/100 100]}} but he stayed in Paris, often reading late in the {{Lang|fr|Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève|italic=no}}.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/100 100]|Costello|1992|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/204 204]|Gorman|1939|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/94 94]}} He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet,{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/113 113]}} appealing for money his family could ill afford.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/122 122]|O'Brien|2000|2p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri/page/18 18]}}

Post-university years in Dublin

File:Marjorie Fitzgibbon - Bust of James Joyce (1982) closer.jpg, Dublin, by Marjorie Fitzgibbon|alt=Jame's Joyce's bust on St. Stephen's Green, Dublin. It says James Joyce 1882–1914.]]

In April 1903, Joyce learned his mother was dying{{efn|Joyce's mother was initially diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver;{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/108 108]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/129 129]}} Ellmann says that it became apparent she was actually dying of cancer.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/129 129]}} This may reflect what Joyce's family came to believe,{{sfn|Costello|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/210 210]}} but Gorman's 1939 biography of Joyce, which was edited by Joyce,{{sfnm|Nadel|1991|1pp = [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26283639?seq=5 90–93]|Witemeyer|1995|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473660?seq=8 530]}} states that she died of cirrhosis,{{sfn|Gorman|1939|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/110 110]}} as does her death certificate.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/760 760, note 26]|Bowker|2012|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/111 111]|Costello|1992|3p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/210 210]}} }} and immediately returned to Ireland.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/106 106]|Costello|1992|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/210 210]}} He would tend to her, reading aloud from drafts that were eventually worked into his unfinished novel Stephen Hero.{{sfnm|Gabler|2018|1pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv8j3xd.4?refreqid=excelsior%3A15d42a5437f519a20f2d52ae5bb70381&seq=1 11–13]|1ps=|Joyce|1966a|2p= [https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/383 383]|2ps= : Letter from May Joyce, 1 September 1916}} During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make his confession and to take communion.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/108 108]}}{{efn|Gorman writes: "Mary Jane Joyce was dying in the sanctity of the bosom of her Church{{nbsp}}... and her eldest son could only grieve that the two wills could not meet and mix. He was incapable of bending his knee to the powerful phantom, that once acknowledged, would devour him as it had devoured so many about him and half a civilisation as well."{{sfn|Gorman|1939|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/110 100]}} }} She died on 13 August.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/136 136]|Gorman|1939|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/110 110]|Joyce|1958|3p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/234 234] }} Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.{{sfnm|Joyce|1958|1p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/234 234]|O'Brien|2000|2p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri/page/19 19]}} John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.{{sfnm|Costello|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/212 212]|Ellmann|1982|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/143 143–144]|O'Brien|2000|3p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri/page/26 26]}} Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues,{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/112 112]|Davies|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/112 112]|O'Brien|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri/page/2 7 27–28]}} and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/113 113]|Ellmann|1982|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/138 138–139]}}

Joyce's life began to change when he met Nora Barnacle on 10 June 1904. She was a twenty-year-old woman from Galway city, who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.{{sfnm|Maddox|1989|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/23 23–24]|O'Brien|2000|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri/page/36 36]}} They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904,{{efn|Though there is substantial circumstantial evidence supporting that date,{{sfn|Sultan|2000|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26285213?seq=2 28–29]}} there is no direct documentary evidence confirming that Joyce and Nora's walk on the Ringsend actually occurred on this day.{{sfnm|Froula|1990|1pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25485215?seq=1 857–859]|Maddox|1989|2p= [https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/27 27]}} }} walking through the Dublin suburb of Ringsend, where Nora masturbated him.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/122 122–123]|Davies|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/122 122]|Ellmann|1982|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/156 156]}} This event was commemorated as the date for the action of Ulysses, known in popular culture as "Bloomsday" in honour of the novel's main character Leopold Bloom.{{sfn|O'Brien|2000|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri/page/37 37–38]}} This began a relationship that continued for thirty-seven years until Joyce died.{{sfn|Maddox|1989|p=[https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/n20 xix]}} Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been out with his colleagues,{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/124 124]|Costello|1992|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/230 230–231]}} approached a young woman in St Stephen's Green and was beaten up by her companion. He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist of Ulysses.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/124 124]|Davies|1982|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/191 191], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/238 238]|Ellmann|1982|3pp =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/161 161–162]}}

Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.{{sfn|Witen|2018|p = [{{Google books|id=3sxFDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA2|plainurl=yes}} 2]}}{{efn|Composer Otto Luening, who knew Joyce in Trieste, described his voice as being "mellow and pleasant{{nbsp}}... a nice Irish-Italian tenor{{nbsp}}... very good for Italian operas of the 17th and 18th centuries".{{sfn|Martin|Bauerle|1990|pp = [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831401?seq=10 43–44]}} }} On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in the Feis Ceoil,{{sfn|Ruff|1969|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486770?seq=2 225]}} an Irish music competition for promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.{{sfnm|Feis Ceoil|n.d.|1loc=|Joyce|1950|2p =[https://books.google.com/books?id=OrzPAAAAMAAJ&q=Ceoil 15]}} In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.{{sfn|Hodgart|Bauerle|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/joycesgrandopero0006hodg/page/46 46]}} He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.{{sfn|Joyce|1905b|p =[https://archive.org/details/dublindiary00joyc/page/29 29]}} For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs. He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had to sight read the third, he refused.{{sfnm|Dowling|2016|1p=[{{Google books|id=qwagCwAAQBAJ|pg=PA218|plainurl=yes}} 218]|O'Callaghan|2020|2p = [{{Google books|id=egTeDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA86|plainurl=yes}} 86]}} Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.{{efn|The details of what happened immediately after the contest are unclear.{{sfn|Witen|2018|pp = [{{Google books|id=3sxFDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA10|plainurl=yes}} 10–11] }} For example, Oliver Gogarty claims Joyce threw his medal into the Liffey,{{sfn|Gogarty|1948|p =[{{Google books|id=s9-uCwAAQBAJ|pg=PA26|plainurl=yes}} 26]}} but Joyce apparently gave the medal to his Aunt Josephine,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/152 152]|Hutchins|1950|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyesdublin0000unse/page/88 88]}} and it ended up being bought by the choreographer Michael Flatley at an auction in 2004.{{sfn|Parsons|2014}} }} After the contest, Palmieri wrote to Joyce that Luigi Denza, the composer of the popular song "{{lang|nap|Funiculì, Funiculà}}" who was the judge for the contest,{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/152 152]}} spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.{{sfn|Joyce|1905b|p =[https://archive.org/details/dublindiary00joyc/page/36 37]}} Palmieri offered to give Joyce free singing lessons. Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.{{sfnm|1a1=Hodgart|1a2=Bauerle|1y=1997|1p=[https://archive.org/details/joycesgrandopero0006hodg/page/46 46]|2a1=Ruff|2y=1969|2p = [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486770?seq=2 225]}} His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.{{sfnm|1a1=Hodgart|1a2=Bauerle|1y=1997|1p=[https://archive.org/details/joycesgrandopero0006hodg/page/48 48]|2a1=Maddox|2y=1989|2p=[https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/39 39]}} Although Joyce did not ultimately pursue a singing career, he would include thousands of musical allusions in his literary works.{{sfn|SMWJJ|n.d.}}

Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation. On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examining aesthetics called A Portrait of the Artist,{{sfn|Joyce|1904a}} but it was rejected by the intellectual journal Dana. He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he called Stephen Hero that he laboured over for years but eventually abandoned.{{efn|Stephen Hero was published after Joyce's death in 1944.{{sfn|Mamigonian|Turner|2003|p = [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477965?seq=2 348]}}}} He wrote a satirical poem called "The Holy Office",{{sfn|Joyce|1904b}} which parodied W. B. Yeats's poem "To Ireland in the Coming Times"{{sfn|Ellmann|1950|p = [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333187?seq=14 631]|ps=: (see {{harvnb|Yeats|1892|}}) }}{{efn|Though Joyce parodied Yeats in "Holy Office", he admired two short stories Yeats had written, "Tables of the Law" and "Adoration of the Magi". The former he memorised by heart and references to both were integrated into Joyce's "Stephen Hero".{{sfn|Prescott|1954|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27713665?seq=3 216]}} Joyce admired Yeats's 1899 play The Countess Cathleen as well, which he translated into Italian in 1911.{{sfn|Ellmann|1967|pp= [https://archive.org/details/yeatsjoyce11ellm/page/448 448–450] }}}} and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/166 166]}} It too was rejected for publication; this time for being "unholy".{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/127 127]}} He wrote the collection of poems Chamber Music at this time;{{sfnm|Costello|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/220 220]|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/149 149]}} which was also rejected.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/115 115]|Davies|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/118 118]}}{{efn|The title Chamber Music had been suggested by Stanislaus,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/154 154]|Joyce|1958|p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/175 175]}} but Joyce accepted it as a double entendre, implying both the sound of chamber music and the sound of urine falling in a chamber pot.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/113 113]|Davies|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/118 118]}} }} He did publish three poems, one in Dana{{sfn|Costello|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/228 228]}} and two in The Speaker,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/126 126]}} and George William Russell{{efn|According to Stanislaus, Russell and Joyce became acquainted through a common interest in theosophy, which he briefly explored after his mother's death.{{sfn|Joyce|1941|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3847704?&seq=9 493]}} Joyce's knowledge of theosophy appears in his later writing, particularly Finnegans Wake.{{sfnm|Carver|1978|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476132?&seq=1 201]|Platt|2008|2pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30244358?seq=1 281–282]}} }} published three of Joyce's short stories in the Irish Homestead. These stories—"The Sisters", "Eveline", and "After the Race"—were the beginnings of Dubliners.{{sfnm|Costello|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/127 127]|Davies|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/118 118]}}

In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into a Martello tower near Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/126 126]|Costello|1992|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/229 229–230]}}

Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another housemate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/130 130]|Davies|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/131 131]|Ellmann|1982|3p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/175 175]}} With the help of funds from Lady Gregory and a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/130 130–132]|Costello|1992|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/232 232]|Ellmann|1982|3pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/178 178–179]}}

1904–1906: Zurich, Pola and Trieste

=Zurich and Pola=

In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.{{sfnm|Davies|1982|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/135 135]|O'Brien|2000|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri/page/42 42–43]}} They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure funds{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/183 183–184]}} before heading on to Zurich.

Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at the Berlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/184 184]}} The couple stayed in Zurich for a little over a week.{{sfnm|ZJJF|n.d.|1loc=|Fischer|2021|2p=[{{Google books|id=-IETEAAAQBAJ|page=PA8|plainurl=yes}} 9]}} The director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste,{{sfn|Fischer|2021|p=[{{Google books|id=-IETEAAAQBAJ|page=PA8|plainurl=yes}} 9]}} which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the First World War.{{efn|Trieste is now in Italy.}} There was no vacancy there either.{{efn|After less than an hour in Trieste, Joyce found himself arrested and jailed when he got into the middle of an altercation between three sailors of the Royal Navy and Austro-Hungarian police. He had to be released by the British Vice-Consul.{{sfnm|Bowker|2011|1p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598884?&seq=4 670]| Stanzel|2001|2p =[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477813?seq=1 361]}} }} The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him in Pola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,{{efn|It is now called Pula and is in Croatia.}} where he mainly taught English to naval officers.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/138 138]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/186 186]}} Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had become pregnant.{{sfn|Maddox|1989|p=[https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/57 57]}} Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,{{sfnm|Francini Bruni|1922|1p=[https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/4 4]|Ellmann|1982|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/186 186–187]}} and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, the two families were living together.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/139 139], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/142 142]|Maddox|1989|2p= [https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/56 56]}} Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story for Dubliners, "Clay", and worked on his novel Stephen Hero.{{sfnm|1a1=Ellmann|1y=1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/189 189]|2a1=Jackson|2a2=McGinley|2y=1993|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycesdubli0000joyc/page/n207 94]}} He disliked Pola, calling it a "back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia",{{sfn|Joyce|1957|p= [https://archive.org/details/letters00joyc/page/57 57]|ps=: Letter to Mrs William Murray [Aunt Josephine], New Year's Eve 1904 }} and as soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/142 142 ]|Costello|1992|2p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/256 256]|Stanzel|2001|3p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477813?seq=3 363]}}{{efn|It was later rumoured that Joyce had been evicted from Pola when the Austrians—having discovered an espionage ring in the city—expelled all aliens, but the evidence suggests that he moved because the position in Trieste was better.{{sfnm|McCourt|2000|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/22 22–23]|Stanzel|2001|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477813?seq=3 363]}}}}

File:Caffe-stella-polare-trieste-2020.jpg was often visited by Joyce.{{sfn|McCourt|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/235 235]}}|alt='Stella Polare', a café on the corner of an intersection. Tables with umbrellas on one street.]]

File:Kip Jamesa Joycea u Trstu.jpg]]

=First stay in Trieste=

Joyce moved to Trieste in March 1905 aged 23. He taught English at the Berlitz school.{{sfn|McCourt|1999a|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/45 45]}} That June he published the satirical poem "Holy Office".{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/147 147]|Davies|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/147 147]}}

After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,{{efn|Joyce's son was named Giorgio when he was born, but later preferred to be called George.{{sfn|Fargnoli|Gillespie|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycetozess0000farg_a0q1/page/118 118]}} }} on 27 July 1905,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/204 204]|McCourt|2000|2p= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/39 39]}} he convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and obtained a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived that October, although most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/150 150–151]|Ellmann|1982|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/212 211–213]}} In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis.{{sfnm|Francini Bruni|1947 |1pp= [https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/39 39–40]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/214 214]|McCourt|2000|3p= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/76 76]}}

During this period Joyce completed 24 chapters of Stephen Hero{{sfn|Ellmann1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/207 207]}} and all but the final story of Dubliners,{{sfn|Groden|1984|pp= [https://archive.org/details/companiontojoyce00etat/page/80 80–81]}} but was unable to get Dubliners published. Although the London publisher Grant Richards had a contract with Joyce, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial; English law could not protect them if brought to court for circulating indecent language.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/152 152]|Hutton|2003|2pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24295682?seq=4 498–500]}} Richards and Joyce tried to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's artistic integrity. As they negotiated, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement.{{sfn|Hutton|2003|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24295682?seq=9 503]}}

Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920;{{sfn|McCourt|1999a|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/44 44–45]}} he stayed temporarily in Rome, travelled to Dublin, and emigrated to Zurich during World War I, but Trieste became a second Dublin for him{{sfn|Frank|1926|p= [https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/74 74]}} and played an important role in his development as a writer.{{sfnm|1a1=Hawley|1a2=McCourt|1y=2000|1loc= [https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/james-joyce-in-trieste 4:13–4:17]|2a1=Rocco-Bergera|2y=1972|2pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486995?&seq=1 342–349]}}{{efn|Joyce's Triestine colleague, the writer Italo Svevo states that with the exception of some stories of Dubliners and the "songs" of Chamber Music, "All his other works down to Ulysses were born in Trieste".{{sfn|Svevo|1927|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000svev/page/n7 1]}} }} He completed Dubliners, reworked Stephen Hero into A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published play Exiles and decided to make Ulysses a full-length novel as he worked through his notes and jottings,{{sfn|Rocco-Bergera|1972|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486995?seq=3 344]}} working out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.{{sfn|Hawley|McCourt|2000|loc= [https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/james-joyce-in-trieste 1:20–1:30]}}

Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,{{sfn|Svevo|1927|p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000svev/page/n10 3]}} and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced by Futurism.{{sfnm|del Greco Lobner|1985|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477575 73]|McCourt|1999b|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473995&seq1 85]}}{{efn|Regarding the role of Trieste on the creation of Ulysses, Svevo states "To the Irish critic [Earnest] Boyd, who asserted that Ulysses was merely the product of pre-war thought in Ireland, Valery Larbaud replied 'Yes, in so far as it came to maturity in Trieste'."{{sfn|Svevo|1927|pp = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000svev/page/n11 3–4]}}}} There are even words of the Triestine dialect in Finnegans Wake.{{sfnm|1a1=Crise|1a2=Rocco-Bergera|1a3=Dalton|1y=1969|1pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486807?&seq=1 65–69]|2a1=Zanotti|2y=2001|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477816?seq=13 423]}} Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste. Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and later drew on it in creating the liturgical parodies in Ulysses.{{sfnm|Lang|1993|pp1=[https://archive.org/details/ulyssesirishgod0000lang/page/27 27–38, 115–16, 262]|McCourt|2000|2pp=60–62}}

1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin

=Rome=

File:Roma - Campo de' Fiori.jpg at the Campo de' Fiori by Ettore Ferrari. Joyce admired Bruno{{sfn|JJC|2014}} and attended the procession in his honour while in Rome.{{sfn|Joyce|1966a|p=[https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/218 218]|ps=: Letter to Stanislaus Joyce, 1 March 1907}}]]

In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/222 222]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/222 222]}} Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher for Dubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.{{sfn|Melchiori|1984a|pp= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 9–10]}} He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July.{{sfn|Onorati|1984|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 24–26]}}

Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,{{sfn|Melchiori|1984a|pp= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 10–11]}} but it had a large impact on his writing.{{sfn|Spoo|1988|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831561?seq=1 481–482]}} Though his new job took up most of his time, he revised Dubliners and worked on Stephen Hero.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/160 160]; [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/163 163]}} Rome was the birthplace of the idea for "The Dead", which would become the final story of Dubliners,{{sfnm|Costello|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/270 270]|Ellmann|1958|2pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333899&seq=3 509], [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333899&seq=5 511]}} and for Ulysses,{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/162 163]|Humphreys|1979|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476189?seq=12 252]}} which was originally conceived as a short story.{{efn|In October, Joyce wrote "I have a new story for Dubliners in my head. It deals with Mr. [Alfred] Hunter", the man who was picked him after he was beaten in 1904. In November, he first mentioned the title of the story as "Ulysses", and in Feb 1907, he mentioned "Ulysses" along with "The Dead" and three other stories that never appeared.{{sfn|Joyce|1966a|pp= [https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/168 168], [https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/190 190],[https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/209 209]|ps=: Letters to Stanislaus Joyce, 4 October 1906, 13 November 1906, 6 February 1907, respectively.}}}} His stay in the city was one of his inspirations for Exiles.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/50 50]|Costello|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/270 270]}} While there, he read the socialist historian Guglielmo Ferrero in depth.{{sfn|McCourt|2000|pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/68 68–69]}} Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jews{{sfn|Nadel|1986|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396219?seq=2 302]}} would find their way into Ulysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/230 230]|Humphreys|1979|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476189?seq=12 252]|Manganiello|1980|3p =[https://archive.org/details/joycespolitics0000mang/page/52 52]|Melchiori|1984b|4p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 43]}} In London, Elkin Mathews published Chamber Music on the recommendation of the British poet Arthur Symons.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/160 160], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/162 162]|Melchiori|1984a|2p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 10]}} Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.{{sfn|Shloss|2005|pp= [https://archive.org/details/luciajoycetodanc0000shlo_d2b8/page/46 46–47]}} He left Rome after only seven months.{{sfn|Melchiori|1984a|p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 11]}}

=Second stay in Trieste=

File:SS Thalia vor 1907 mit Segeln (cropped).jpg

Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/166 166]}} The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen name Italo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.{{sfn|Staley|1964|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486462?seq=3 61]}} Joyce learned much of what he knew about Judaism from him.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/272 272]|Nadel|1986|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396219?seq=1 301]}} The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.{{sfnm|Staley|1963|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/476822?seq=1 334]|Rocco-Bergera|1972|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26278931?seq=1 116] }} Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block with A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/176 176]|Davison|1994|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3194849?seq=2 70]}} Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaper Piccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italian irredentists in Trieste. He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle against British rule in Ireland.{{sfnm|Bulson|2006|1p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeintrodu0000buls/page/8 8]|Costello|1992|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/271 271]|Gibson|2006|3pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/84 84–85]|Mason|1956|4p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/440499?seq=3 117]}} Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures at

Trieste's Università Popolare on Ireland and the arts,{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/84 84–85]|McCourt|2000|2p= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/92 92]}} as well as on William Shakespeare's play Hamlet.{{sfn|Quillian|1974|p=7}}

In May, Joyce was struck by an attack of rheumatic fever,{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/169 169]|Beja|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/50 50]|Costello|1992|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/274 274]|Davies|1982|4p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/176 176]|Ellmann|1982|5p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/262 262]}} which left him incapacitated for weeks.{{efn|Following Richard Ellmann's biography, a number of later biographers also state the attack was due to rheumatic fever,{{sfn|McCourt|2019|pp=[{{Google books|id=u2ZuDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA536|plainurl=yes}} 536]–[{{Google books|id=u2ZuDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA537|plainurl=yes}} 537]}} but evidence suggests that syphilis may have been the cause.{{sfn|Schneider|2001|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477818?&seq=17 469]}} It may have been the cause of Joyce's eye problems too.{{sfnm|Birmingham|2014|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/mostdangerousboo0000birm_n8r5/page/289 289–290]|Davies|1982|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/391 391–392]|Ferris|1995|3p= [{{Google books|id=C68eBgAAQBAJ|pg=PA5|plainurl=yes}} 5]|Hayden|2003|4pp=[https://archive.org/details/poxgeniusmadness0000hayd_b5i5/page/241 241–242]|McCourt|2019|5p=[{{Google books|id=u2ZuDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA537|plainurl=yes}} 537]}} The physician J. B. Lyons makes a case that the cause was Reiter's syndrome,{{sfn|Lyons|1973|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycemedici0000lyon/page/205 205]}} though he later suggested that this occurred as an aftereffect of a venereal infection.{{sfn|Lyons|2000|p=306|ps=: "The iritis may have been caused by{{nbsp}}... Reiter's disease. This follows a chlamydial infection; This may have been acquired during a carousal{{nbsp}}... on his return to Trieste from Rome."}} }} The illness exacerbated eye problems that plagued him for the rest of his life.{{sfnm|Birmingham|2014|1p= [https://archive.org/details/mostdangerousboo0000birm_n8r5/page/256 256]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/268 28]}} While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/168 168]|Pelaschiar|1999|2pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473993?&seq=6 66–67]}}{{efn|Lucia was named after the patron saint of eyesight.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/262 262]}}}} During his convalescence, he was able to finish "The Dead", the last story of Dubliners.{{sfn|Ellmann|1958|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333899?seq=6 512 512.]}}

Although a heavy drinker,{{sfn|Briggs|2011|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598883 637]|ps=:(cf., {{harvnb|Kelly|2011|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598882?&seq=24 626]}})}} Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/173 173]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/268 268]}} He reworked Stephen Hero as the more concise and interior A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by April{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/176 173]}} and translated John Millington Synge's Riders to the Sea into Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.{{sfn|Bollettieri Bosinelli|2013|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598738?seq=2 1115]}} He even took singing lessons again.{{sfnm|1a1=Hodgart|1a2=Bauerle|1y=1997|1p =[https://archive.org/details/joycesgrandopero0006hodg/page/52 52]|2a=McCourt|2y=2000|2p= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/131 131]|3a=Pelaschiar|3y=1999|3p =[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473993?&seq=6 66]}} Joyce had been looking for an English publisher for Dubliners but was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned by George Roberts.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/267 267]}}

==Visits to Dublin==

File:Ireland yesterday and today (1909) (14587087809).jpg

In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/276 276]}} He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at his alma mater, which had become University College Dublin.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/181 181]}} He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing Dubliners.{{sfn|Hutton|2003|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24295682 495]}} He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.{{sfn|Davies|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/195 195–196]}} Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, the Volta Cinematograph.{{sfn|Sicker|2006|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25570961 99–100]}} It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.{{sfn|McCourt|2000|pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/146 146]–[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/146 147]}} He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/190 180–191]}}{{efn|Eva became homesick and returned to Dublin after little more than a year,{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/410 310]}} but Eileen stayed on the continent, eventually marrying a Czech bank cashier, Frantisek Schaurek.{{sfnm|Delimata|1981|1p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476405 45]|Ellmann|1982|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/384 384–385]}} The Irish actor Paddy Joyce is their son.{{sfn|Delimata|1981|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476405?seq=4 48], [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476405?seq=18 62]}} }}

From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/311 311–313]}} In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.{{sfn|JMT|2013}} Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at the University of Padua.{{sfn|Berrone|Joyce|1976|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3830952 3]}} He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In mid-1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/198 198–199]}} While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication of Dubliners{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/206 206]}} came to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.{{efn|It was in the midst of these frustrations with Richards in 1911 that Joyce was alleged to have thrown the manuscript of the first three chapters of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man into a stove fire, only to have it rescued by Eileen.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/197 197]}} }} When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, "Gas from a Burner".{{sfn|Joyce|1959|pp=[https://archive.org/details/criticalwritings00joyc/page/242 242–245]|ps=: "Gas from a Burner"}} He never went to Dublin again.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/204 204–205]}}

==Publication of ''Dubliners'' and ''A Portrait'' ==

Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publish Dubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/212 212]}} eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.{{sfn|Hutton|2003|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24295682 495–496]}} Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate in Ezra Pound, who was living in London.{{efn|The literary critic Mary Colum, who was personally well-acquainted with Joyce, reports him as saying: "Pound took me out of the gutter."{{sfn|Colum|1947|p= [https://archive.org/details/LifeAndTheDream/page/n395 383]}} }} On the advice of Yeats,{{sfn|Gibson|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/93 93]}} Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem from Chamber Music, "I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land" in the journal Des Imagistes. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were published and publicised.{{sfnm|Kelly|1993|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26635100 21]|Walkiewicz|1982|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24725366?seq=2 512]}}

After Pound persuaded Dora Marsden to serially publish A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the London literary magazine The Egoist,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/211 211]}} Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completed A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by 1914;{{sfn|Gabler|1974|p =[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40371587 1]}} resumed Exiles, completing it in 1915;{{sfn|Brivic|1968|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486737 29]}} started the novelette Giacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/214 214]|McCourt|2000|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/196 196–197]}} and began drafting Ulysses.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/217 217]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/389 389]|McCourt|2000|3p=[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/246 246]}}

In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,{{sfn|Spoo|1986|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/441379?&seq=2 137]}} and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zurich in neutral Switzerland.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/71 71]|McCourt|2000|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/245 245–247]}}

1915–1920: Zurich and Trieste

=Zurich=

File:Zurich, Switzerland (26459893447).jpg

Joyce arrived in Zurich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.{{sfn|Stanzel|2001|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477813?&seq=4 364–365]}} To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/217 217]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/386 386]|Gibson|2006|3pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/106 106], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/116 116] }} During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services.{{sfn|Stanzel|2001|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477813?&seq=5 365]}}

Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from the Royal Literary Fund in 1915 and a grant from the British civil list the following year.{{sfnm|Fischer|2021|1p=[{{Google Books|id=-IETEAAAQBAJ|pg=PA15|plainurl=yes}} 15]|McCourt|1999a|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/76 76]}} Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editor Harriet Shaw Weaver, who operated The Egoist, and the psychotherapist Edith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zurich studying under Carl Jung.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/75 75–76]|McCourt|1999a|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/82 82]}} Weaver financially supported Joyce for the rest of his life and even paid for his funeral.{{sfn|Gibson|2006|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/132 132]}} Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;{{sfn|McCourt|1999a|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/82 82]}} the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/234 234], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/238 238]}} However, health problems remained a constant issue. During their time in Zurich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as "nervous breakdowns"{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/228 228]|Grandt|2003|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26285204 78]|Maddox|1989|3p=[https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/141 141]}} and he had to undergo many eye surgeries.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/78 78]|Gorman|1939|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/232 232]}}

==Writing ''Ulysses''==

During the war, Zurich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's spent evenings in the Cafe Pfauen,{{sfnm|Gorman|1939|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/233 233]|Maddox|1989|2p= [https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/142 142]|Borach|1931|3p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/371650?seq=1 325]}} where he got to know some of the artists living in the city, including the sculptor August Suter{{sfn|Suter|1926|p=[https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/61 61]}} and the painter Frank Budgen.{{sfnm|Budgen|1934|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycemaking00budg/page/9 9–15]|Gorman|1939|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/233 233]}} He often used the time spent with them as material for Ulysses.{{sfn|Potts|1979|p= [https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/59 59]}} He met the writer Stefan Zweig,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/603 603]|Zweig|1941|2p= [https://archive.org/details/worldofyesterday00zwei/page/275 275]}} who organised the premiere of Exiles in Munich in August 1919.{{sfn|Nadel|1989|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831378?seq=11 151]}} He became aware of Dada, which was coming into its own at the Cabaret Voltaire.{{sfn|Nadel|2008|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30244390?&seq=5 485]}}{{efn|In 1920, Joyce wrote that the Irish press reported him as the founder of Dada.{{sfn|Joyce|1966b|p= [https://archive.org/details/letterofjamesjoy03joyc/page/22 22]|ps=: Letter to Stanislaus Joyce, 14 September 1920}} }} He may have met the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin at the Cafe Odeon,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/409 409]|Gibson|2006|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/116 116]}} a place they both frequented.{{sfn|McCourt|1999a|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/74 74]}}

Joyce kept up his interest in music. He met Ferruccio Busoni,{{sfnm|1a1=Ellmann|1y=1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/409 409]|2a1=Hodgart|2a2=Bauerle|2y=1997|2p= [https://archive.org/details/joycesgrandopero0006hodg/page/54 55]}} staged music with Otto Luening, and learned music theory from Philipp Jarnach.{{sfn|Grandt|2003|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26285204?&seq=2 75]}} Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way into Ulysses, particularly the "Sirens" section.{{sfnm|Grandt|2003|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26285204?&seq=4 77]|Luening|1980|2p= [https://archive.org/details/odysseyofamerica0000luen/page/197 197]}}

Joyce avoided public discussion of the war and maintained strict neutrality.{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1pp =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/107 107–108]|Gorman|1939|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/233 233], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/240 240–241]|Manganiello|1980|3p= [https://archive.org/details/joycespolitics0000mang/page/162 162]}} He made few comments about the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,{{sfnm|Gorman|1939|p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/234 234]}} he disagreed with its violence.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/71 71]|Manganiello|1980|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/joycespolitics0000mang/page/162 162–163]}}{{efn|Budgen wrote: "Joyce, if asked, what he did during the Great War, could reply: 'I wrote Ulysses.'"{{sfn|Budgen|1934|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycemaking00budg/page/190 190]}} }} He stayed intently focused on Ulysses{{sfn|McCourt|1999a|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/73 73–74]}} and the struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of "The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" in The Egoist had been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published by B. W. Huebsch in 1916.{{sfn|Beja|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/60 60]}} In 1918, Pound got a commitment from Margaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazine The Little Review, to publish Ulysses serially.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/241 241]|Gibson|2006|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/132 132]}}

==The English Players==

File:Pfauen.jpg

Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,{{sfn|Gibson|2006|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/110 111]}} and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such as Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.{{sfn|McCourt|1999a|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/78 78]}} For Synge's Riders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,{{sfn|Beja|1992|p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/72 73]}} which he did again when Robert Browning's In a Balcony was staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play, Exiles,{{sfnm|Maddox|1989|1p= [https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/154 154]|McCourt|1999a|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/78 78]}} but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of the influenza epidemic of 1918, though the company continued until 1920.{{sfn|Gorman|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/260 261]}}

Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit. Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role in The Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/72 72–73]|Gibson|2006|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/112 112–113]|Rushing|2000|3pp =[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477748 371–372]}} The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zurich.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/254 254]|Gibson|2006|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/113 113–114]}}

=Third stay in Trieste=

By 1919, Joyce was in financial difficulty again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung,{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/75 75]|Bowker|2012|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/267 257]|Gorman|1939|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/264 264]}} and Zurich had become expensive to live in after the war. He was also becoming isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.{{sfn|McCourt|1999a|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco/page/85 85]}} Eight months after his return, Joyce went to Sirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/273 273], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/275 275]|Gibson|2006|2p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/132 132]}} Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920.{{sfn|Gorman|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/270 270]}}

1920–1941: Paris and Zurich

=Paris=

File:James Joyce - Sep 1922 Shadowland.jpg photographed by Man Ray|alt=Picture of James Joyce from 1922 in three-quarters view looking downward]]

When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/273 273–274]|Gibson|2006|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/132 132]}} For the first four months, he stayed with {{ill|Ludmila Savitzky|fr}}{{sfn|Livak|2012|p= [http://sites.utoronto.ca/tsq/41/tsq41_livak.pdf 143]}} and met Sylvia Beach, who ran the Rive Gauche bookshop, Shakespeare and Company.{{sfnm|Beach|1959|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/shakespearecompa00beac/page/36 36–38]|Bowker|2012|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/276 276–277]|Gibson|2006|3p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/134 134]}} Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/292 292], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/297 297]}} and becoming one of his publishers.{{sfn|Gorman|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/286 286]}} Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the international modernist artist community.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/274 274]|Gibson|2006|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/134 134–135]}} Joyce met Valery Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the French{{sfn|Monnier|Beach|1946|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4332775 430]|ps=: see {{harvnb|Larbaud|1922}}}} and supervised the French translation of Ulysses.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/100 100]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/499 499]}} Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long.{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/133 133]|Harrington|1998|2pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473958 841–842]}}

==Publication of ''Ulysses''==

Joyce finished writing Ulysses near the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyer John Quinn,{{sfn|Rainey|1996|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473767?seq=5 535]}}{{efn|Quinn was an early supporter of Joyce's work in the United States. (cf., {{harvnb|Quinn|1917}}) }} Margaret Anderson and her co-editor Jane Heap had begun serially publishing it in The Little Review in March 1918{{sfn|Beja|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/72/ 72]}} but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.{{sfnm|Vanderham|1997|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycecensor0000vand/page/6 6],[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycecensor0000vand/page/29 29]|Weir|2000|2pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477749?seq=1 389], [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477749?seq=3 391–392] }} In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the "Nausicaa" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.{{sfn|Rainey|1996|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473767?seq=5 535]}} The trial proceedings continued until February 1921, when Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenity{{sfn|Anderson|1921}} and ordered to cease publishing Ulysses.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/502 502–503]}} Huebsch, who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/286 286]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/504 504]}}

Weaver was unable to find an English printer,{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/83 83]|Bowker|2012|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/286 286]}} and the novel was banned for obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936.{{sfn|Medina Casado|2000|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477754 479]}}

File:Order form for ulysses.jpg]]

Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printing Ulysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.{{sfnm|Beach|1959|1p=[https://archive.org/details/shakespearecompa00beac/page/47 47]|Beja|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/85 85]|Bowker|2012|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/287 288] |Ellmann|1982|4p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/504 504]}} She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver sent books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/289 289–290]|Ellmann|1982|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/504 504–506]}} Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/315 315]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/506 506]}} They were then smuggled into both countries.{{sfn|Beja|1992|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/86 86]}}{{efn|Ernest Hemingway became involved in smuggling copies of Ulysses into the United States from Canada.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/85 85]|Bowker|2012|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/312 312–313]}} }} Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, "bootleg" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisher Samuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a court enjoined publication.{{sfn|Beja|1992|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/93 93–94]}} Ulysses was not legally published in the United States until 1934 after Judge John M. Woolsey ruled in United States v. One Book Called Ulysses that the book was not obscene.{{sfn|Medina Casado|2000|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831652?seq=4 93–94]}}

==Writing ''Finnegans Wake''==

In 1923, Joyce began his next work, an experimental novel that eventually became Finnegans Wake.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/318 318]|Davies|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/307 307]}}{{efn|In March 1923, Joyce wrote "Yesterday I wrote two pages—the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them. Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio, the Italians say. 'The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice' or 'the leopard cannot change his spots."{{sfn|Joyce|1957|p=[https://archive.org/details/letters00joyc/page/202 202]|ps=: Letter to Harriet Shaw Weaver, March 1923}}}} It would take sixteen years to complete.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/322 322]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/552 522]}} At first, Joyce called it Work in Progress, which was the name Ford Madox Ford used in April 1924 when he published its "Mamalujo" episode in his magazine, The Transatlantic Review. In 1926, Eugene and Maria Jolas serialised the novel in their magazine, transition. When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver—{{sfnm|Joyce|1966b|1p=[https://archive.org/details/letterofjamesjoy03joyc/page/102 102]|1ps=: Letter from Stanislaus Joyce, 7 August 1924|Pound|1967|2p=[https://archive.org/details/poundjoyceletter00poun_0/page/228 228]|2ps=: Letter to James Joyce, 15 November 1926|Ellmann|1982|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/590 590]|3ps=: Letter from Weaver, 4 February 1927}} wrote negatively about it,{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/92 92]|Bulson|2006|2p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeintrodu0000buls/page/94 94]}} and it was criticised by writers like Seán Ó Faoláin, Wyndham Lewis, and Rebecca West.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/613 613]}} In response, Joyce and the Jolases organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titled Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, which included writings by Samuel Beckett and William Carlos Williams.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/613 613]|Henke|1991|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/613 613–615]}} An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to market Work in Progress to a larger audience.{{sfn|Dilks|2004|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25478104?&seq=2 720]}} Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title as Finnegans Wake in 1939,{{sfn|Weisenfarth|1991|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23539891?seq=6 100]}} the same year he completed it. It was published in London by Faber and Faber{{sfn|Beja|1992|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/121 121]}} with the assistance of T. S. Eliot.{{sfn|Loukopoulou|2011|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598885?seq=17 699–700]}}{{efn|Joyce met T. S. Eliot in Paris in 1923. Eliot became a strong advocate of Joyce's work, arranging publication of parts of Work in Progress, the first complete edition of Finnegans Wake with Faber and Faber and editing the first anthology of Joyce's work the year after his death.{{sfnm|Dalton|1968|1p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486740 79]|Nadel|1990|2pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25485058?seq=4 512–513]|ps=; Also see Joyce's note mentioned in {{harvnb|Fahy|1993|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26283682?&seq=6 8]}} regarding the publication date of Finnegans Wake}}}}

Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/78 78]|Bowker|2012|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/400 400]|Davies|1982|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/334 334]|Ellmann|1982|4p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/622 622]}} but his vision severely declined.{{sfn|Gibson|2006|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/151 151–152]}} By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.{{sfn|Birmingham|2014|p= [https://archive.org/details/mostdangerousboo0000birm_n8r5/page/256 256]}} He had all of his teeth removed because of infection.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/78 78]|Bowker|2012|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/320 320]}} At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finish Finnegans Wake, asking the Irish author James Stephens to complete it if he became unable.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/9 93]|Bowker|2012|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/364 364]|Gibson|2006|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/149 149]}}

Joyce's financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/632 632]|Osteen|1995a|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/economyofulysses0000oste/page/14 14–15]}} Despite these issues, he published Pomes Penyeach in 1927, a collection of thirteen poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zurich and Paris.{{sfn|Petroski|1974|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3830909?seq=4 1024]}}

==Marriage in London==

1966 drawing of Joyce by [[Adolf Hoffmeister|thumb|left|upright=.6]]

In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/622 622]|Maddox|1989|2p=[https://archive.org/details/nora00bren/page/255 255]}} primarily to ensure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.{{sfnm|Bowker|2011|1p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598884?&seq7 673]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/622 622]}} Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on the electoral roll, and became liable for jury service. After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at the Register Office in Kensington on 4 July 1931.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/419 419]|Loukopoulou|2011|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598885?&seq=5 687]}} Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England.{{sfnm|Bowker|2011|1pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598884?seq=9 675-675]}}

In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgery{{efn|He still retained his sense of humour and appreciation of music during these difficult times. For example, Joyce heard the composer Othmar Schoeck's Song Cycle based on the poems of Gottfried Keller, {{lang|de|Lebendig begraben}} [Buried Alive], while visiting Zurich in 1935. Afterwards, he went to Schoeck's house unannounced and dressed as a tramp to introduce himself to him. Afterwards, he obtained Keller's poems and began to translate them.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/669 669]|Gerber|2010|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23048756?&seq=2 479]}} }} or for treatment for Lucia,{{sfn|Fischer|2021|pp=[{{Google books|id=-IETEAAAQBAJ|2021|pg=PA22|plainurl=yes}} 22]–[{{Google books|id=-IETEAAAQBAJ|2021|pg=PA23|plainurl=yes}} 23]}} who was diagnosed with schizophrenia.{{sfn|Beja|1992|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/115 115]}} Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written that Ulysses was similar to schizophrenic writing.{{sfnm|Jung|1952|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/spiritinmanartli0015jung/page/116 116–117]| Shloss|2005|2p=[https://archive.org/details/luciajoycetodanc0000shlo_d2b8/page/278 278]}}{{efn|Jung also states: "It would never occur to me to class Ulysses as a product of schizophrenia{{nbsp}}... Ulysses is no more a pathological product than modern art as a whole."{{sfn|Jung|1952|p = [https://archive.org/details/spiritinmanartli0015jung/page/117 117]}} }} Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was falling.{{sfn|Shloss|2005| p=[https://archive.org/details/luciajoycetodanc0000shlo_d2b8/page/297 297]}} In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/536 537]|Shloss|2005|2p=[https://archive.org/details/luciajoycetodanc0000shlo_d2b8/page/7 7]}}

=Final return to Zurich=

In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.{{sfn|Beja|1992|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/122 122]}} In 1938, Joyce was involved in helping Jews escape Nazi persecution.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/500 500]|Nadel|1986|2pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396219?seq=8 306–308]}} After the fall of France in 1940, Joyce and his family fled from Nazi occupation, returning to Zurich a final time.{{sfn|Gibson|2006|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/155 155–156]}}

Death

File:Grave James Joyce.jpg; sculpture by Milton Hebald

]]

On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zurich for a perforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, at age 58.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/740 740–741]}}

His body was buried in the Fluntern Cemetery in Zurich. Swiss tenor Max Meili sang "Addio terra, addio cielo" from Monteverdi's L'Orfeo at the burial service.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/743 743]}} Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, only the British consul attended the funeral. When Joseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins, chargé d'affaires at Bern, Walshe responded, "Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral."{{sfn|Jordan|2018}} Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent "honour grave", with a seated portrait statue by American artist Milton Hebald nearby. Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976.{{sfn|Jordan|2018}}

After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/534 534]}} despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomat John J. Slocum.{{sfn|Jordan|2018}} In October 2019, a motion was put to Dublin City Council to plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.{{sfn|Horgan-Jones|2019}} The proposal immediately became controversial, with the Irish Times commenting: "{{nbsp}}... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read".{{sfn|The Irish Times|2019}}

Political views

File:Portrait of James Joyce P529.jpg|alt=seated portrait of James Joyce in a suit. He is in three-quarters view looking left, wearing a suit. Table with books is in background on the right. ]]

Throughout his life, Joyce maintained an active interest in Irish politics{{sfnm|Manganiello|1980|1p = [https://archive.org/details/joycespolitics0000mang/page/2 2]|MacCabe|2003|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycerevolu0000macc_n5k8/page/n15 xv]| Orr|2008|3p=[{{Google books|id=sGAzK28kiP8C|pg=PA3|plainurl=yes}} 3]}} and the country's relationship to the British Empire.{{sfnm|Cheng|1995|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/joyceraceempire0000chen/page/1 1–2]|Deane|1997|2p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/32 32]|Gibson|2006|3p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/32 32]|Kiberd|1996|4pp=[https://archive.org/details/inventingireland00kibe/page/333 333–334]|Seidel|2008|4p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceshorti0000seid/page/10 10]}} He studied both socialism{{sfnm|Fairhall|1993|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycequesti00jame_0/page/50 50]|Scholes|1992|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofjamesj00scho/page/167 167–168]|Sultan|1987|3p= [https://archive.org/details/nley00stan/page/208 208]}} and anarchism.{{sfnm|Fairhall|1993|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycequesti00jame_0/page/50 50]|Manganiello|1980|2p= [https://archive.org/details/joycespolitics0000mang/page/72 72]}}{{efn|A footnote that Joyce allowed in Gorman's biography,{{sfn|Rabaté|2001|p=[{{Google books|id=ffDEK0AElo4C|pg=PA27|plainurl=yes}} 27]}} which was written in the 1930s,{{sfn|Nadel|1991|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26283639?seq=6 91]}} states: "Among the many whose works he [Joyce] had read may be mentioned Most, Malatesta, Stirner, Bakunin, Élisée Reclus, Spencer and Benjamin Tucker."{{sfn|Gorman|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/183 183,fn1]}} }} He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist anarchist view influenced by Benjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay "The Soul of Man Under Socialism".{{sfn|Caraher|2009|p= [{{Google books|id=0ddvLGKDz4QC|pg=PA288|plainurl=yes}} 288]}} He described his opinions as "those of a socialist artist".{{sfn|Sultan|1987|p= [https://archive.org/details/nley00stan/page/209 209]}} Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/83 83]|MacCabe|2003|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycerevolu0000macc_n5k8/page/160 160]|McCourt|2000|3p=[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/93 93]}} After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,{{sfnm|Fairhall|1993|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycequesti00jame_0/page/50 50]|Scholes|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofjamesj00scho/page/165 165]}}

but his later works still reflect his commitment.{{sfnm|Gibson|2002|1p=[https://archive.org/details/joycesrevengehis0000gibs/page/13 13]|Segall|1993|2p=[https://archive.org/details/joyceinamericacu00sega/page/6 6]|Seidel|2008|3pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceshorti0000seid/page/7 7–9]}} He remained sympathetic to individualist anarchism and critical of coercive ideologies such as nationalism.{{sfnm|Fairhall|1993|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycequesti00jame_0/page/54 54–55]|Caraher|2009|2p= [{{Google books|id=0ddvLGKDz4QC|pg=PA288|plainurl=yes}} 288]}}{{efn| In 1918, Joyce declared himself "against every state",{{sfn|Fairhall|1993|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycequesti00jame_0/page/52 52]}} and later in the 1930s he said of the defeated multi-ethnic Hapsburg Empire: "They called the Empire a ramshackle empire, I wish to God there were more such empires."{{sfn|Robinson|2001|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477811?seq=12 332]}} }} His novels address socialist, anarchist, and Irish nationalist issues.{{sfn|Segall|1993|p=[https://archive.org/details/joyceinamericacu00sega/page/6 6]}} Ulysses has been read as a novel critiquing the effect of British rule on the Irish people.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1977|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/consciousnessofj00ellm/page/80 80],[https://archive.org/details/consciousnessofj00ellm/page/86 86]|Gibson|2002|2p=[https://archive.org/details/joycesrevengehis0000gibs/page/13 13]| Watson|1987|3p=[https://archive.org/details/joycesulysseslar0000unse/page/41 41]}} Finnegans Wake has been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics,{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/164 164–165]|1ps=|Nolan|1995|2p=143|2ps=: "The Irish Civil War also forms an integral component of the fraternal antagonism between the sons of the Wakean family."}} the interrelationship between colonialism and race,{{sfnm|Cheng|1995|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/joyceraceempire0000chen/page/251 251–252]|MacCabe|2003|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycerevolu0000macc_n5k8/page/n16 xv–xvi]}} and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism.{{sfn|Sollers|1978|p=[https://archive.org/details/inwakeofwake0000unse/page/108 108]}}

Joyce wrote negatively of British rule in Ireland and was sympathetic towards attempts to establish an independent Irish republic.{{sfn|de Sola Rodstein|1998|p = [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44871195?seq=11 155]}} In 1907, he expressed his support for the early Sinn Féin movement before the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1p =[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/82 82]|Pelaschiar|1999|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473993?&seq4 64]}} However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one.{{sfn|Davies|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/298 299]}} When he had a choice, he renewed his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/475 475]}}{{efn|When Joyce had to renew his passport while residing in Paris during 1935, he wrote Georgio afterwards: "{{lang|it|Giorni fa dovevo far rinnovare il mio passaporto. L'impiegato mi disse che aveva ordini di mandare gente come me alla legazione irlandese. Insistetti ed ottenni un altro.}}" [A few days ago I had to have my [British] passport renewed. The clerk told me that he had orders to send people like me to the Irish legation. I insisted and got another one.]{{sfn|Joyce|1966b|pp = [https://archive.org/details/letterofjamesjoy03joyc/page/353 353–354]|ps=: Letter to Georgio (postscript to missing letter), about 10 April 1935}} }} and chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leave Vichy France more easily.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/519 519]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/738 738]}} His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally,{{sfnm|Bowker|2011|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598884?seq=3 669]|Davies|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/299 299]}} his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,{{sfnm|Davies|1982|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/298 298–299]|de Sola Rodstein|1998|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/44871195?seq=2 146]|Seidel|2008|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceshorti0000seid/page/10 10]}} and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political alignment with the Catholic Church.{{sfn|Lernout|2010|p=210|ps=: "To the dismay of Joyce and other intellectuals, the Irish Free State of 1922 adopted the catholic culture that had already been dominant in the powerful coalition between the bishops and the nationalist party."}}{{efn|Svevo writes: "He is twice a rebel, against England and against Ireland. He hates England and would like to transform Ireland. Yet he belongs so much to England that like a great many of his Irish predecessors he will fill pages of English literary history."{{sfn|Svevo|1927|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000svev/page/n23 15–16 ]}} }}

Religious views

File: San-nicolo-trieste-2020.jpg Church of San Nicolò in Trieste, where Joyce occasionally attended services{{sfn|McCourt|2000|p =[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/50 50]}}|alt=Picture showing the iconostasis of the Church of San Nicolò flanked by candles.]]

Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.{{sfn|Van Mierlo|2017|p =[{{Google books|id=n_vUDQAAQBAJ|pg=PA3|plainurl=yes}} 3]}} Firsthand statements by him{{efn|In 1904 Joyce declared to Nora, who he had just recently met: "My mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity—home, the recognised virtues, classes of life and religious doctrines{{nbsp}}... Six years ago I left the Catholic church, hating it most fervently. I found it impossible for me to remain in it on account of the impulses of my nature. I made secret war upon it when I was a student and declined to accept the positions it offered me. By doing this I made myself a beggar, but I retained my pride. Now I make open war upon it by what I write and say and do."{{sfn|Joyce|1966a|pp = [https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/48 48–49]|ps=: Letter to Nora Barnacle, 29 August 1904 }} }} and Stanislaus{{efn|Stanislaus wrote: "It has become a fashion with some of my brother's critics{{nbsp}}... to represent him as a man pining for the ancient Church he had abandoned, and at a loss for moral support without the religion in which he was bred. Nothing could be further from the truth. I am convinced that there was never any crisis of belief. The vigor of life within him drove him out of the church".{{sfn|Joyce|1958|p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/130 130]}} }} attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.{{sfn|Eco|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/aestheticsofchao0000ecou/page/2 2]}} In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/27 27]|Gorman|1939|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/26 26]|Hederman|1982|3p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30059526?seq=1 20]|Mahon|2004|4p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44313324?seq=1 349]|Sullivan|1958|5pp= [https://archive.org/details/joyceamongjesuit00sull/page/7 7–8]}}{{efn| Colum states: "I have never known anyone with a mind so fundamentally Catholic in structure as Joyce's own, or one on whom the Church, its ceremonies, symbols, and theological declarations had made such an impress".{{sfn|Colum|1947|p= [https://archive.org/details/LifeAndTheDream/page/n393 381]}} }} Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Friday{{sfnm|Francini Bruni|1922|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/35 35–36]|Joyce|1958|2p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/105 105]}}{{efn|Joyce told Stanislaus "The Mass on Good Friday seems to me a very great drama."{{sfn|Joyce|1958|p= [https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/page/104 104]}} }} or occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better.{{sfn|Joyce Schaurek|1963|p =[{{Google books|id=s9-uCwAAQBAJ|pg=PA64|plainurl=yes}} 64]}}

Joyce lapsed from the Church early in life,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/65 65–66]|Lernout|2010|2p =[{{Google books|id=EwMdCgAAQBAJ|pg=PA6|plainurl=yes}} 6]}} and Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.{{efn| When a Catholic priest offered to perform a religious service for Joyce's burial, Nora declined, saying, "I couldn't do that to him."{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/742 742]|ps=: citing a 1953 interview with Giorgio Joyce.}}}} His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism,{{sfnm|Benstock|1961|1p=417, 437|Cunningham|2007|2pp=[{{Google books|id=bKG12u11z2AC|pg=PA509|plainurl=yes}} 509],

[{{Google books|id=bKG12u11z2AC|pg=PA512|plainurl=yes}} 512n]|Lang|1993|3p=[https://archive.org/details/ulyssesirishgod0000lang/page/15 15]}} and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982b|1loc=§7|1ps=: "His most adroit manoeuvre is taking over its [The Catholic Church's] vocabulary for his own secular purposes." |Hibbert|2011|2p=198|2ps=|Lang|1993|3p=[https://archive.org/details/ulyssesirishgod0000lang/page/15 15]|3ps=}} As such, some critics have argued that Joyce firmly rejected the Catholic faith.{{sfnm|Benstock|1961|1p=417|Ellmann|1982b|2loc=§3|2ps=: "Joyce wrote to Nora. 'Now I make open war upon it [The Catholic Church] by what I write and say and do.' His actions accorded with this policy."|Lernout|2010|3p =[{{Google books|id=EwMdCgAAQBAJ|pg=PA6|plainurl=yes}} 6]}} However, Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,{{sfnm|Noon|1957|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/joyceaquinas0000noon/page/14 14–15]|Strong|1949|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/sacredriverappro0000stro/page/11 11–12]}} wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.{{sfnm|Boyle|1978|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycespauli0000boyl/page/n13 x–xi]| Strong|1949|2pp =[https://archive.org/details/sacredriverappro0000stro/page/158 158–161]}} They regard Ulysses and Finnegans Wake as expressions of a Catholic sensibility,{{sfn|Segall|1993|p=[https://archive.org/details/joyceinamericacu00sega/page/140 140]}} insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by the characters in his novels do not represent those of Joyce the author.{{sfn|Segall|1993|p=[https://archive.org/details/joyceinamericacu00sega/page/160 160]}}

Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/65 65–66]|Jung|1952|2p= [https://archive.org/details/spiritinmanartli0015jung/page/120 120]|ps=:cf., an earlier translation of Jung's statement ({{harvnb|Jung|1949|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=iCl1yAEACAAJ&q=pious%20Catholic 10]}}, also quoted in {{harvnb|Noon|1957|p= [https://archive.org/details/joyceaquinas0000noon/page/14 15]}}) }} a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.{{sfnm|Hibbert|2011|1pp=198–199|Morse|1959|3pp= [https://archive.org/details/sympatheticalien0000mors/page/3 3], [https://archive.org/details/sympatheticalien0000mors/page/16 16]}} His attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/41 41]|Hughs|1992|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/40 40–41]}} He has been compared to the medieval {{lang|la|episcopi vagantes}} (wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought.{{sfn|Eco|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/aestheticsofchao0000ecou/page/4 4]}}

Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion of Ulysses, Joyce was asked, "When did you leave the Catholic Church?" He answered, "That's for the Church to say."{{sfn|Davison|1998|p= [{{Google books|id=s_eXYzdEmxcC|pg=PA78|plainurl=yes}} 78]}}

Major works

=''Dubliners''=

File:Joyce - Dubliners, 1914 - 3690390 F.jpg

Dubliners, first published in 1914, is a collection of 15 short stories{{sfn|Osteen|1995b|pp=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210922214926/https://markosteen.files.wordpress.com/2018/12/Osteen-Shoppers-Guide-to-Dubliners.pdf 483–484]}} that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/73 73]|1ps=|Joyce|1957|2p=[https://archive.org/details/letters00joyc/page/62 62–63]|2ps=: Letter to Grant Richards, 23 June 1906}}{{efn|Svevo writes that "what is fundamental in Joyce can be found entire in [Dubliners]".{{sfn|Svevo|1927|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000svev/page/n27 20]}} }} The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters in Dubliners later appear in minor roles in Joyce's novel Ulysses.{{sfn|Groden|n.d.}} The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity.{{sfnm|Walzl|1977|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476081 408]|ps=:cf., {{harvnb|Halper|1979|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476225?&seq=4 476–477]}}}}

=''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man''=

{{Main|A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man|l1=A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man}}

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the novel Stephen Hero, which was abandoned in 1905. It is a Künstlerroman, a kind of coming-of-age novel depicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonist Stephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.{{sfn|Rando|2016|p= [https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1074&context=eng_faculty 47]}} It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.{{sfn|Riquelme|1983|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ckO8AAAAIAAJ&q=autobiography 51]}} Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such as stream of consciousness, interior monologue, and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings, are evident in this novel.{{sfn|Spender|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycecritic0000demi/page/749 749]}}

=''Exiles'' and poetry=

{{Main|Chamber Music (poetry collection)|l1=Chamber Music (poetry collection)|Pomes Penyeach|l2=Pomes Penyeach}}

Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to "The Dead" (the final story in Dubliners) and forward to Ulysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition.{{sfn|Clark|1968|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486739 69]}}

He published three books of poetry.{{sfn|CI|n.d.}} The first full-length collection was Chamber Music (1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes "Gas from a Burner" (1912), Pomes Penyeach (1927), and "Ecce Puer" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by the Black Sun Press in Collected Poems (1936).{{sfn|Doyle|1965|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486486 90]}}

=''Ulysses''=

File:Ulysses22.jpg

The action of Ulysses starts on 16 June 1904 at 8{{nbsp}}am and ends sometime after 2{{nbsp}}am the following morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.{{sfn|Kimpel|1975|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/45108722 283–285]}} Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode in Homer's Odyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.{{efn| This structure was not part of the original conception of Ulysses,{{sfnm|Fludernik|1986|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476719?seq=12 184]|Groden|2007|2p = [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25571018?seq=7 223]|Litz|1964|3p= [https://archive.org/details/artofjamesjoycem0000litz/page/34 34]}} but by 1921, Joyce was circulating two versions of this structure, known as the Linati schema and Gilbert schema.{{sfn|Emerson|2017|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26798610?seq=16 55]}} }} Ulysses sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey in 1904 Dublin, representing Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope, and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humour–{{sfn|Kimpel|1975|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/45108722?&seq=29 311–313]}} including parody, satire and comedy– to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles{{sfnm|Attridge|1997|1p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/27 27]|Dettmar|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/rereadingnewbac00dett/page/284 285]}} so the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure.{{sfnm|Attridge|1997|1p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/27 27]|Dettmar|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/rereadingnewbac00dett/page/284 285]|Wykes|1968|3p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753991?seq=5 305]}}

Ulysses can be read as a study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin was destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.{{sfn|Budgen|1934|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycemaking00budg/page/67 67–68]}} To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings, to create a sense of fastidious detail.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/363 363–366]}} Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition of Thom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.{{sfn|Hegglund|2003|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3176000?seq=3 168–167]}} This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature.{{sfn|Sherry|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceulysse0000sher/page/102 102]}}

=''Finnegans Wake''=

Finnegans Wake is an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousness{{sfnm|Kumar|1957|1p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/434978 30]|Thompson|1964|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/27540957?seq=3 80]}} and literary allusion{{sfn|Atherton|1960|p=[https://archive.org/details/booksatwake0000unse/page/22 22–23]}} to their extremes. Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly. Much of the wordplay stems from the work being written in peculiar and obscure English, based mainly on complex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky{{sfn|Attridge|2007|pp=[https://archive.org/details/howtoreadjoyce0000attr/page/85 85–86]}} and draws on a wide range of languages.{{sfn|Schotter|2010|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41429838?seq=1 89]}} The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream.{{sfn|Attridge|2013|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598778 195–197]}}{{efn|{{harvnb|Attridge|2013}} also critiques interpreting Finnegans Wake as a dream narrative.}}

The metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola, whom Joyce had read in his youth,{{sfnm|Downes|2003|1pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26285203 37–38]|Gorman|1939|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/332 332–333]|Rabaté|1989|3p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25485004 31]}} plays an important role in Finnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.{{sfnm|Atherton|1960|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/booksatwake0000unse/page/36 36–37]|Beckett|1929|2p=[https://archive.org/details/ourexagminationr0000unse/page/17 17]}} Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history—in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos—structures the text's narrative,{{sfnm|Atherton|1960|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/booksatwake0000unse/page/29 29–31]|Beckett|1929|2p=[https://archive.org/details/ourexagminationr0000unse/page/17 17]|Gorman|1939|3pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/page/332 332–333]}} as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book: Finnegans Wake opens with the words "riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs"{{sfn|Joyce|1939|p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20111003151519/http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/jjoyce/fw-3.htm 3]|ps=: {{harvnb|Atherton|1960|1p=[https://archive.org/details/booksatwake0000unse/page/29 29]}} points out that "vicus" is a pun on Vico.}} and ends "A way a lone a last a loved a long the".{{sfn|Joyce|1939|p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20111003151519/http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/jjoyce/fw-628.htm 628]}} In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle.{{sfn|Shockley|2009|p=[{{Google books|id=lW96fbBNRYsC|pg=PA104|plainurl=yes}} 104]}}

Legacy

File:Joyce oconnell dublin.jpg, Dublin, by Marjorie Fitzgibbon]]

Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.{{sfn|Attridge|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/n19 1]}}{{efn| See {{harvnb|TMO|n.d.}} and {{harvnb|Nastasi|2014}} for examples of various authors' responses to Joyce.}} Ulysses is a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations into the power of language.{{sfn|Sherry|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceulysse0000sher/page/102 102]}} Its emphasis on the details of everyday life has opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.{{sfn|Attridge|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/n19 1]}} It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.{{sfn|Mullin|2014}} Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,{{sfn|Levitt|2006|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831743?seq=6 390–391]}} and Finnegans Wake has become one of the key texts for French post-structuralism.{{sfnm|Attridge|2007|1p=[https://archive.org/details/howtoreadjoyce0000attr/page/4 4]|Chun|2015|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43737511?seq=5 75]|Lernout|1992|3p=[https://archive.org/details/frenchjoyce0000lern_s2e6/page/19 19]}}

The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keeps them open to constant reinterpretation.{{sfn|Attridge|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/3 3]}} They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce's studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions.{{sfn|Latham|2009|p=[{{Google books|id=0ddvLGKDz4QC|pg=PA148|plainurl=yes}} 148]}}

In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.{{sfn|Murphy|2014}}

=Collections, museums, and study centres=

The National Library of Ireland holds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.{{sfn|Killeen|2012}} A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, the Museum of Literature Ireland,{{sfn|Harnett|2019}} the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include "Copy No. 1" of Ulysses.{{sfn|MoLI|n.d.}} Dedicated centres in Dublin include the James Joyce Centre in North Great George's Street, the James Joyce Tower and Museum in Sandycove at the Martello tower where Joyce briefly lived and where he set the opening scene in Ulysses, and the Dublin Writers Museum.{{sfn|Biggers|2015 |pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rjCSCgAAQBAJ&dq=displays+trinity+college+dublin+writers+museum+university+college+library&pg=PA220 215–221]}}University College London holds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce's major works, many other editions and translations, as well as critical and background literature.{{sfn|UCL|2016}} The University at Buffalo's James Joyce Collection has more than 10,000 pages of the author's working papers, notebooks, manuscripts, photographs, correspondence and other materials as well as Joyce's private library.{{Cite web |title=James Joyce Collection - University at Buffalo Libraries |url=https://library.buffalo.edu/jamesjoyce/ |access-date=2025-02-24 |website=library.buffalo.edu}}

Bibliography

=Novels=

==[[Stephen Dedalus]]==

Stephen Hero (written 1904–06, posthumous publication by Jonathan Cape, 1944 (revised 1956 and 1963); precursor to A Portrait, completed but preserved in fragment)
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (B. W. Huebsch, 1916, corrected 1964)
Ulysses (Shakespeare and Company, 1922)

==Finnegan==

Finn's Hotel (written 1923, posthumous publication by Ithys Press, 2013; alleged precursor to Finnegans)
Finnegans Wake (Faber & Faber, 1939, restored by Penguin Classics, 2012)

=Short stories=

Dubliners (Grant Richards Ltd., 1914)
The Cat and the Devil (written 1936, posthumous publication by Faber & Faber, 1965)
The Cats of Copenhagen (written 1936, posthumous publication by Ithys Press, 2012)

=Poetry=

Chamber Music (Elkin Mathews, 1907)
Giacomo Joyce (written 1907, posthumous publication by Faber & Faber, 1968)
Pomes Penyeach (Shakespeare and Company, 1927)
Collected Poems (Black Sun Press, 1936; includes Chamber Music, Pomes Penyeach and other previously published works)

=Play=

Exiles (Grant Richards Ltd., 1918)

= Posthumous non-fiction =

The Critical Writings of James Joyce (Eds. Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann, 1959)
Letters of James Joyce Vol. 1 (Ed. Stuart Gilbert, 1957)
Letters of James Joyce Vol. 2 (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1966)
Letters of James Joyce Vol. 3 (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1966)
Selected Letters of James Joyce (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1975)
Collected Epiphanies of James Joyce: A Critical Edition (Eds. Angus McFadzean, Morris Beja, Sangam Macduff, 2024)

Notes

==References==

Citations

Sources

= Books =

{{cite book|last=Atherton|first=James S.|year=1960|title=Books at the Wake: A Study of Literary allusions in James Joyce's Finnegans Wake|url=https://archive.org/details/booksatwake0000unse|url-access=registration|publisher=Viking Press|isbn=978-0-8093-0687-9|oclc=1148024288}}
{{cite book|last=Attridge|first=Derek|author-link=Derek Attridge

|editor-last=Attridge|editor-first=Derek|year=1997|chapter=Reading Joyce|title=The Cambridge Companion to James Joyce|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/n19|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=1–30|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn= 0-521-37673-4|oclc=1148222842}}

{{cite book|last=Attridge|first=Derek|year=2007|title=How to Read Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/howtoreadjoyce0000attr|url-access=registration|publisher=Granta Books|isbn= 978-1-86207-912-0|oclc=1149525874}}
{{cite book|last=Beja|first=Morris|year=1992|title=James Joyce: A Literary Life|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja|url-access=registration|publisher=Ohio State University Press|isbn=0-8142-0598-4|oclc=964127996}}
{{cite book|last=Beckett|first=Samuel|year=1961|orig-date=1929|chapter=Dante... Bruno. Vico.. Joyce|title=Our Exagmination Round his Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ourexagminationr0000unse/page/3|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=1–22|publisher=Faber and Faber|isbn=|oclc=1150935903|ref={{SfnRef|Beckett|1929|}}}}
{{cite book|last=Biggers|first=Shirley Hoover|year=2015|title=British Author House Museums and Other Memorials: A Guide to Sites in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-0022-2|oclc= 606882695}}
{{cite book|last=Birmingham|first=Kevin|year=2014|title=The Most dangerous book: The Battle for James Joyce Ulysses|url=https://archive.org/details/mostdangerousboo0000birm_n8r5|url-access=registration|publisher=Head of Zeus|isbn=978-1-78408-072-3|oclc=894758831}}
{{cite book|last=Bowker|first=Gordon|year=2012|title=James Joyce: A New Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk|url-access=registration|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0-374-17872-7|oclc=802264865}}
{{cite book |last=Boyle |first=Robert|year=1978|title=James Joyce's Pauline Vision: A Catholic Exposition |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycespauli0000boyl|url-access=registration|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=0-8093-0861-4|oclc=1150108528}}
{{cite book|last=Bulson|first=Eric|year=2006|title=The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeintrodu0000buls|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=1-879373-30-0|oclc=442719108}}
{{cite book|last=Caraher|first=Brian G.|editor-last=McCourt|editor-first=John|year=2009|chapter=Irish and European politics: nationalism, socialism, empire|title=James Joyce in Context|pages=285–298|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-2543-9|oclc=1150093431}}
{{cite book|last=Cheng|first=Vincent John|year=1995|title= Joyce, Race, and Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/joyceraceempire0000chen|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-43118-2 |oclc=1150121186}}
{{cite book|last=Coolahan|first=John|year=2010|editor-last=Hill|editor-first=J. R.|chapter=Higher Education, 1908-84|title=A New History of Ireland Volume VII: Ireland, 1921-84|pages=758–759|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-959282-1|oclc=701552783}}
{{cite book|last=Cope|first=Jackson I.|year=1981|title=Joyce's Cities: Archaeologies of the Soul|url=https://archive.org/details/joycescitiesarch0000cope|url-access=registration|publisher=Johns Hopkins University|isbn=978-0-521-88662-8|oclc=900420355}}
{{cite book|last=Costello|first=Peter|year=1992|title=James Joyce: The Years of Growth|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7|url-access=registration|publisher=Roberts Rineheart|isbn=1-879373-30-0|oclc=856717658}}
{{cite book |last1=Cunningham |first1=Valentine |chapter= James Joyce|title=The Oxford Handbook of English Literature and Theology |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press|editor1-last=Hass|editor1-first=Andrew|editor2-last=Jasper|editor2-first=David|editor3-last=Jay|editor3-first=Elizabeth|isbn=978-0199271979 |pages=499–422}}
{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Stan Gébler|year=1982|title=James Joyce: A Portrait of the Artist |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi |url-access=registration|publisher=Granada |isbn=978-0-586-05639-4 |oclc=1194438647}}
{{cite book|last=Davison|first=Neil R.|year=1998|title=James Joyce, Ulysses, and the Construction of Jewish Identity: Culture, Biography, and 'the Jew' in Modernist Europe|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-58183-0|oclc=939797702}}
{{cite book|last=Deane|first=Seamus|editor-last=Attridge|editor-first=Derek|year=1997|chapter=Joyce the Irishman|title=The Cambridge Companion to James Joyce|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/n19|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=31–53|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn= 0-521-37673-4|oclc=1148222842}}
{{cite book |last=Dettmar |first=Kevin J. H.|year=1992|title=Rereading the New: A Backward Glance at Modernism|url=https://archive.org/details/rereadingnewbac00dett |url-access=registration|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-586-05639-4 |oclc=1036833691}}
{{cite book|last=Dowling|first=Martin|year=2016|title=Recollections of James Joyce|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-00841-5|oclc=953857290 }}
{{cite book|last=Eco|first=Umberto|year=1982|title=The Aesthetics of Chaosmos: The Middle Ages of James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/aestheticsofchao0000ecou|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Tulsa|oclc=644475452}}
{{cite book|last=Ellmann|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Ellmann|year=1967|title=Joyce and Yeats|url=https://archive.org/details/yeatsjoyce11ellm|url-access=registration|series=Dolman Press Yeats Centenary Papers MCMLXV|volume= XI|editor-last=Miller|editor-first=Liam|publisher=Dolmen Press|isbn=|oclc=651978436}}
{{cite book|last=Ellmann|first=Richard|year=1977|title=The Consciousness of Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/consciousnessofj00ellm|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-502898-0|oclc=1028560217}}
{{cite book|last=Ellmann|first=Richard|year=1982|orig-date=1959|title=James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-503103-4|oclc=82514111}}
{{cite book |last=Fairhall |first=James |date=1993|title=James Joyce and the Question of History |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycequesti00jame_0|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-40292-1|oclc=1035904934}}
{{cite book|last1=Fargnoli|first1=A. Nicholas|last2=Gillespie|first2=Michael Patrick|year=1996|title=James Joyce A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycetozess0000farg_a0q1|url-access=registration|isbn=0-19-511029-3|oclc=1200482993}}
{{cite book|last=Ferris|first=Kathleen|year=1995|title=James Joyce and the Burden of Disease|publisher=University of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-2664-7|oclc=642824442}}
{{cite book|last=Fischer|first=Andreas|year=2021|title=James Joyce in Zurich: A Guide|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-3-030-51282-8|oclc=1237733430}}
{{cite book|last=Fogarty|first=Anne|editor1-last=Brazeau|editor1-first=Gladwin|editor2-last=Gladwin|editor2-first=Derek|year=2014|chapter=Forward|title=Eco-Joyce: The Environmental Imagination of James Joyce|pages=xv-xviii|publisher=Cork University Press >|isbn=978-1-78205-072-8|oclc=882713144}}
{{cite book|last=Gabler|first=Hans Walter|year=2018|title=Text Genetics in Literary Modernism and other Essays|jstor=j.ctv8j3xd|publisher=Open Book Publishers|isbn= 978-1-78374-365-0|oclc=1073823877}}
{{cite book|last=Gibson|first=Andrew|year=2002|title=Joyce's Revenge: History, Politics, and Aesthetics in Ulysses|url=https://archive.org/details/joycesrevengehis0000gibs|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-818495-9|oclc=53971552}}
{{cite book|last=Gibson|first=Andrew|year=2006|title=James Joyce|publisher=Reaktion Books|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs|url-access=registration|isbn=978-1-86189-277-5|oclc=864255796}}
{{cite book|last=Groden|first=Michael|year=1984|editor1-last=Bowen|editor1-first=Zack W.|editor2-last=Carens|editor2-first=James F.|chapter=A Textual and Publishing History|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/companiontojoyce00etat/page/70|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=39–46|title=A Companion to Joyce Studies|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn= 0-313-22832-9 |oclc=1029292078}}
{{cite book|last=Hayden|first=Deborah|year=2003|title=Pox: Genius, Madness and the Mysteries of Syphilis|url=https://archive.org/details/poxgeniusmadness0000hayd_b5i5|url-access=registration|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0-465-02881-0|oclc=472849913}}
{{cite book|last=Henke|first=Suzzette A.|year=1991|editor-last=Dunleavy|editor-first=Janet Engleson|chapter=Exagmining Beckett & Company |title=Re-viewing Classics of Joyce Criticism |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reviewingclassic0000unse/page/60|pages=61–81|chapter-url-access=registration|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-01774-2|oclc=463648199}}
{{cite book|last=Hutchins|first=Patricia|year=1950|title=James Joyce's Dublin|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyesdublin0000unse|url-access=registration|publisher=Grey Walls Press|isbn=|oclc=753237314}}
{{cite book|last=Hutchins|first=Patricia|year=2016|orig-date=1957|title=James Joyce's World|publisher=Taylor & Francis|ref={{SfnRef|Hutchins|1957}}| isbn=978-1-317-23035-9|oclc=1061144722}}
{{cite book|last1=Hodgart|first1=Matthew J. C.|last2=Bauerle|first2=Ruth|year=1997|title=Joyce's Grand Operoar: Opera in Finnegans Wake|url= https://archive.org/details/joycesgrandopero0006hodg|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-02258-0 |oclc=1150108253}}
{{cite book|last=Hughs|first=Eamonn|year=1992|editor-last=Welch|editor-first=Robert|chapter=Joyce and Catholicism|title=Irish Writers and Religion|pages=116–137|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-389-20963-8|oclc=24431101}}
{{cite book|author1-last=Jackson|author1-first=John Wyse|author2-last=Costello|author2-first=Peter|year=1998|title=John Stanislaus Joyce: The Voluminous Life and Genius of James Joyce's Father|url=https://archive.org/details/johnstanislausjo00jack|url-access=registration|publisher=St. Martins Press|isbn=0-312-18599-5|oclc=1035929915}}
{{cite book|contributor1-last=Jackson|contributor1-first=John Wyse|contributor2-last=McGinley|contributor2-first=Bernard|year=1993|contribution=Afterward: 'Clay'|last=James|first=Joyce|title=Dubliners: An Annotated Edition|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycesdubli0000joyc/page/n207|url-access=registration|publisher=St. Martins Press|isbn=978-1-85619-120-3|oclc=1256246736}}
{{cite book|last=Jung|first= Carl Gustav|year=1949|title="Ulysses": A monologue [photocopied typescript]|publisher=Analytical Psychology Club of New York|isbn=|oclc=}}
{{cite book|last=Jung|first=Carl Gustav|year=1975|orig-date=1952|editor1-last=Read|editor1-first=Herbert|editor2-last=Fordham|editor2-first=Michael|editor3-last=Adler|editor3-first=Gerhard|editor4-last=McGuire|editor4-first=William|translator-last=Hull|translator-first=R. F. C.|chapter="Ulysses": A monologue|pages=117–134|title=The Spirit in Man, Art, and Literature|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/spiritinmanartli0015jung/page/109|chapter-url-access=registration|series=Bollingen Series|volume=XX|publisher= Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-09773-9|oclc=1245812059|ref={{SfnRef|Jung|1952}} }}
{{cite book|last=Kiberd|first=Declan|year=1996|chapter=James Joyce and Mythic Realism|title=Inventing Ireland|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/inventingireland00kibe/page/327|chapter-url-access=registration|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=327–358|isbn=978-0-09-958221-2 |oclc=1035758855}}
{{cite book|last=Kenny|first=Colum|year=2020|title=The Enigma of Authur Griffith: Father of Us All|publisher= Merrion Press|isbn=978-1-4411-0640-7|oclc=741691064}}
{{cite book |last1=Lang |first1=Frederick K |title="Ulysses" and the Irish God |date=1993 |publisher=Bucknell University Press, Associated University Presses |location=Lewisburg, London, Toronto |isbn=0-8387-5150-4}}
{{cite book|last=Latham|first=Sean|year=2009|editor-last=McCourt|editor-first=John|chapter=Twenty-First-Century Critical Contexts|pages=148–160|title=James Joyce in Context|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-521-88662-8 |oclc=900420355}}}
{{cite book|last=Lernout|first=Geertz|year=2010|title=Help My Unbelief: James Joyce and Religion|publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-0640-7|oclc=741691064}}
{{cite book|last=Lernout|first=Geertz|year=1992|title=The French Joyce|publisher=University of Michigan|url=https://archive.org/details/frenchjoyce0000lern_s2e6|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-472-10195-5|oclc=980940048}}
{{cite book|last=Litz|first=Walton A.|year=1964|title=The Art of James Joyce: Method and Design in Ulysses and Finnegans Wake|url=https://archive.org/details/artofjamesjoycem0000litz|url-access=registration|publisher= Oxford University Press|oclc=1147728131}}
{{cite book|last=Lyons|first=J. B. |year=1973|title=James Joyce and Medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycemedici0000lyon|url-access=registration|publisher=Dolmen Press |isbn=978-0-85105-229-8|oclc=1194442101}}
{{cite book|last=MacCabe|first=Colin|year=2003|title= James Joyce and the Revolution of the Word|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycerevolu0000macc_n5k8|publisher=Palgrave|isbn=978-0-333-53152-5 |oclc=506235724}}
{{cite book|last=Maddox|first=Brenda|year=1989|title=Nora: A Biography of Nora Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/nora00bren|url-access=registration|publisher=Fawcett Columbine|isbn=0-449-90410-5|oclc=1036769821}}
{{cite book|last=Manganiello|first=Daniel|year=1980|title=Joyce's Politics|url=https://archive.org/details/joycespolitics0000mang|url-access=registration|publisher= Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=0-7100-0537-7|oclc=1150084929}}
{{cite book|last=McCaffrey|first=Carmel|year=2006|title=In Search of Ireland's Heroes: The Story of the Irish from the English Invasion to the Present Day|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofirelan0000mcca|url-access=registration|publisher=Ivan R. Dee|isbn=978-1-56663-615-5|oclc=1149404907}}
{{cite book|last=McCourt|first=John|year=1999a|title=James Joyce: A Passionate Exile|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycepassio0000mcco|url-access=registration|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|isbn=0-312-26941-2|oclc=566330961}}
{{cite book|last=McCourt|first=John|year=2000|title=The Years of Bloom: James Joyce in Trieste, 1904–1920|url=https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco|url-access=registration|publisher=Lilliput Press|isbn=1-901866-45-9|oclc=1091015013}}
{{cite book|last=McCourt|first=John|year=2019|editor-last=Bradford|editor-first=Richard|chapter=After Ellman: The State of Joyce Biography|pages=529–546|title=A Companion to Literary Biography|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=978-1-118-89629-7 |oclc=1060993112}}
{{cite book|last=Melchiori|first=Georgio|year=1984a|editor-last=Melchiori|editor-first=Giorgio|chapter=Introduction|url=https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf|archive-date=9 February 2021|pages=9–13|title=Joyce in Rome: The Genesis of Ulysses|publisher=Bulzone Editore|isbn=|oclc=}}
{{cite book|last=Melchiori|first=Georgio|year=1984b|editor-last=Melchiori|editor-first=Giorgio|chapter=The Genesis of Ulysses|url=https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf|archive-date=9 February 2021|pages=37–50|title=Joyce in Rome: The Genesis of Ulysses|publisher=Bulzone Editore|isbn=|oclc=}}
{{cite book|last=Morse|first=J. Mitchell|year=1959|title=The Sympathetic Alien: James Joyce and Catholicism|url=https://archive.org/details/sympatheticalien0000mors|url-access=registration|publisher=New York University Press|oclc=1151344010}}
{{cite book|last=Nolan|first=Emer|year=1995|title= James Joyce and Nationalism|isbn=0-203-21312-2 |oclc=956639381}}
{{cite book|last=Noon|first=Thomas|year=1963|orig-date=1957|title=Joyce and Aquinas|url=https://archive.org/details/joyceaquinas0000noon/|url-access=registration|publisher=Yale University Press|oclc=1150130940|ref={{SfnRef|Noon|1957}} }}
{{cite book|last=O'Brien|first=Edna|year=2000|orig-date=2011|title=James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000obri|url-access=registration|publisher=Phoenix|isbn=978-0-7538-1070-5|oclc=1194438672}}
{{cite book|last=O'Callaghan|first=Katherine|year=2020|editor1-last=van Hulle|editor1-first=Dirk|editor2-last=Silva|editor2-first=Emma-Louise|editor3-last=Slote|editor3-first=Sam|title=James Joyce and the Arts|chapter=The Art of Reading a Musical Novel: Literary Audiation and the Case of James Joyce|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-42619-1|oclc=1247076920}}
* {{cite book|last=O'Connor|first=Ulick|year=1970|editor-last=Ryan|editor-first=John|chapter=Joyce and Gogarty|title=A Bash in the Tunnel: James Joyce by the Irish|url=https://archive.org/details/bashintunneljame0000ryan|url-access=registration|publisher=Clifton Books|isbn=978-0-901255-19-8|oclc= 964128395}}
{{cite book|last=Onorati|first=Franco|year=1984|editor-last=Melchiori|editor-first=Giorgio|chapter=Bank Clerk in Rome|url=https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf|archive-date=9 February 2021|pages=24–31|title=Joyce in Rome: The Genesis of Ulysses|publisher=Bulzone Editore|isbn=|oclc=}}
{{cite book|last=Orr|first=Leonard|year=2008|editor-last=Orr|editor-first=Leonard|chapter=From High-Modern Aesthete to Postcolonial Subject: An Introduction to the Political Transformation of Joyce Studies|pages=1–11|title=Joyce, Imperialism, Postcolonialism|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-3188-0|oclc=1244720169}}
{{cite book|last=Osteen|first=Mark|year=1995a|title=The Economy of Ulysses: Making Both Ends Meet|url=https://archive.org/details/economyofulysses0000oste|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-2653-4 |oclc=1035657242}}
{{cite book|last=Potts|first=Willard|year=1979|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Willard|chapter=August Suter|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/59|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=59–60|title=Portraits of the Artist in Exile: Recollections of James Joyce by Europeans|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn= 0-295-95614-3 |oclc=1256510754}}}
{{cite book |last=Rabaté |first=Jean-Michel|date=2001 |title=James Joyce and the Politics of Egoism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00958-4|oclc=1159835557}}
{{cite book |last=Riquelme |first=John Paul|date=1983 |title=Teller and Tale in Joyce's Fictions: Oscillating Perspectives|publisher=Johns Hopkins University|isbn=978-0-8018-2854-6|oclc=803667971}}
{{cite book|last=Scholes|first=Robert E.|year=1992|title=In Search of James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofjamesj00scho|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-06245-2 |oclc=1035657242}}
{{cite book |last=Segall|first=Jeffrey|year=1993|title=Joyce in America: Cultural Politics and the Trials of Ulysses|url=https://archive.org/details/joyceinamericacu00sega|url-access=registration|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-91235-9 |oclc=45731264}}
{{cite book |last=Seidel|first=Michael|year=2008|title=James Joyce: A Short Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceshorti0000seid|url-access=registration|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-69290-5 |oclc=437218520}}
{{cite book|last=Sherry|first=Vincent B.|year=2004|title=James Joyce: Ulysses, A Student Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceulysse0000sher|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-283-32913-2|oclc=80247307}}
{{cite book|last=Shloss|first=Carol Loeb|year=2005|title=Lucia Joyce: To Dance in the Wake|url=https://archive.org/details/luciajoycetodanc0000shlo_d2b8|url-access=registration|publisher=Picador|isbn=0-312-42269-5|oclc=1150291846}}
{{cite book |last=Shockley|first=Alan|year=2009|editor1-first=Alan W. |editor1-last=Friedman |editor2-first=Charles |editor2-last=Rossman |title=De-Familiarizing Readings: Essays from the Austin Joyce Conference |publisher=Editions Rodopi |location=Amsterdam |series=European Joyce Studies |volume=18 |pages=101–102 |chapter=Playing the Square Circle: Musical Form and Polyphony in the Wake|isbn=978-90-420-2570-7 |oclc=907184947}}
{{cite book|last=Sollers|first=Phillippe|editor1-last=Hayman|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Anderson|editor2-first=Elliott|year=1978|chapter=Joyce & Co.|title=In the Wake of the Wake|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/inwakeofwake0000unse/page/107|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=107–122|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn= 978-0-299-07600-9|oclc=1150051810}}
{{cite book|last=Spender|first=Stephen|editor-last=Deming|editor-first=Robert H.|year=1970|chapter=Stephen Spender, in Listener 1941|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycecritic0000demi/page/748|chapter-url-access=registration|title=James Joyce: The Critical Heritage|volume= 2: 1928–1941|publisher=Barnes & Noble|isbn=978-0-389-01023-4|oclc=75268}}
{{cite book |last=Strong |first=L. A. G.|author-link=Leonard Strong (writer)|year=1949|title=The Sacred River: An Approach to James Joyce |url=https://archive.org/details/sacredriverappro0000stro|url-access=registration|publisher=Methuen|isbn=|oclc=1151157933}}
{{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Kevin|year=1958|title=Joyce among the Jesuits |url=https://archive.org/details/joyceamongjesuit00sull|url-access=registration|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=|oclc=1035932848}}
{{cite book |last=Sultan |first=Stanley|year=1987|title=Eliot, Joyce, and Company |url=https://archive.org/details/nley00stan|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-802156-8|oclc=191953301}}
{{cite book |last=Vanderham |first=Paul|year=1997|title=James Joyce and Censorship: The Trials of Ulysses|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycecensor0000vand|url-access=registration|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-8790-8|oclc=1090993728}}
{{cite book|last=Van Mierlo|first=Chrissie|year=2017|title=James Joyce and Catholicism: The Apostate's Wake|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4725-8596-7|oclc=1100839903}}
{{cite book|last=Watson|first=G. J.|editor1-last=Newman|editor1-first=Robert D.|editor2-last=Thornton|editor2-first=Weldon|year=1987|chapter=The Politics of Ulysses|title=Joyce's Ulysses: The Larger Perspective|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/joycesulysseslar0000unse/page/39|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=39–58|publisher=University of Delaware Press|isbn= 978-0-87413-316-5|oclc=1150083137}}
{{cite book|last=White|first=Tony|year=2001|title=Investing in People: Higher Education in Ireland from 1960 to 2000|publisher=Institute of Public Administration|isbn= 1-902448-55-3|oclc=1153619624}}
{{cite book|last=Witen|first=Michelle|year=2018|title=James Joyce and Absolute Music|publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-350-01423-7|oclc= 1038573672}}

= Journal articles =

{{cite journal |last=Attridge |first=Derek|year=2013|title=Finnegans awake: The dream of interpretation |journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=50 |issue=1/2 |pages=185–202|doi=10.1353/jjq.2012.0072|jstor=24598778|s2cid=170426109}}
{{cite journal |last1=Benstock |first1=Bernard |title=The Final Apostacy: James Joyce and Finnegans Wake |journal=ELH |date=1961 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages =417–437|doi=10.2307/2871822 |jstor=2871822}}
{{cite journal |last1=Berrone |first1=Louis|last2=Joyce|first2=James|year=1976|title=Two James Joyce essays unveiled: "The Centenary of Charles Dickens" and "L'influenza letteraria universale del rinascimento" |journal=Journal of Modern Literature|volume=5|issue=1|pages=3–18|jstor=3830952}}
{{cite journal|last=Bollettieri Bosinelli|first=Rosa Maria|date= 2013|title=Riders to the Sea/La Cavalcata al Mare by John Millington Synge, translated by James Joyce and Nicolò Vidacovich [Review]|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=50|issue=4|pages=1114–1118|doi=10.1353/jjq.2013.0072|jstor=24598738|s2cid=161160149}}
{{cite journal |last=Borach |first=Georges|year=1954|orig-date=1931|title=Conversations with James Joyce|journal=College English|volume=15|issue=6|pages=325–327|doi=10.2307/371650|jstor=371650|ref= {{SfnRef|Borach|1931}} }}
{{cite journal |last=Bowker |first=Gordon|year=2011|title=Joyce in England|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=48|issue=4|pages=667–681|doi=10.1353/jjq.2011.0093|jstor=24598884|s2cid=162310457}}
{{cite journal |last=Briggs |first=Austin|year=2011|title=Joyce's drinking|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=48 |issue=4|pages=637–666|doi=10.1353/jjq.2011.0096|jstor=24598883|s2cid=162042715}}
{{cite journal |last=Brivic |first=Sheldon R.|year=1968|title=Structure and meaning in Joyce's Exiles|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=6 |issue=1|pages=29–52|jstor=25486737}}
{{cite journal|last=Carver|first=Craig|year=1978|title=James Joyce and the theory of magic|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=15|issue=3|pages=201–214|jstor=25476132}}
{{cite journal |last=Chun |first=Eunkyung|year=2015|title=Finnegans Wake: A postmodern vision of world literature|journal=Journal of Irish Studies|volume=30|pages=71–76|jstor=43737511}}
{{cite journal|last=Clark|first=John Earl|year=1968|title=James Joyce's Exiles|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=6|issue=1|pages=69–78|jstor=25486739}}
{{cite journal|last1=Crise|first1=Stelio|last2=Rocco-Bergera|first2=Niny|last3=Dalton|first3=Jack P.|year=1969|title=Ahab, pizdrool, quark|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=7|issue=1|pages=65–69|jstor=25486807}}
{{cite journal |last=Dalton |first=Jack P.|year=1968|title=A letter from T. S. Eliot|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=6|issue=1|pages=79–81|jstor=25486740}}
{{cite journal |last=Davison |first=Neil R.|year=1994|title=Joyce's homosocial reckoning: Italo Svevo, aesthetics, and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man|journal=Modern Language Studies|volume=24 |issue=3|pages=69–92|doi=10.2307/3194849|jstor=3194849}}
{{cite journal |last=Dilks |first=Stephen John|year=2004|title=Selling Work in Progress|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=41|issue=4|pages=719–744|jstor=25478104}}
{{cite journal |last=Downes |first=Gareth Joseph|year=2003|title=The heretical Auctoritas of Giordano Bruno: The significance of the brunonian presence in James Joyce's "The Day of the Rabblement" and Stephen Hero|journal=Joyce Studies Annual|volume=14|pages=37–73|doi=10.1353/joy.2004.0003|jstor=26285203|s2cid=162878408}}
{{cite journal |last=Doyle |first=Paul A.|year=1965|title=Joyce's Miscellaneous Verse|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=2|issue=2|pages=90–96|jstor=25486486}}
{{cite journal|last=Ellmann|first=Richard|year=1950|title=Joyce and Yeats|journal=Kenyon Review|volume=12|issue=1|jstor=4333187|pages=618–638}}
{{cite journal |last=Ellmann|first=Richard|year=1958|title=The Backgrounds of 'The Dead'|journal=The Kenyon Review|volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=507–528|jstor=4333899}}
{{cite journal |last=Emerson |first=Kent|year=2017|title=Joyce's Ulysses: A database narrative |journal=Joyce Studies Annual |pages=40–64|jstor=26798610}}
{{cite journal |last=Fahy |first=Catherine|year=1993|title=The James Joyce/Paul Léon Papers in the National Library of Ireland: Observations on their cataloguing and research potential|journal=Joyce Studies Annual|volume=4|issue=4|pages=3–15|jstor=26283682}}
{{cite journal |last=Fludernik |first=Monika|year=1986|title="Ulysses" and Joyce's change of artistic aims: external and internal evidence |journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=173–186|jstor=25476719}}
{{cite journal|last=Froula|first=Christine|year=1990|title= History's nightmare, fiction's dream: Joyce and the psychohistory of Ulysses|journal=Papers from the Joyce and History Conference at Yale, October 1990, Pp. 857–872.|volume=28|issue=4|pages=857–872|jstor=25485215}}
{{cite journal |last=Gabler |first=Hans Walter|year=1974|title=Toward a critical text of James Joyce's Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man|journal=Studies in Bibliography|volume=27|pages=1–53|jstor=40371587}}
{{cite journal|last=Gerber|first=Richard J.|year=2010|title="James Joyce: A Concert of Music" by George Antheil, Othmar Schoeck, Mátyás Gyorgy Seiber, performed by the American Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Leon Botstein, with Collegiate Chorale Singers |journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=47|issue=3|pages=478–484|doi=10.1353/jjq.2011.0016|jstor=23048756|s2cid=162186078}}
{{cite journal |last=Grandt |first=Jürgen E.|year=2003|title=Might be what you like, till you hear the words": Joyce in Zurich and the contrapuntal language of Ulysses|journal=Joyce Studies Annual|volume=14|pages=74–91|doi=10.1353/joy.2004.0005|jstor=26285204|s2cid=153695047}}
{{cite journal|last=del Greco Lobner|first=Corinna|year=1985|title=James Joyce and Italian Futurism|journal=Irish University Review|volume=15|issue=1|pages=73–92|jstor=25477575}}
{{cite journal|last=Groden|first=Michael|year=2007|title=Joyce at work on "Cyclops": Toward a biography of "Ulysses"|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=44|issue=2|pages=217–245|doi=10.1353/jjq.2007.0035|jstor=25571018|s2cid=162357164}}
{{cite journal |last=Halper|first=Nathan|year=1979|title=The life chronology of Dubliners (II)|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=16|issue=4|pages= 473–477|jstor=25476225}}
{{cite journal |last=Harrington |first=Judith|year=1998|title=Eighteen way of seeing Joyce's Paris|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=36|issue=1|pages=841–849|jstor=25473958}}
{{cite journal|last=Hederman|first=Mark Patrick|year=1982|title=James Joyce, priest and poet|journal=The Crane Bag|volume=6|issue=1|pages=20–30|jstor=30059526}}
{{cite journal |last=Hegglund |first=Jon|year=2003|title=Ulysses and the Rhetoric of Cartography|journal=Twentieth Century Literature|volume=49|issue=2|pages=164–192|doi=10.2307/3176000 |jstor=3176000}}
{{cite journal |last1=Hibbert|first1=Jeffrey |title=Joyce's loss of faith |journal=Journal of Modern Literature |date=2011|volume=34 |issue=2 |pages =196–203|doi=10.2979/jmodelite.34.2.196 |jstor=10.2979/jmodelite.34.2.196|s2cid=162597336 }}
{{cite journal |last=Humphreys|first=Susan L.|year=1979|title=Ferrero Etc: James Joyce's Debt to Guglielmo Ferrero|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=239–251|jstor=25476189}}
{{cite journal |last=Hutton |first=Clare|year=2003|title=Chapters of moral history: Failing to publish Dubliners|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=495–519|jstor=24295682}}
{{cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Joseph|year=1993|title=Pound's Joyce|journal=James Joyce Literary Supplement|volume=7 |issue=1|pages=21–23|jstor=26635100}}
{{cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Joseph|year=2011|title=Joyce's exile: The prodigal son|journal=Innovative Fiction|volume=48 |issue=4|pages=603–635|doi=10.1353/jjq.2011.0075|jstor=24598882|s2cid=154371272}}
{{cite journal |last=Kimpel |first=Ben D.|year=1975|title=Joyce's exile: The voice of Ulysses|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=9 |issue=3|pages=283–319|jstor=45108722}}
{{cite journal |last=Kumar |first=Shiv K. |year=1957 |title=Space-time polarity in Finnegans Wake |journal=Modern Philology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=230–233 |doi=10.1086/389169 |jstor=434978|s2cid=162207656 }}
{{cite journal |last=Levitt |first=Morton P.|year=2006|title=Beyond Dublin: Joyce and Modernism|journal=Journal of Modern Literature|volume=22|issue=2|pages=385–394|jstor=3831743}}
{{cite journal |last1=Livak |first1=Leonid |title=A Thankless Occupation: James Joyce and his Translator Ludmila Savitzky

|journal=Toronto Slavic Quarterly |date=Summer 2012 |issue=41 |url=http://sites.utoronto.ca/tsq/41/tsq41_livak.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326182502/http://sites.utoronto.ca/tsq/41/tsq41_livak.pdf|archive-date=26 March 2021}}

{{cite journal |last=Loukopoulou |first=Eleni|year=2011|title=Joyce's progress through London: Conquering the English publishing market|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=48|issue=4|pages=683–710|doi=10.1353/jjq.2011.0089|jstor=24598885|s2cid=162194997}}
{{cite journal |last=Lyons|first=J. B. |year=2000|title=James Joyce: Steps towards a diagnosis|journal=Journal of the History of the Neurosciences|volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=294–306|doi=10.1076/0964-704x(200012)9:3;1-#;ft294 |pmid=11232371 }}
{{cite journal|last=Mahon|first=John W.|year=2004|title=Joyce among the brothers|journal=Christianity and Literature|volume=53|issue=3|pages=349–359|doi=10.1177/014833310405300304|jstor=44313324}}
{{cite journal|last1=Mamigonian|first1=Marc A.|last2=Turner|first2=John Noel|year=2003|title=Annotations for Stephen Hero|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=40|issue=3|pages=347–505, 507–518|jstor=25477965}}
{{cite journal|last=Manglaviti|first=Leo M.|year=2000|title=Sticking to the Jesuits: A revisit to Belvedere House|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=37|issue=1/2|pages=214–224|jstor=25474127}}
{{cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=Timothy|last2=Bauerle|first2=Ruth|year=1990|title=The voice from the prompt vox: Otto Luening remembers James Joyce in Zurich|journal=Journal of Modern Literature|volume=17|issue=1|pages=34–48|jstor=3831401}}
{{cite journal |last=Mason |first=Ellsworth|year=1956|title=James Joyce's shrill note. The Piccolo della Seraarticles|journal=Twentieth Century Literature|volume=2 |issue=3|pages=115–139|doi=10.2307/440499|jstor=440499}}
{{cite journal|last=McCourt|first=John|date= 1999b|title=James Joyce: Triestine Futurist?|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=36|issue=2|pages=85–105|jstor=25473995}}
{{cite journal |last=Medina Casado |first=Carmelo|year=2000|title=Sifting through Censorship: The British Home Office Ulysses Files (1922–1936)|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=37|issue=3/4|pages=479–508|jstor=25477754}}
{{cite journal |last=Monnier |first=Adrienne|year=1946|translator-last=Beach|translator-first=Sylvia|title=Joyce's Ulysses and the French public|journal=Kenyon Review|volume=8|issue=3|pages=430–444|jstor=4332775|ref={{SfnRef|Monnier|Beach|1946}} }}
{{cite journal |last=Nadel|first=Ira B.|year=1986|title=Joyce and the Jews|journal=Modern Judaism|volume=6|issue=3|pages= 301–302|doi=10.1093/mj/6.3.301|jstor=1396219}}
{{cite journal |last=Nadel |first=Ira B.|year=1989|title=Joyce and Expressionism|journal=Journal of Modern Literature|volume=16|issue=1|pages=141–160|jstor=3831378}}
{{cite journal |last=Nadel |first=Ira B.|year=1990|title=Anthologizing Joyce: the example of T. S. Eliot|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=27|issue=3|pages=509–515|jstor=25485058 }}
{{cite journal |last=Nadel|first=Ira B.|year=1991|title=The incomplete joyce|journal=Joyce Studies Annual|volume=2|pages= 86–100|jstor=26283639}}
{{cite journal |last=Nadel |first=Ira B.|year=2008|title=Travesties: Tom Stoppard's Joyce and other Dadaist fantasies, or history in a hat|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=45|issue=3/4|pages=481–492|doi=10.1353/jjq.0.0086|jstor=30244390|s2cid=161243903}}
{{Cite journal|last = Osteen|first = Mark|date = 1995b|title = "A Splendid Bazaar": The shopper's guide to the New Dubliners|journal = Studies in Short Fiction|url=https://markosteen.files.wordpress.com/2018/12/Osteen-Shoppers-Guide-to-Dubliners.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922214926/https://markosteen.files.wordpress.com/2018/12/Osteen-Shoppers-Guide-to-Dubliners.pdf|archive-date=22 September 2021|volume=32|pages=483–496|via=markosteen.files.wordpress.com}}
{{cite journal|last=Pelaschiar|first=Laura|year=1999|title=Stanislaus Joyce's Book of Days: The Triestine Diary|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=36|issue=2|pages=61–71|jstor=25473993}}
{{cite journal|last=Petroski|first=Henry|year=1974|title=What are pomes?|journal=Journal of Modern Literature|volume=3|issue=4|pages=1021–1026|jstor=3830909}}
{{cite journal|last=Platt|first=Len|year=2008|title=Madame Blavatsky and theosophy in Finnegans Wake: An Annotated List|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=45|issue=2|pages=281–300|doi=10.1353/jjq.0.0057|jstor=30244358|s2cid=162009870|url=https://research.gold.ac.uk/3930/2/Wake_and_Theosophy.pdf }}
{{cite journal|last=Prescott|first=Joseph|year=1954|title=James Joyce's Stephen Hero|journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology|volume=53|issue=2|pages=214–223|jstor=27713665}}
{{cite journal |last=Quillian |first=William H. |title=Shakespeare in Trieste: Joyce's 1912 'Hamlet' Lectures |journal=James Joyce Quarterly |date=1974 |volume=12 |issue=1/2 |pages=7–63|jstor=25487170}}
{{cite journal |last=Rabaté |first=Jean-Michele|year=1989|title=Bruno no, Bruno ii: Note on a contradiction in Joyce|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=27|issue=1|pages=31–39|jstor=25485004}}
{{cite journal |last=Rainey |first=Lawrence|year=1996|title=Consuming investments: James Joyce's Ulysses|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=33|issue=4|pages=531–567|jstor=25473767}}
{{cite journal|last=Rando|first=David P.|year=2016|title=The future of Joyce's A Portrait: The Künstlerroman and hope.|url=https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1074&context=eng_faculty|journal=Dublin James Joyce Journal|volume=9|pages=47–67|doi=10.1353/djj.2016.0003|s2cid=29727253|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307103328/https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1074&context=eng_faculty|archive-date=7 March 2020}}
{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=Richard|year=2001|title=A stranger in the House of Habsburg: Joyce's ramshackle empire|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=38|issue=3/4|pages=321–339|jstor=25477811}}
{{cite journal |last=Rocco-Bergera |first=Ninny|year=1972|title=James Joyce and Trieste|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=342–349|jstor=25486995}}
{{cite journal|last=Ruff|first=Lillian M.|year=1969|title=James Joyce and Arnold Dolmetsch|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=6|issue=3|pages=224–230|jstor=25486770}}
{{cite journal |last=Rushing |first=Conrad|year=2000|title=The English Players Incident: What really happened?|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=37|issue=3/4|pages=371–388|jstor=25477748}}
{{cite journal |last=Schneider |first=Erik|year=2001|title="A Grievious Distemper": Joyce and the Rheumatic Fever Episode|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=38 |issue=3/4 |pages=453–475|jstor=25477818}}
{{cite journal |last=Schotter |first=Jesse|year=2010|title=Verbivocovisuals: James Joyce and the Problem of Babel|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=89–109|doi=10.1353/jjq.2010.0045|jstor=41429838|s2cid=154293772}}
{{cite journal |last=Sicker |first=Philip |year=2006 |title=Evenings at the Volta: Cinematic afterimiages in Joyce |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25570961 |journal=Italica |volume=42/43 |issue=1/4 |pages=334–338 |jstor=25570961}}
{{cite journal|last = Spielberg|first = Peter|date = 1964|title = Take a shaggy dog by the tale|journal = James Joyce Quarterly|volume=1|issue=3|pages = 42–44|jstor=25486441}}
{{cite journal |last=Spoo|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Spoo|year=1986|title="Nestor" and the Nightmare: The presence of the Great War in Ulysses|journal=Journal of Modern Literature|volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=481–497|jstor=3831561}}
{{cite journal |last=Spoo|first=Robert|year=1988|title=Joyce's Attitudes toward History: Rome, 1906–07|journal=Twentieth Century Literature|volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=137–154|doi=10.2307/441379|jstor=441379|url=https://digitalcommons.law.utulsa.edu/fac_pub/362 }}
{{cite journal |last=de Sola Rodstein |first=Susan|year=1998|title=Back to 1904: Joyce, Ireland, and nationalism. |journal=European Joyce Studies |volume=8|pages=145–185|jstor=44871195}}
{{cite journal |last=Staley |first=Thomas F. |year=1963 |title=James Joyce and Italo Svevo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/476822 |journal=Italica |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=334–338 |doi=10.2307/476822 |jstor=476822}}
{{cite journal |last=Staley |first=Thomas F.|year=1964|title=The Search for Leopold Bloom: James Joyce and Italo Svevo|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=1 |issue=4|pages=59–63|jstor=25486462}}
{{cite journal |last=Stanzel |first=Frank K. |date=2001 |title=Austria's Surveillance of Joyce in Pola, Trieste, and Zurich |journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=3/4 |pages=361–371 |jstor=25477813}}
{{cite journal |last=Sultan|first=Stanley|year=2000|title=Joyceday |journal=Joyce Studies Annual |volume=11|pages=27–48|jstor=26285213}}
{{cite journal |last=Thompson |first=William Irwin|year=1964|title=The language of Finnegans Wake |journal=Sewanee Review|volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=78–90|jstor=27540957}}
{{cite journal |last=Walkiewicz |first=E. P.|year=1982|title=Joyce/Pound: Dublin '82|journal=Paideuma: Modern and Contemporary Poetry and Poetics|volume=11 |issue=3|pages=511–517|jstor=24725366}}
{{cite journal |last=Walzl|first=Florence L.|year=1977|title=The life chronology of Dubliners|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=14|issue=4|pages= 408–415|jstor=25476081}}
{{cite journal |last=Weir |first=David|year=2000|title=What did he know and when did he know it: The Little Review,, Joyce, and Ulysses|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=37|issue=3/4|pages=389–412|jstor=25477749}}
{{cite journal |last=Weisenfarth |first=Joseph|year=1991|title=Fargobawlers: James Joyce and Ford Madox Ford|journal=James Joyce Quarterly|volume=14|issue=2|pages=95–116|jstor=23539891}}
{{cite journal |last=Witemeyer|first=Hugh|year=1995|title="He gave the name": Herbert Gorman's rectifications of James Joyce: His First Forty Years|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=32|issue=3/4|pages= 523–532|jstor=25473660}}
{{cite journal |last=Wykes|first=David|year=1968|title=The Odyssey in Ulysses|journal=Texas Studies in Literature and Language |volume=10|issue=2|pages= 301–316|jstor=40753991}}
{{cite journal |last=Zanotti|first=Serenella|year=2001|title=An Italianate Irishman: Joyce and the Languages of Trieste|journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=38|issue=3/4|pages= 411–430|jstor=25477816}}

= Online sources =

{{cite web |last=Nastasi|first=Alison|date=2014|title=10 Authors on James Joyce|url=https://www.flavorwire.com/436610/10-authors-on-james-joyce|website=Flavorwire|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806213915/https://www.flavorwire.com/436610/10-authors-on-james-joyce|archive-date=6 August 2020}}
{{cite web |title=50 Writers Talk About James Joyce|date=n.d.|url=https://www.threemonkeysonline.com/50-writers-talk-about-james-joyce/|website=Three Monkeys Online|ref={{SfnRef|TMO|n.d.}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021091232/https://www.threemonkeysonline.com/50-writers-talk-about-james-joyce/|archive-date=21 October 2014}}
{{cite web |title=11 – 19 Oct 1904 & June/July 1915|date=n.d.|url=http://www.joycefoundation.ch/joyce-in-zurich/11-19-oct-1904-junejuly-1915/ |website=Zürich James Joyce Foundation|ref={{SfnRef|ZJJF|n.d.}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418185120/http://www.joycefoundation.ch/joyce-in-zurich/11-19-oct-1904-junejuly-1915/|archive-date=18 April 2017}}
{{cite news|last1=Ellmann |first1=Richard |title=Joyce's Religion and Politics |journal=Irish Times Supplement |date=2 February 1982b |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/archive/1982/0202/Pg009.html#Ar00902 |url-access=subscription|access-date=2 December 2023}}
{{cite web |title=Exhibitions at MoLI|date=n.d.|website=Museum of Literature Ireland|url=https://moli.ie/whats-on/exhibitions/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815034320/https://moli.ie/whats-on/exhibitions/|archive-date= 15 August 2021|ref={{sfnRef|MoLI|n.d.}}}}
{{cite web|title=History of the Feis Ceoil Association |date= n.d.|website=Feis Ceoil Association|url=https://www.feisceoil.ie/About-Us/history.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070401041950/http://www.feisceoil.ie/history/ |archive-date= 1 April 2007|ref={{SfnRef|Feis Ceoil|n.d.}}}}
{{cite podcast|author1-last=Hawley|author1-first=Martha (producer)|author2-last=McCourt|author2-first=John|year=2000|title=James Joyce in Trieste|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/james-joyce-in-trieste|website=Radio Netherlands Worldwide}}
{{cite news|last=Horgan-Jones|first=Jack|date=14 October 2019|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/james-joyce-return-writer-s-remains-to-ireland-say-dublin-councillors-1.4050422|title=James Joyce: Return writer's remains to Ireland, say Dublin councillors|newspaper=The Irish Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028020143/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/james-joyce-return-writer-s-remains-to-ireland-say-dublin-councillors-1.4050422|archive-date=28 October 2019|url-access=limited}}
{{cite web|last=Groden|first=Michael|date=n.d.|title=Characters in Dubliners who reappear in Ulysses|url=http://publish.uwo.ca/~mgroden/notes/charsfromdub.html |website=Michael Groden: Notes on James Joyce's Ulysses |publisher=The University of Western Ontario |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051101010343/http://publish.uwo.ca/~mgroden/notes/charsfromdub.html |archive-date=1 November 2005 }}
{{cite web |last=Harnett|first=Rob|year=2019|title=MoLI Makes weekend radio debut|website=Entertainment for business|url=https://www.entertainmentforbusiness.com/moli-makes-weekend-radio-debut/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516095553/https://www.entertainmentforbusiness.com/moli-makes-weekend-radio-debut/|archive-date= 16 May 2021}}
{{Cite news|date=26 October 2019|title=The Irish Times view on James Joyce's remains: leave him be|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/editorial/the-irish-times-view-on-james-joyce-s-remains-leave-him-be-1.4062938|newspaper=The Irish Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029043929/https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/editorial/the-irish-times-view-on-james-joyce-s-remains-leave-him-be-1.4062938|archive-date= 29 October 2019|ref={{SfnRef|The Irish Times|2019}}|url-access=limited}}
{{cite web|title=On this day{{nbsp}}... 17 February|date=17 February 2014|url=https://jamesjoyce.ie/day-17-february/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424142233/https://jamesjoyce.ie/day-17-february/|archive-date=24 April 2014|website=James Joyce Centre|ref={{SfnRef|JJC|2014}}}}
{{cite news|last=Jordan|first=Anthony|date=20 February 2012|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/an-irishman-s-diary-1.466859|title=An Irishman's Diary|newspaper=The Irish Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228111620/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2012/0220/1224312050318.html|archive-date=28 February 2012|url-access=limited}}
{{cite news|last=Jordan|first=Anthony|date=13 January 2018|title=Remembering James Joyce, 77 years to the day after his death|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/remembering-james-joyce-77-years-to-the-day-after-his-death-1.3347837|newspaper=The Irish Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303015718/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/remembering-james-joyce-77-years-to-the-day-after-his-death-1.3347837|archive-date=3 March 2020|url-access=limited}}
{{Cite news|last=Killeen |first=Terence |date=7 May 2012 |title=Joycean joy after library says 'yes'|newspaper=The Irish Times |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/joycean-joy-after-library-says-yes-1.516185 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620141711/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/joycean-joy-after-library-says-yes-1.516185 |archive-date= 20 June 2016|url-access=limited}}
{{Cite magazine|last=Murphy|first=James S.|year=2014|title=Bloomsday is a Travesty, but Not for the Reason You Think|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2014/06/bloomsday-james-joyce-ulysses|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219154142/https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2014/06/bloomsday-james-joyce-ulysses|archive-date=19 December 2015|url-access=limited|magazine=Vanity Fair}}
{{cite web|last=Mullin|first=Katherine|year=2014|title=An Introduction to Ulysses|url=https://www.bl.uk/20th-century-literature/articles/an-introduction-to-ulysses|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724053419/http://www.bl.uk/20th-century-literature/articles/an-introduction-to-ulysses|archive-date=24 July 2016|website=Discovering Literature: 20th Century|publisher=British Library}}
{{Cite web |title=Prezioso Roberto – Joyce Museum |url=https://museojoycetrieste.it/prezioso-roberto/ |website=museojoycetrieste.it |access-date=16 September 2023 |language=it|ref={{SfnRef|JMT|2013}}}}
{{cite web|title=Newman House, 86 St. Stephen's Green, Dublin 2, Dublin|date=n.d.|website=National Inventory of Architectural Heritage|url=https://www.buildingsofireland.ie/buildings-search/building/50920170/newman-house-86-st-stephens-green-dublin-2-dublin|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026054559/https://www.buildingsofireland.ie/buildings-search/building/50920170/newman-house-86-st-stephens-green-dublin-2-dublin|archive-date= 26 October 2021|ref= {{SfnRef|NIAH|n.d.}}}}
{{Cite news|last=Parsons |first=Michael |date=16 June 2014 |title=Michael Flatley confirms he owns medal won by James Joyce|newspaper=The Irish Times |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/homes-and-property/fine-art-antiques/michael-flatley-confirms-he-owns-medal-won-by-james-joyce-1.1833446 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140616185058/http://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/homes-and-property/fine-art-antiques/michael-flatley-confirms-he-owns-medal-won-by-james-joyce-1.1833446|archive-date= 16 June 2014|url-access=limited}}
{{cite web|title=Pomes Penyeach by James Joyce|url=https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/pomes-penyeach-by-james-joyce|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030000537/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/pomes-penyeach-by-james-joyce|archive-date=30 October 2021|website=Collection Items|publisher=British Library|ref={{SfnRef|CI|n.d.}}}}
{{cite web|title=Residents of a house 8.1 in Royal Terrace (Clontarf West, Dublin)[1901 Census]|url=http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1901/Dublin/Clontarf_West/Royal_Terrace/1271356/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606165902/http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1901/Dublin/Clontarf_West/Royal_Terrace/1271356/|archive-date=6 June 2010|website=National Archives of Ireland|date=n.d.|ref={{SfnRef|NAI|n.d.}}}}
{{cite web|title=Song and Music in the Works of James Joyce|date=n.d.|url=https://www.james-joyce-music.com/songinjoyce.html |website=Music in the Works of James Joyce|ref={{SfnRef|SMWJJ|n.d.}}}}
{{Cite web |last=UCL |date=2016|title=James Joyce Collection |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/special-collections/a-z/joyce |website=Library Services|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215191222/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/special-collections/a-z/joyce|archive-date=15 December 2023}}

:Primary sources

{{cite web|last=Anderson|first=Margaret|date=n.d.|orig-date=1921|title=Ulysses in Court (Little Review, January to March, 1921)|website=Famous Trials by Professor Douglas O. Linter|url=https://www.famous-trials.com/ulysses/2656-margaret-anderson-s|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325035852/https://www.famous-trials.com/ulysses/2656-margaret-anderson-s|archive-date= 25 March 2021|ref={{SfnRef|Anderson|1921}} }}
{{cite book|last=Beach|first=Sylvia|year=1959|title=Shakespeare and Company|url=https://archive.org/details/shakespearecompa00beac/|url-access=registration|publisher=Shakespeare and Company|oclc=1036948998}}
{{cite book|last=Budgen|first=Frank|year=1950|orig-date=1934|title=James Joyce and the Making of Ulysses|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycemaking00budg|url-access=registration|publisher=Indiana University Press|ref={{SfnRef|Budgen|1934}}|isbn=|oclc=1035899317}}
{{cite book|last=Colum|first=Mary|year=1947|title=Life and the Dream|url=https://archive.org/details/LifeAndTheDream|publisher=Doubleday & Co|isbn=|oclc= 459369404}}
{{cite journal |last=Delimata|first=Bozena Berta|year=1981|editor-last=Moseley|editor-first=Virginia|title=Reminiscences of a Joyce Niece |journal=James Joyce Quarterly |volume=19|issue=1|pages= 408–415|jstor=25476405}}
{{cite book|last=Francini Bruni|first=Alessandro|year=1979|orig-date=1922|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Willard|chapter=Joyce Stripped Naked in the Piazza|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/6|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=7–38|title=Portraits of the Artist in Exile: Recollections of James Joyce by Europeans|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn= 0-295-95614-3 |oclc=1256510754|ref={{SfnRef|Francini Bruni|1922}}}}
{{cite book|last=Francini Bruni|first=Alessandro|year=1979|orig-date=1947|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Willard|chapter=Recollections of Joyce|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/39|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=39–46|title=Portraits of the Artist in Exile: Recollections of James Joyce by Europeans|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn= 0-295-95614-3 |oclc=1256510754|ref={{SfnRef|Francini Bruni|1947}}}}
{{cite book|last=Frank|first=Nino|year=1979|orig-date=1926|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Willard|chapter=The Shadow That Had Lost Its Man|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/74|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=74–105|title=Portraits of the Artist in Exile: Recollections of James Joyce by Europeans|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn= 0-295-95614-3 |oclc=1256510754|ref={{SfnRef|Frank|1926}}}}
{{cite book|last=Gogarty|first=Oliver St. John|year=1990|orig-date=1948|editor-last=Mikhail|editor-first=E. H.|title=James Joyce: Interviews and Recollections|chapter=James Joyce: A Portrait of the Artist|ref={{SfnRef|Gogarty|1948}}|pages=21–31|publisher= Palgrave MacMillian|isbn=978-1-349-09422-6|oclc=1004381330}}
{{cite book|last=Gorman|first=Herbert Sherman|year=1948|orig-date=1939|title=James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gorm/|url-access=registration|publisher=Rinehart|oclc=1035888158|ref={{SfnRef|Gorman|1939}}}} Gorman's biography was substantially edited by Joyce; see Nadel, 1991 and Witemeyer, 1995 cited above.
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1901|chapter=The Day of the Rabblement|title=Two essays: "A Forgotten Aspect of the University Question" by F. J. C. Skeffington and "The Day of the Rabblement by James A. Joyce|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/twoessaysforgott00skefrich/page/6|publisher= Gerrard Brothers|oclc=1158075403}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1957|editor-last=Gilbert|editor-first=Stuart|title=Letters of James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/letters00joyc|url-access=registration|publisher= Viking Press|oclc=1035911799}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1966a|editor-last=Ellmann|editor-first=Richard|title=Letters of James Joyce|volume= II|url=https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/|url-access=registration|publisher= Faber and Faber|oclc=1150247200}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1966b|editor-last=Ellmann|editor-first=Richard|title=Letters of James Joyce|volume= III|url=https://archive.org/details/letterofjamesjoy03joyc|url-access=registration|publisher= Faber and Faber|oclc=1035895293}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=Stanislaus|year=1962|orig-date=1905b|title=Dublin Diary|url=https://archive.org/details/dublindiary00joyc|publisher=Cornell University Press|oclc=18622314|ref={{SfnRef|Joyce|1905b}}}}
{{cite journal|last=Joyce|first=Stanislaus|year=1950|orig-date=1941|translator-last=Giovanelli|translator-first=Felix|title=James Joyce: A Memoir |journal=Hudson Review|volume=2|issue=4|pages=485–514|doi=10.2307/3847704|jstor=3847704|ref={{SfnRef|Joyce|1941}}}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=Stanislaus|year=1950|title=Recollections of James Joyce|publisher=James Joyce Society|oclc=56703249 }}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=Stanislaus|year=1958|title=My Brother's Keeper: James Joyce's Early Years|url=https://archive.org/details/mybrotherskeeper00joyc/|url-access=registration|publisher= Viking Press|oclc=1036750861}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce Schaurek|first=Eileen|year=1990|orig-date=1963|editor-last=Mikhail|editor-first=E. H.|title=James Joyce: Interviews and Recollections|chapter=Pappy never spoke of Jim's books|ref={{SfnRef|Joyce Schaurek|1963}}|pages=60–68|publisher= Palgrave MacMillian|isbn=978-1-349-09422-6|oclc=1004381330}}
{{cite journal |last1=Larbaud |first1=Valery |author1-link=Valery Larbaud |title=James Joyce |journal=Nouvelle Revue Française |date=1922 |issue=103 |pages=385–409 |url=https://excerpts.numilog.com/books/9782071031282.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006204356/https://excerpts.numilog.com/books/9782071031282.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2022|lang=fr}}
{{cite book|last=Luening|first=Otto|year=1980|title=Odyssey of an American Composer: The Autobiography of Otto Luening|url=https://archive.org/details/odysseyofamerica0000luen|url-access=registration|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|isbn=0-684-16496-5|oclc=1236060136}}
{{cite book|last=Pound|first=Ezra Loomis|year=1967|editor-last=Forrest|editor-first=Read|title=Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce, with Pound's Essays on Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/poundjoyceletter00poun_0/|url-access=registration|publisher= New Directions|oclc=1036797049}}
{{cite news|last=Quinn|first=John|author-link=John Quinn (collector)|year=2014|orig-date=24 February 1917| title=James Joyce, a new Irish novelist|magazine=Vanity Fair|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/1917/05/james-joyce-portrait-of-the-artist-as-a-young-man|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412213650/https://www.vanityfair.com/news/1917/05/james-joyce-portrait-of-the-artist-as-a-young-man|archive-date=12 April 2015|ref={{sfnref|Quinn|1917}}}}
{{cite book|last=Suter|first=August|year=1979|orig-date=1926|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Willard|chapter=The Shadow That Had Lost Its Man|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/portraitsofartis0000unse_p0n8/page/61|chapter-url-access=registration|pages=61–69|title=Portraits of the Artist in Exile: Recollections of James Joyce by Europeans|ref={{SfnRef|Suter|1926}}|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn= 0-295-95614-3 |oclc=1256510754}}
{{cite book|last=Svevo|first=Italo|year=1950|orig-date=1927|title=James Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000svev|url-access=registration|publisher=City Lights Books|ref={{SfnRef|Svevo|1927}}|isbn=|oclc=1150089957}}
{{cite book|last=Zweig|first=Stephen|year=1964|orig-date=1941|title=The World of Yesterday: An Autobiography|url=https://archive.org/details/worldofyesterday00zwei|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|ref={{SfnRef|Zweig|1941}}|isbn=978-0-8032-5224-0|oclc=978106414}}

:Literary works

{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1965|orig-date=1904|editor1-last=Scholes|editor1-first=Robert|editor2-last=Kain|editor2-first=Richard M.|chapter=A Portrait of the Artist|title=The Workshop of Daedalus: James Joyce and the Raw Materials for A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/workshopofdaedal0000scho/page/56|chapter-url-access=registration|isbn=|oclc=763117800|ref={{SfnRef|Joyce|1904a}}}}
{{cite web|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1904b|title=The Holy Office|website=ricorso.net|url=http://www.ricorso.net/rx/library/authors/classic/Joyce_J/Poetry/Holy_Off.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210134056/http://www.ricorso.net/rx/library/authors/classic/Joyce_J/Poetry/Holy_Off.htm|archive-date= 10 December 2018}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1916b|title=Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man|url=https://archive.org/details/portraitofartist00joycrich|publisher= B. W. Huebsch|oclc=1050861001|ref=none}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1922|title=Ulysses|url=https://archive.org/details/ulysses00joyc_1|publisher= The Egoist Press|oclc=1158083156|ref=none}}
{{cite web|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1990|orig-date=1939|title=Text of Finnegans Wake at Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.|editor2-last=Theall|editor2-first=Donald|editor1-last=Szeliga|editor1-first=Tim |url=https://www.trentu.ca/faculty/jjoyce|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607223036/http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/jjoyce/|archive-date=7 June 2011|website=Trent University|ref={{SfnRef|Joyce|1939}}}}
{{cite book|last=Joyce|first=James|year=1989|orig-date=1959|title=The Critical Writings of James Joyce|publisher=Cornell University Press |editor1-last=Mason|editor1-first=Ellsworth|editor2-last=Ellmann|editor2-first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/criticalwritings00joyc|url-access=registration|ref={{SfnRef|Joyce|1959}}|isbn=0-8014-9587-3|oclc=756438802}}
{{cite book|last=Yeats|first=William Butler|year=1912|orig-date=1892|chapter=To Ireland in the Coming Times|title=Poems|publisher=T. Fisher Unwin|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/yeatspoems00yeatrich/page/153|pages=153–155|oclc=1158571002|ref={{SfnRef|Yeats|1892}}}}

External links

{{Sister project links |author=James Joyce |b=no |c=James Joyce |n=no |q=James Joyce |v=no |wikt=no}}

{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=James Joyce }}

Joyce Papers, National Library of Ireland

[http://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000194606 The Joyce Papers 2002, c. 1903–1928]
[http://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000356640 The James Joyce – Paul Léon Papers, 1930–1940]
[http://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000574886/HierarchyTree?lookfor= Hans E. Jahnke Bequest at the Zurich James Joyce Foundation online at the National Library Of Ireland, 2014]

Electronic editions

{{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/james-joyce}}
{{FadedPage|id=Joyce, James|name=James Joyce|author=yes}}
{{Librivox author |id=495}}
{{Gutenberg author|id=1039}}

Resources

[https://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/special-collections/a-z/joyce James Joyce Collection] at University College London
{{UK National Archives ID}}
[https://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/collections/joycecoll/ The James Joyce Scholars' Collection] from the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center
[http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/joyce/introduction/index.html James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition] from the collections of Cornell University
[http://www.james-joyce.de/ Bibliography of Joycean Scholarship, Articles and Literary Criticism] from james-joyce.de

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