Kainantu–Goroka languages#Evolution
{{Short description|Language family}}
{{cleanup lang| date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox language family
|name=Kainantu–Goroka
|altname=East Highlands
|region=highlands of Kainantu and Goroka, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea
|familycolor=Papuan
|fam1=Trans–New Guinea
|fam2=Eastern Highlands – Kratke Range
|child1=Goroka
|child2=Kainantu
|glotto=kain1273
|glottorefname=Kainantu–Goroka
|map=Kainantu-Goroka languages.svg
|mapcaption=Map: The Kainantu–Goroka languages of New Guinea
{{legend|#FF5E5F|The Kainantu–Goroka languages}}
{{legend|#7BB5B6|Other Trans–New Guinea languages}}
{{legend|#D9D9D9|Other Papuan languages}}
{{legend|#E09D00|Austronesian languages}}
{{legend|white|Uninhabited}}
}}
The Kainantu–Goroka languages are a family of Papuan languages established by Arthur Capell in 1948 under the name East Highlands. They formed the core of Stephen Wurm's 1960 East New Guinea Highlands family (the precursor of Trans–New Guinea), and are one of the larger branches of Trans–New Guinea in the 2005 classification of Malcolm Ross.
Languages
The constituent Kainantu and Goroka families are clearly valid groups, and both William A. Foley and Timothy Usher consider their TNG identity to be established. The languages are:[https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/morobe-eastern-highlands/eastern-highlands NewGuineaWorld]
{{tree list}}
- Goroka family
- Daulo
- Siane, Yaweyuha
- Gahuku: Alekano (Gahuku), Asaro River: Dano (Upper Asaro), Tokano (Lower Asaro)
- Benabena
- South Goroka: Fore, Gimi
- Isabi, Gende
- Henganofi
- Abaga
- Kamono (Kamano)
- Fayatina River
- Kanite, Inoke-Yate
- Yagaria
- (?Ke’yagana) [subsumed under another language by Usher]
- Kainantu family
- Kenati
- Tairoric (East Kainantu): Binumarien (Afaqina), Tairoa (North Tairora, Omwunra, Vinaata), Waffa
- Gauwa (West Kainantu)
- Gadsup (Oyana, Akuna, Ontenu), Agarabi, Kambaira
- Awa, Oweina
- Auyana: Awiyaana (incl. Kosena), Usarufa
{{tree list/end}}
Pronouns
The pronouns reconstructed by Ross (2005) for proto-Kainantu–Goroka, proto-Kainantu, and proto-Goroka are as follows:
:
| {|
|+{{nowrap|proto-Kainantu–Goroka}} ! !!sg!!pl |
| 1
|*ná||*tá[za] |
|---|
| 2
|*ká[za]||*tá-na- |
| 3
|*[y]á, *wá||*yá[na] |
| ||
:
| +proto-Kainantu
! !!sg!!du!!pl |
| 1
|*né||*té[ze]-||*té[ze] |
|---|
| 2
|*é[ze]||*[te]né-|| |
| 3
|*wé|| || |
| ||
:
| +proto-Goroka
! !!sg!!pl |
| 1
|*ná||*tá[za] |
|---|
| 2
|*ká||*tá-na-gaza, *tí-na-gaza |
| 3
|*[y]á||*[y]á-na-gaza, *í-na-gaza |
|}
The possessive forms are:
:
| +proto-Kainantu–Goroka
! !!sg!!pl |
| 1
|*na-i||*ta-i |
|---|
| 2
|*ka||*tana-i |
| 3
|*[y]a, *wa||*ya-i, *yana-i |
Modern reflexes
Kainantu–Goroka reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:{{cite book |last1=Pawley |first1=Andrew |last2=Hammarström |first2=Harald |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Trans New Guinea family |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=21–196 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}
- are 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V]
- nu 'louse' < *niman
- ato 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V]
- ir 'tree' < *inda
- (n)am 'breast' < *amu
- nume 'louse' < *niman
- kubu 'short' < *k(a,u)tu(p,mb)aC
- mi- 'give' < *mV-
- na- 'eat' < *na-
- numaa 'louse' < *niman
- mi- 'give' < *mV-
- amune 'egg' < *mun(a,i,u)ka
- kasa 'new' < *kVndak
- mone 'nose' < *mundu
- ami 'breast' < *amu
- mut 'belly' < *mundun 'internal organs'
- mina- 'stay' < *mVna-
- nogoi 'water < *[n]ok
- (tu)nima 'louse' < *niman
- me- 'give' < *mV-
Innovations in proto-Kainantu-Goroka replacing proto-Trans-New Guinea forms:
- *tá[za] '1pl' replaces pTNG *ni, *nu
- *tá-na '2pl' replaces pTNG *ŋgi, *ja
- genitive forms ending in *-i
Vocabulary comparison
Gorokan basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986).Foley, William A. (1986). [https://books.google.com/books?id=KCATREJERGoC The Papuan Languages of New Guinea]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-28621-2}}.
Despite the presence of reconstructions in the left column, the words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. ya, yafa, yava for “tree”) or not (e.g. tuva, logo, hali for “fire”).
:
| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Proto-Gorokan !! Gende !! Siane !! Benabena !! Kamono–Yagaria !! Fore | ||||||
| 'two' | *tote | ogondrari | lele | loe | lole | tara |
| 'man' | *we | vei | we | vo | ve | wa |
| 'water' | *no(k) | nogoi | no | nagami | ni(na) | wani |
| 'fire' | tuva | yo | logo | hali | yakuʔ | |
| 'tree' | *ya | izo | ya | yafa | yava | yaː |
| 'leaf' | kuruma | aila | haya(ʔa) | haeya | aʔyeʔ | |
| 'root' | *supa | tovaya | lufawa | lufusa(ʔa) | havu | aubu |
| 'house' | *nom | nomu | numu(na) | no(hi) | yo(na) | naːmaʔ |
| 'breast' | *ami | ami- | ami(na) | amiha(ʔa) | ami(maʔa) | nono |
| 'tooth' | *wa | va(iza) | auma | yogo(ʔa) | (ä)vep | (a)wa |
| 'bone' | *yampu | yami- | auma | felisa(ʔa) | (a)pu(va) | (a)yaːmpu |
| 'ear' | *ke/a | ka- | ka(la) | (e)kesa(ʔa) | (ä)geta | (a)ge |
| 'hair' | *yoka | yogo | yowa(la) | oka(ʔa) | (a)yokaʔ | (a)yaːʔ |
| 'leg' | *kia | kia- | kiya(na) | gigusa(ʔa) | (a)gia | (a)gisaː |
| 'blood' | *kota | mamia- | wanu | golaha(ʔa) | gola(na) | koraːʔ |
| 'hand' | *ya | ya | a(na) | yaha(ʔa) | (ä)ya | ya |
| 'egg' | *mut | mura | mula | mu(ʔa) | mu(na) | amuʔ |
| 'sun' | *po | po | fo | yafi | yafo | yaːbu |
| 'axe' | *tu | tu | luna | lu | lu | tuʔ |
| 'netbag' | *ko | ko | owo | gu(ʔi) | gu(na) | koʔ |
| 'eat' | *na- | na- | n- | na- | no- | na- |
| 'die' | *puti- | pri- | fol- | fili- | fili- | puri- |
| 'say' | *si- | ti- | l- | li- | hi- | i- |
| 'give' | *mi- | imi- | om- | m- | mi- | mi- |
| 'big' | *(n)ampa | namba | namba | napa | legepa | tabe |
Kainantu basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):
:
| class="wikitable sortable" | ||||
| 'two' | tɔtare | kaiʔa | kaantani | taaraʔanta |
| 'man' | wɛ | waiya | banta | bainti |
| 'water' | no | nomba | nomi | namari |
| 'fire' | ira | irama | ikai | iha |
| 'tree' | ta | taima | yaani | katari |
| 'leaf' | ɔnɔ | anama | anai | mare |
| 'root' | anuʔ | anuʔa | anuʔi | tuʔa |
| 'house' | nɔ | naamba | maʔi | naabu |
| 'breast' | nɔ | naamba | naami | naama |
| 'tooth' | awɛ | awaiyamba | abakuni | aabai |
| 'bone' | ayɔnta | ayaantamba | ayampai | buhaarima |
| 'ear' | ɔre | aʔa | aakami | aato |
| 'hair' | (a)yɔra | aayara | -nyoi | kauhi |
| 'leg' | ai | aisamima | akani | aiʔu |
| 'blood' | nɛe | naema | naarei | naare |
| 'hand' | ayɔnobeh | ayamba | aayaami | kauʔu |
| 'egg' | au | auma | amuʔi | auru |
| 'sun' | popoʔnah | aabauma | ikona | kauri |
| 'axe' | konaro | koraroba | kuntaʔi | kaarima |
| 'netbag' | unɔ | unaamba | unaami | uta |
| 'eat' | nɔno | nare | naano | naana |
| 'die' | pukire | pukai | pukono | ʔutubiro |
| 'say' | iraruwo | siyo | seʔu | tiena |
| 'give' | awiʔ | ami | ameno | amina |
| 'big' | aanotɔ | anomba | inoʔna | nora |
Proto-languages
Some lexical reconstructions of Proto-East Kainantu and Proto-North Kainantu by Usher (2020) are:Usher, Timothy. 2020. [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/eastern-highlands-kratke-range/eastern-highlands/kainantu/east-kainantu East Kainantu]. New Guinea World. Accessed 20210-01-19.Usher, Timothy. 2020. [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/eastern-highlands-kratke-range/eastern-highlands/kainantu/west-kainantu/north-kainantu North Kainantu]. New Guinea World. Accessed 20210-01-19.
:
| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Proto-East Kainantu !! Proto-North Kainantu | ||
| head | *piᵄtɐ | *noːN |
| hair/feather | *jɐᵘsi | *jɐᵘ |
| ear | *ɑːtoː | *ɑːʔ |
| eye | *wu | *u |
| nose | *ipi | *siʔ |
| tooth | *wɐⁱ | *wɐj |
| tongue | *m₂ɑːpiɾi | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ |
| leg | *ipu | *tɐɾ |
| blood | *wi[ʔt]ipɐ | *nɑːɾeː |
| bone | *muʔjɑːni | *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ |
| breast | *nɑːNmɐ | *nɑːN |
| louse | *numɐ | *nuN |
| dog | *w₂ɐⁱni | *ijɐN |
| pig | *p₂uᵄɾɐ | *poːɾ |
| bird | *inɑːmɐ; *uwini | *nuN |
| egg | *uɾu | *uɾ |
| tree | *jɐtɐɾi | *jɑːj |
| sun | *j₂uᵄni | *ɑːʔ |
| moon | *[u]toːnɐ | *wi[ɾ]oːN |
| water | *noːni | *noːN |
| fire | *iʔjɐ | *itɐ |
| stone | *oːni | *oː[ɾ/j] |
| path | *ɑːni | *ɑːj |
| man | *wɐⁱ-iNti | *wɑːⁱNsɐ |
| woman | *ɐnɑːjeː | *ɐnɑːsi |
| name | *utu | *wiʔ |
| eat | *nɐ- | |
| one | *moːʔjɑː | *mɐnɑː |
| two | *tɑːɾɐ | *tɑːN |
See also
- East New Guinea Highlands languages, an expansion of Kainantu–Goroka in Wurm 1975, which was later abandoned by Ross due to a lack of unifying morphological data.
Bibliography
- {{Malcolm Ross Pronouns}}
- Ross, Malcolm. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-kainantu-goroka Proto-Kainantu-Goroka]. TransNewGuinea.org.
- Ross, Malcolm. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-goroka Proto-Goroka]. TransNewGuinea.org.
- Ross, Malcolm. 2014. [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-kainantu Proto-Kainantu]. TransNewGuinea.org.
- [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-eastern Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka]. TransNewGuinea.org. From Scott, G. 1978. The Fore language of Papua New Guinea. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
- [http://transnewguinea.org/language/proto-eastern-central Proto-Eastern-Central Gorokan]. TransNewGuinea.org. From Scott, G. 1978. The Fore language of Papua New Guinea. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
References
{{reflist}}
External links
- Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/morobe-eastern-highlands/eastern-highlands/kainantu Kainantu]
{{Kainantu–Goroka languages}}
{{Trans–New Guinea languages}}
{{Papuan languages}}
{{Languages of Papua New Guinea}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kainantu-Goroka languages}}