Kathoey

Androgynous men in Khmer society have been observed by Chinese explorer Zhou Daguan who visited Angkor Wat in 1296–1297. In The Customs of Cambodia he records the presence of erxingren (二形人, literally "two-shaped persons") who tried to ”lure Chinese men by promising them sumptuous gifts”.{{Cite web |title=真臘風土記 : 真臘風土記 - Chinese Text Project |url=https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=871233&searchu=%E4%BA%8C%E5%BD%A2%E4%BA%BA&remap=gb |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=ctext.org |language=en}}

A 19th-century interpretation of the Chbab Srey is also said to contains mentions of "malicious" women being punished in the "four hells" and being reincarnated as kathoey.{{Cite journal |last1=Hoefinger |first1=H. |last2=Srun |first2=S. |date=2017 |title="At-Risk" or "Socially Deviant"? Conflicting Narratives and Grassroots Organizing of Sex/Entertainment Workers and LGBT Communities in Cambodia |journal=Social Sciences |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=5 |doi=10.3390/socsci6030093 |s2cid=58920413 |quote=In a recent interpretation of the Cbpab Srei written c. 1800, there is a reference in lines 184–186 of “malicious” women suffering punishment from the “four hells” as being reincarnated as kathoey |doi-access=free}}{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2024}}

The word {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} is of Khmer {{lang|km|ខ្ទើយ}} {{Transliteration|km|khteuy}}.{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter A |url=https://archive.org/details/malehomosexualit00jack |title=Male Homosexuality in Thailand; An Interpretation of Contemporary Thai Sources |date=1989 |publisher=Global Academic Publishers |location=Elmhurst NY |ref=Peter Jackson |url-access=registration}} It is most often translated as ladyboy in English conversation, an expression that has become popular across Southeast Asia.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

A study of 195 Thai transgender women found that most of the participants referred to themselves as {{Transliteration|th|phuying}} ({{lang|th|ผู้หญิง}} 'women'), with a minority referring to themselves as {{Transliteration|th|phuying praphet song}} ('second kind of woman') and very few referring to themselves as {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}}.{{cite journal|title = Thai Transgenders in Focus: Demographics, Transitions and Identities|journal = International Journal of Transgenderism|date = 2006-06-14|issn = 1553-2739|pages = 15–27|volume = 9|issue = 1|doi = 10.1300/J485v09n01_03|first1=Sam|last1 = Winter|s2cid = 143719775}} Related phrases include {{Transliteration|th|phet thi sam}} ({{lang|th|เพศที่สาม}}, 'third sex'), and {{Transliteration|th|sao praphet song}} or {{Transliteration|th|phu ying praphet song}} ({{lang|th|สาวประเภทสอง}}, {{lang|th|ผู้หญิงประเภทสอง}}—both meaning 'second-type female').{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

File:Nongthoomfairtex.jpg is one of the most internationally recognised {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} for her portrayal in the film Beautiful Boxer.]]

Although {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} is often translated as 'transgender woman' in English, this term is not correct in Thailand. As well as transgender people, the term can refer to gay men, and was originally used to refer to androgynous people. Before the 1960s, the use of {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} included anyone who deviated from the dominant sexual norms. Because of this confusion in translation, the English translation of {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} is usually 'ladyboy' (or variants of the term).

Use of the term {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} suggests that the person self-identifies as a type of male, in contrast to {{Transliteration|th|sao praphet song}} (which, like "trans woman", suggests a "female" ({{Transliteration|th|sao}}) identity), and in contrast to {{Transliteration|th|phet thi sam}} ('third sex'). The term {{Transliteration|th|phu ying praphet}} song, which can be translated as 'second-type female', is also used to refer to {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}}.{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (academic) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G30kIcfc8HMC&pg=PA137 |title=Lady Boys, Tom Boys, Rent Boys: Male and Female Homosexualities in Contemporary Thailand |publisher=Haworth Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7890-0656-1}}{{RP|146}} Australian scholar of sexual politics in Thailand Peter Jackson claims that the term {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} was used in antiquity to refer to intersex people, and that the connotation changed in the mid-20th century to cover cross-dressing males.Jackson, Peter (2003). [http://wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au/intersections/issue9/jackson.html Performative Genders, Perverse Desires: A Bio-History of Thailand's Same-Sex and Transgender Cultures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403051912/http://wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au/intersections/issue9/jackson.html |date=3 April 2007 }} in "Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context," Issue 9, August 2003. See paragraph "The Homosexualisation of Cross-Dressing." {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} became an iconic symbol of modern Thai culture.Winter, Sam. Queer Bangkok: Twenty-first Century Markets, Media, and Rights. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011 The term can refer to males who exhibit varying degrees of femininity. Many dress as women and undergo "feminising" medical procedures such as breast implants, hormones, silicone injections, or Adam's apple reductions. Others may wear make-up and use feminine pronouns, but dress as men, and are closer to the Western category of effeminate gay man than transgender.

The term {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} may be considered pejorative, especially in the form {{Transliteration|th|kathoey-saloey}}. It has a meaning similar to the English language 'fairy' or 'queen'.[http://www.cpamedia.com/culture/thailand_kathoey/ CPAmedia.com: Thailand's Women of the Second Kind] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120226190848/http://www.cpamedia.com/culture/thailand_kathoey/ archive]) {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} can also be seen as a derogatory word for those who are gay.

In Buddhism there are a variety of interpretations on how to relate to kathoey and transgender people. Some within the Theravada school of Buddhism see being a kathoey as the result of karmic punishment for previous lifetimes.{{Cite journal |last=Kang |first=Dredge |date=December 2012 |title=Kathoey In Trend: Emergent Genderscapes, National Anxieties and the Re-Signification of Male-Bodied Effeminacy in Thailand |journal=Asian Studies Review |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=475–494 |doi=10.1080/10357823.2012.741043}} Bunmi, a Thai Buddhist author, believes that homosexuality stems from "lower level spirits" ({{Transliteration|th|phi-sang-thewada}}), a factor that is influenced by one's past life. Some Buddhists view {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} as persons born with a disability as a consequence of past sins.{{Dubious|date=January 2019|reason=Does source really generalise like that over a half-billion multistranded religion? Does it mean just Thai Buddhism? Does it have the really good sources required to make even that generalisation?}} Using the notion of karma, some Thais believe that being a kathoey is the result of transgressions in past lives, concluding that kathoeys deserve pity rather than blame.{{Cite book |last=Totman |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/thirdsexkathoeyt0000totm/page/57 |title=The Third Sex: Kathoey: Thailand's Ladyboys |publisher=Souvenir Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-285-63668-2 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/thirdsexkathoeyt0000totm/page/57 57]}} Others, however, believe that kathoeys should rectify their past life transgressions.{{Cite journal |title=APA PsycNet |url=https://content.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/0000159-010 |doi=10.1037/0000159-010 |s2cid=210572667 |access-date=2021-11-05 |website=content.apa.org|url-access=subscription }} This is done through merit-making such as "making donations to a temple or by ordaining as monks". While other Buddhists believe that the Buddha was never hostile to LGBT people and therefore that seeing being LGBT as a karmic punishment is a mistaken interpretation.{{Cite news |last=Chandran |first=Rina |date=August 21, 2020 |title="'LGBT people are also humans': Thai Buddhist monk backs equality" |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-lgbt-religion-interview-trfn-idUSKBN25H0RZ |work=Reuters}}

In northern Thailand, kathoeys, women, and gay men are considered to have soft souls and are therefore easily frightened and highly susceptible to possession.{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=Deities and Divas. Queer Ritual specialists in Myanmar, Thailand and Beyond. |publisher=Nais Press |year=2022 |isbn=9788776943073 |location=Copenhagen |pages=62}} These three groups are heavily represented in spirit summoning since people without soft souls are considered immune to possession. Despite this, kathoeys being a large proportion of the spirit medium population is a modern phenomenon since there is little evidence that kathoeys were associated with religious practice and were banned from religious ceremony before the modern period.{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=Deities and Divas. Queer Ritual specialists in Myanmar, Thailand and Beyond |publisher=Nais Press |year=2022 |isbn=9788776943073 |location=Copenhagen |pages=76}} In rural areas in north Thailand, kathoeys have taken on jobs as spirit mediums where they become known as Kathoey maa-khii.{{Cite report |url=http://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_368644/lang--en/index.htm |title=PRIDE at work: A study on discrimination at work on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in Thailand |last=Suriyasarn |first=Busakorn |date=2015-05-14 |language=en}} 33. Spirit mediumship provide kathoeys with a source of income as well as a support network.

During the festival of the nine gods in southern Thailand, kathoeys participate as spiritual mediums of the god Kaun Im.{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=Deities and Divas. Queer Ritual specialists in Myanmar, Thailand and Beyond |publisher=NAIS Press |year=2022 |isbn=9788776943073 |location=Copenhagen |pages=64}} The southern Thailand tradition of the spirit medium Nora dance has traditionally been a primarily male performance.{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=Deities and Divas. Queer Ritual specialists in Myanmar, Thailand and Beyond. |publisher=NAIS Press |year=2022 |isbn=9788776943073 |location=Copenhagen |pages=65–66}} However, women and kathoeys have become an increasingly large proportion of the performers, with a majority male performers in 2014 being either gay men or kathoeys.{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=Deities and Divas. Queer Ritual specialists in Myanmar, Thailand and Beyond. |publisher=NAIS Press |year=2022 |isbn=9788776943073 |location=Copenhagen |pages=66–68}}

{{Main|LGBT rights in Thailand}}

{{see also|LGBT rights in Cambodia|LGBT rights in Laos}}

In Thai cities such as Bangkok, there are currently two to three gender-affirming surgery (GAS) operations per week, more than 3,500 over the past thirty years.{{Cite news |last=Gale |first=Jason |date=2015-10-27 |title=How Thailand Became a Global Gender-Change Destination |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2015-10-26/how-thailand-became-a-global-gender-change-destination |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628124831/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2015-10-26/how-thailand-became-a-global-gender-change-destination |archive-date=28 June 2018 |access-date=23 March 2018 |work=Bloomberg}} With the massive increase in GASs, there has also been an increase in prerequisites, measures that must be taken in order to be eligible for the operation. Patients must be at least 18 years old with permission from parents if under 20 years old.Duncan, Debbie. "Prerequisites - The Transgender Center." Prerequisites - The Transgender Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 March 2017. One must provide evidence of diagnosis of gender dysphoria from a psychologist or psychiatrist. Before going through gender-affirming surgery, one must be on hormones/antiandrogens for at least one year. Patients must have a note from the psychiatrist or clinical psychologist. Two months prior to the surgery, patients are required to see a psychiatrist in Thailand to confirm eligibility for gender-affirming surgery.

Kathoeys are more visible and more accepted in Thai culture than transgender people are in other countries in the world. Several popular Thai models, singers, and movie stars are kathoeys, and Thai newspapers often print photographs of the winners of female and kathoey beauty contests side by side. The phenomenon is not restricted to urban areas; there are kathoeys in most villages, and kathoey beauty contests are commonly held as part of local fairs.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

A common stereotype is that older, well-off kathoeys provide financial support to young men with whom they are in romantic relationships.[http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/thailand.html Thailand] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080729232531/http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/thailand.html|date=29 July 2008}}, in the International Encyclopedia of Sexuality, Volume I–IV 1997–2001, edited by Robert T. Francoeur

Kathoeys currently face many social and legal impediments. Families (and especially fathers) are typically disappointed if a child becomes a kathoey, and kathoeys often have to face the prospect of disclosing their birth sex. However, kathoeys generally have greater acceptance in Thailand than most other East Asian countries.{{Cite web |last=Roderick |first=Daffyd |date=2001 |title=Boys Will Be Girls: In a Bangkok clinic, $1,000 can turn a man into a woman. Some call that the price of freedom |url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/sex/sextranssexual.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413164052/http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/sex/sextranssexual.html |archive-date=13 April 2001 |access-date=22 March 2015 |website=TIMEasia.com |publisher=Time Asia}}. See also Céline Grünhagen: Transgender in Thailand: Buddhist Perspectives and the Socio-Political Status of Kathoeys. In: Gerhard Schreiber (ed.), Transsexuality in Theology and Neuroscience. Findings, Controversies, and Perspectives. De Gruyter, Berlin and Boston 2016, pp. 219–232. Problems can also arise in regards to access to amenities and gender allocation.

Many kathoeys work in predominately female occupations, such as in shops, restaurants, and beauty salons, but also in factories (a reflection of Thailand's high proportion of female industrial workers).Winter S, Udomsak N (2002). [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no01_04.htm Male, Female and Transgender: Stereotypes and Self in Thailand] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228130914/http://www.symposion.com/ijt/ijtvo06no01_04.htm|date=28 February 2007}}. International Journal of Transgenderism. 6,1 Discrimination in employment is rampant as many perceive kathoeys as having mental problems and refuse to hire them.{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=Qian Hui |year=2014 |title=Orientalist obsessions: fabricating hyper-reality and performing hyper-femininity in Thailand's kathoey tourism |url=https://www.academia.edu/6368206 |journal=Annals of Leisure Research |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.1080/11745398.2014.906312 |issn=1174-5398 |s2cid=144446342}} In addition, the difficulty for kathoeys to change their gender marker on official documentation makes finding employment harder.Scuzzarello, S. & Statham, P. (2022). Transgender kathoey socially imagining relationships with western men in Thailand: Aspirations for gender affirmation, upward social mobility, and family acceptance. Advances in Southeast Asian Studies, 15(2), 195-212.{{Cite report |url=http://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_368644/lang--en/index.htm |title=PRIDE at work: A study on discrimination at work on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in Thailand |last=Suriyasarn |first=Busakorn |date=2015-05-14 |language=en}} 48. For these reasons, many kathoeys are only able to find work in sex and entertainment industries. These sorts of jobs include tourist centers, cabarets, and sex work. Kathoeys who work in the tourism sector must conform to a physical image that is preferred by tourists. Kathoeys who obtain jobs in the civil service sector are required to wear uniforms coinciding with their assigned sex of male.{{Cite web |title=Legal Gender Recognition in Thailand: A Legal and Policy Review |url=https://www.th.undp.org/content/thailand/en/home/library/democratic_governance/legal-gender-recognition-in-thailand--a-legal-and-policy-review.html |access-date=2021-10-22 |website=United Nations Development Programme |language=en}} In 2011, the short lived airline P.C. Air began hiring kathoeys as flight attendants.{{Cite news |last=Hodal |first=Kate |date=Jan 17, 2012 |title=Flying the flag for ladyboys: Thai airline takes on transgender flight attendants |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/17/pc-air-transgender-flight-attendants |access-date=Nov 6, 2023 |work=The Guardian}}{{Cite report |url=http://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_368644/lang--en/index.htm |title=PRIDE at work: A study on discrimination at work on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in Thailand |last=Suriyasarn |first=Busakorn |date=2015-05-14 |language=en}} 32.

In rural areas in northern Thailand, some kathoeys have acquired jobs picking fruit from trees. According to rural traditions men and women perform separate roles in the process of collecting fruit. Men climb trees and while women collect fruit in baskets below. However, kathoeys are allowed to perform both roles. Kathoeys in rural areas in northern Thailand have begun acquiring jobs as spirit mediums as well.

Many schools teach students that being transgender is wrong and a form of sexual deviancy. Thai schools utilize gendered uniforms as well.{{Cite journal |last=Leonard |first=Riley |date=2018 |title=Thailand's gender equality act: A solution for the United States' transgender bathroom debate |journal=Wisconsin International Law Journal |volume=35 |pages=670–703}} In 2015, Bangkok University revised its uniform guidelines to allow transgender students to wear the uniform of their preferred gender, however, many other institutions still force transgender students to wear the uniform that matches their assigned sex. Several kathoey and transgender women choose which schools to attend based mainly on the ability to wear the gendered school uniform they prefer.{{Cite report |url=http://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_368644/lang--en/index.htm |title=PRIDE at work: A study on discrimination at work on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in Thailand |last=Suriyasarn |first=Busakorn |date=2015-05-14 |language=en}} 26. Some kathoeys report facing violence and discrimination from both their classmates and their teachers at all levels of schooling due to them being a kathoey.{{Cite report |url=http://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_368644/lang--en/index.htm |title=PRIDE at work: A study on discrimination at work on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in Thailand |last=Suriyasarn |first=Busakorn |date=2015-05-14 |language=en}} 27-29. This has led to some dropping out or changing schools.{{Cite report |url=http://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_368644/lang--en/index.htm |title=PRIDE at work: A study on discrimination at work on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in Thailand |last=Suriyasarn |first=Busakorn |date=2015-05-14 |language=en}} 28.

Thailand's 2015 Gender Equality Act is currently the strongest legal tool for advocating for transgender rights. It protects those who are "of a different appearance from his/her own sex by birth" from unfair gender discrimination. Prior to the creation of the 2016 Thai constitution, people believed that anti-discrimination terms would be set for a new category called 'third gender'. This term, however, was missing from the new constitution and no protections for transgender people were specifically outlined. Instead, the constitution prohibited "unjust discrimination" based on differences in sex.

Legal recognition of kathoeys and transgender people is nonexistent in Thailand: even if a transgender person has had sex reassignment surgery, they are not allowed to change their legal sex on their identification documents. Identification documents are particularly important for daily life in Thailand as they facilitate communication with businesses, bureaucratic agencies (i.e., signing up for educational courses or medical care), law enforcement, etc. The primary identification form used in Thailand is The Thai National Identification Card, which is used for many important processes such as opening a bank account. The vast majority of transgender people are unable to change these documents to reflect their chosen gender, and those who are allowed must uphold strict standards.{{Cite web |last=Armbrecht |first=Jason |date=11 April 2008 |title=Transsexuals and Thai Law |url=http://www.thailawforum.com/Transsexuals-and-Thai-Law.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321143112/http://www.thailawforum.com/Transsexuals-and-Thai-Law.html |archive-date=21 March 2018 |access-date=23 March 2018 |website=Thailand Law Forum}} Transgender individuals are often accused of falsifying documents and are forced to show their identification documents. This results in their exclusion from various institutions like education or housing. Impeded by these identity cards on a daily basis, transgender people are "outed" by society.{{Cite news |last=Salvá |first=Ana |date=2016-11-01 |title=An LGBTI Oasis? Discrimination in Thailand |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/11/an-lgbti-oasis-discrimination-in-thailand/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324101509/https://thediplomat.com/2016/11/an-lgbti-oasis-discrimination-in-thailand/ |archive-date=24 March 2018 |access-date=23 March 2018 |work=The Diplomat}}

The criminal justice sector relies on identification cards when deciding where to detain individuals. This means that kathoeys are detained alongside men. By law, women are not allowed to be detained alongside men, and since kathoeys are not legally classified as women, they reside in the male section in prison. Within prison, kathoeys are forced to cut their hair and abide by strict rules governing gender expression. Additionally, they are denied access to hormones and other transition-related health care.

Transgender individuals were automatically exempted from compulsory military service in Thailand. Kathoeys were deemed to suffer from "mental illness" or "permanent mental disorder".Douglas Sanders. Queer Bangkok: twenty-first-century markets, media, and rights. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011. Print. These mental disorders were required to appear on their military service documents, which are accessible to future employers. In 2006, the Thai National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) overturned the use of discriminatory phraseology in Thailand's military service exemption documents. With Thai law banning citizens from changing their sex on their identification documents, everyone under the male category must attend a "lottery day" where they are randomly selected to enlist in the army for two years. In March 2008, the military added a "third category" for transgender people that dismissed them from service due to "illness that cannot be cured within 30 days".{{Cite journal |last1=Chokrungvaranont |first1=Prayuth |last2=Selvaggi |first2=Gennaro |last3=Jindarak |first3=Sirachai |last4=Angspatt |first4=Apichai |last5=Pungrasmi |first5=Pornthep |last6=Suwajo |first6=Poonpismai |last7=Tiewtranon |first7=Preecha |date=2014 |title=The Development of Sex Reassignment Surgery in Thailand: A Social Perspective |journal=The Scientific World Journal |volume=2014 |pages=182981 |doi=10.1155/2014/182981 |pmc=3977439 |pmid=24772010 |doi-access=free}} In 2012, the Administrative Court ruled that the Military and Defense needed to revise the reasoning for their exemption of kathoeys from the military. As such, kathoeys are now exempt from the military under the reasoning that their "gender does not match their sex at birth".

{{Transliteration|th|Kathoeys}} began to gain prominence in the cinema of Thailand during the late-1980s. The depiction at first was negative by showing {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} suffering bad karma, suicide, and abandoned by straight lovers.Ünaldim Serhat. Queer Bangkok: twenty-first-century markets, media, and rights. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011. Print. Named by the Thai cinema scholar Oradol Kaewprasert,{{Cite web |last=Kaewprasert |first=Oradol |date=21 October 2024 |title=The very first series of Thai queer cinemas - what was happening in the 1980s? |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/156620588.pdf |access-date=24 October 2024 |website=University of Essex}} The First Wave of Thai Queer Cinema was a wave of films that depicted stories focused solely on queer storylines.{{Cite book |last=Ünaldi |first=Serhat |date=March 2011 |title=Back in the Spotlight: The Cinematic Regime of Representation of Kathoeys and Gay Men in Thailand |url=https://academic.oup.com/hong-kong-scholarship-online/book/18370/chapter/176425360 |access-date=10 October 2024 |website=Oxford Academic|publisher=Hong Kong University Press |doi=10.5790/hongkong/9789888083046.003.0004 |isbn=978-988-8083-04-6 }} One of these films include The Last Song (1985) directed by Pisal Akkrasenee, the first ever Thai film to have a kathoey actress as the lead role. The main character, Somying, was named after the actress portraying her, Somying Daorai, the name meaning "a proper woman" in Thai. The film director, Pisal Akkrasenee, had stated he wanted the film to portray the tragic experience of being kathoey in Thailand.

Independent and experimental films contributed to defying sexual norms in gay cinema in the 1990s.{{Cite journal |last=Morris |first=R. C. |date=1994 |title=Three Sexes and Four Sexualities: Redressing the Discourses on Gender and Sexuality in Contemporary Thailand |journal=Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=15–43 |doi=10.1215/10679847-2-1-15}} The 2000 film The Iron Ladies, directed by Yongyoot Thongkongtoon, depicted a positive portrayal of an almost entirely {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} volleyball team by displaying their confidence. In 2003, the film Beautiful Boxer, directed by Ekachai Uekrongtham, told the story of a famous kathoey Maui Thai fighter named Parinya Charoenphol. The film was referenced in the book Movies and Mental Illness: Using Films to Understand Psychopathology for the film's focus and commentary on gender dysphoria.{{Cite book |last1=Wedding |first1=Danny |title=Movies and Mental Illness: Using Films to Understand Psychopathology |last2=M Niemiec |first2=Ryan |publisher=Hogrefe Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=9781613344613}} The rising middle-class in Bangkok and vernacular queer culture made the mainstream portrayal of kathoeys more popular on television and in art house cinemas.{{Cite journal |last=Yue |first=Audrey |date=2014 |title=Queer Asian Cinema and Media Studies: From Hybridity to Critical Regionality |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/535714 |journal=Cinema Journal |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=145–151 |doi=10.1353/cj.2014.0001 |doi-access=free}} Leading to the creation of a sub-genre in Thai cinema called Kathoey-films.{{Cite web |last=Expósito Barea |first=Milagros |date=25 November 2011 |title=From the Iron to the Lady: The Kathoey Phenomenon in Thai Cinema |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51405398.pdf |access-date=3 October 2024 |website=Core}}

Feminine beauty in Thailand allowed transgender people to have their own platform where they are able to challenge stereotypes and claim cultural recognition.Jackson, Peter A. Queer Bangkok: twenty-first-century markets, media, and rights. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011 Miss Tiffany's Universe is a beauty contest that is opened to all transgender women. Beginning in 1998, the pageant takes place every May in Pattaya, Thailand. With over 100 applicants, the pageant is considered to be one of the most popular transgender pageants in the world. Through beauty pageants, Thailand has been able to promote the country's cosmetic surgery industry, which has had a massive increase in medical tourism for sex reassignment surgery. According to the Miss Tiffany's Universe website, the live broadcast attracts record of fifteen million viewers. The winner of the pageant receives a tiara, sash, car, and a grand prize of 100,000 baht (US$3,000), equivalent to an annual wage for a Thai factory worker."How starring in Miss Tiffany's pageant show can change a Thai trans beauty queen's life." South China Morning Post. N.p., 28 April 2016. Web. 5 March 2017. The assistant manager director, Alisa Phanthusak, stated that the pageant wants {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} to be visible and to treat them as normal.Yeung, Isobel. "Trans in Thailand (Part 1)." VICE Video. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 April 2017. It is the biggest annual event in Pattaya.Yeung, Isobel. "Trans in Thailand (Part 2)." VICE Video. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 April 2017.

Transgender beauty contests are found in the countryside at village fairs or festivals. All-male revues are common in gay bars in Bangkok and as drag shows in the tourist resort of Pattaya.

File:Kathoey.jpg's Nana Plaza entertainment area]]

In 1993, Thailand's teacher training colleges implemented a semi-formal ban on allowing homosexual (which included {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}}) students enrolling in courses leading to qualification for positions in kindergartens and primary schools. In January 1997, the Rajabhat Institutes (the governing body of the colleges) announced it would formalize the ban, which would extend to all campuses at the start of the 1997 academic year. The ban was quietly rescinded later in the year, following the replacement of the Minister of Education.{{RP|xv–xiv}}

In 1996, a volleyball team composed mostly of gays and {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}}, known as The Iron Ladies ({{langx|th|สตรีเหล็ก}}, {{Transliteration|th|satree lek}}), later portrayed in two Thai movies, won the Thai national championship. The Thai government, concerned with the country's image, barred two of the {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} from joining the national team and competing internationally.

Among the most famous {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} in Thailand is Nong Tum, a former champion Thai boxer who emerged into the public eye in 1998. She would present in a feminine manner and had commenced hormone therapy while still a popular boxer; she would enter the ring with long hair and make-up, occasionally kissing a defeated opponent. She announced her retirement from professional boxing in 1999 – undergoing gender reassignment surgery, while continuing to work as a coach, and taking up acting and modeling. She returned to boxing in 2006.

In 2004, the Chiang Mai Technology School allocated a separate restroom for {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}}, with an intertwined male and female symbol on the door. The school's fifteen {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} students were required to wear male clothing at school but were allowed to sport feminine hairdos. The restroom featured four stalls, but no urinals.{{Cite news |date=22 June 2004 |title=Transvestites Get Their Own School Bathroom |agency=Associated Press}}

Following the 2006 Thai coup d'état, {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} are hoping for a new third sex to be added to passports and other official documents in a proposed new constitution.[http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/index.php?menuID=2&subID=1805 "Thailand's 'third sex' seeks legal recognition"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070523060201/http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/index.php?menuID=2&subID=1805 |date=23 May 2007 }}. The First Post. 17 May 2007. In 2007, legislative efforts have begun to allow {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} to change their legal sex if they have undergone gender reassignment surgery; this latter restriction was controversially discussed in the community.Are you man enough to be a woman? Bangkok Post, 1 October 2007

Bell Nuntita, a contestant of the Thailand's Got Talent TV show, became a YouTube hit when she first performed singing as a girl and then switched to a masculine voice.{{Cite news |last=Winn |first=Patrick |date=16 March 2011 |title=UPDATED: Thai transgender talent show shocker = YouTube gold |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatches/globalpost-blogs/the-rice-bowl/thai-transgender-talent-show-shocker-youtube-gold |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808021422/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatches/globalpost-blogs/the-rice-bowl/thai-transgender-talent-show-shocker-youtube-gold |archive-date=8 August 2011 |access-date=22 March 2015 |publisher=GlobalPost}}

It is estimated that as many as six in every thousand native males later present themselves as transgender women or {{Transliteration|th|phu ying kham phet}}.

Thai activists have mobilized for over two decades to secure sexual diversity rights.{{Cite journal |last=Käng |first=Dredge Byung'chu |date=2012 |title=Kathoey 'In Trend': Emergent Genderscapes, National Anxieties and the Re-Signification of Male-Bodied Effeminacy in Thailand |url=https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt37z423xx/qt37z423xx.pdf?t=p8wtdn |journal=Asian Studies Review |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=475–494 |doi=10.1080/10357823.2012.741043 |s2cid=143293054}} Beauty pageant winner Yollada Suanyot, known as Nok, founded the Trans Female Association of Thailand on the basis of changing sex designation on identification cards for post-operative transgender women. Nok promoted the term {{Transliteration|th|phuying kham-phet}} instead of {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} but was controversial because of its connotation with gender identity disorder. The goal of the Thai Transgender Alliance is to delist gender dysphoria from international psychological diagnostic criteria. The Alliance uses the term {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} to advocate for transgender identity. A common protest sign during sexual rights marches is {{Transliteration|th|Kathoey mai chai rok-jit}} meaning "Kathoey are not mentally ill".

Activism in Thailand is discouraged if it interferes with official policy.Cameron, Liz. "Sexual Health and Rights Sex Workers, Transgender People & Men Who have Sex with Men." OPEN SOCIETY INSTITUTE Public Health Program(2006): n. page. Web. 24 March 2017. In January 2006, the Thai Network of People Living With HIV/AIDS had their offices raided after demonstrations against Thai-US foreign trade agreements. Under the Thai Constitution of 1997, the right to be free of discrimination based on health conditions helped to minimize the stigma against communities living with HIV/AIDS. In most cases, governments and their agencies fail to protect transgender people against these exclusions. There is a lack of HIV/AIDS services for specifically transgender people, and feminizing hormones largely go without any medical monitoring.

Trans prejudice has produced discriminatory behaviors that have led to the exclusion of transgender people from economic and social activity.Sam Winter. Queer Bangkok: twenty-first-century markets, media, and rights. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011. Print. Worldwide, transgender people face discrimination amongst family members, in religious and educational settings, and the workplace. Accepted mainly in fashion-related jobs or show business, transgender people are discriminated against in the job market and have limited job opportunities. {{Transliteration|th|Kathoeys}} have also experienced ridicule from coworkers and tend to have lower salaries. Long-term unemployment reduces the chances of contributing to welfare for the family and lowers self-esteem, causing a higher likelihood of prostitution in specialized bars. "Ladyboy" bars also can provide a sense of community and reinforces a female sense of identity for {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}}. Harassment from the police is evident especially for {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} who work on the streets. {{Transliteration|th|Kathoeys}} may be rejected in official contexts being denied entry or services.{{Cite journal |last=Ojanen |first=Timo T. |date=2009 |title=Sexual/gender minorities in Thailand: Identities, challenges, and voluntary-sector counseling |journal=Sexuality Research and Social Policy |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=4–34 |doi=10.1525/srsp.2009.6.2.4 |s2cid=143531913}}

Based on a study by AIDS Care participants who identified as a girl or {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} at an early age were more likely to be exposed to prejudice or violence from men in their families.{{Cite journal |last=Nemoto |first=Tooru |year=2012 |title=HIV-Related Risk Behaviors among Kathoey (Male-to-Female Transgender) Sex Workers in Bangkok, Thailand |journal=AIDS Care |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=210–9 |doi=10.1080/09540121.2011.597709 |pmc=3242825 |pmid=21780964}} {{Transliteration|th|Kathoeys}} are more subjected to sexual attacks from men than are other homosexuals.

Anjaree is one of Thailand's gay feminist organizations, established in mid-1986 by women's right activists.Megan Sinnott. Queer Bangkok: twenty-first-century markets, media, and rights. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011. Print. The organization advocated wider public understanding of homosexuality based on the principles of human rights. The first public campaign opposing sexual irregularity was launched in 1996.Douglas Sanders. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011. Print.

Social spaces are often limited for {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} even if Thai society does not actively persecute them. Indigenous Thai cultural traditions have given a social space for sexual minorities. In January 2015, the Thai government announced it would recognize the third sex in its constitution in order to ensure all sexes be treated equally under the law.

The first all-{{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} music group in Thailand was formed in 2006. It is named "Venus Flytrap" and was selected and promoted by Sony BMG Music Entertainment.[http://thestar.com.my/columnists/story.asp?file=/columnists/2007/2/3/thaitakes/16770000&sec=Thai%20Takes "'Katoeys' hit the music scene"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010010312/http://thestar.com.my/columnists/story.asp?file=%2Fcolumnists%2F2007%2F2%2F3%2Fthaitakes%2F16770000&sec=Thai%20Takes |date=10 October 2012 }}, The Star, 3 February 2007. "The Lady Boys of Bangkok" is a {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} revue that has been performed in the UK since 1998, touring the country in both theatres and the famous "Sabai Pavilion"{{Cite news |title=The Sabai Pavilion |url=http://www.ladyboysofbangkok.co.uk/the-sabai-pavilion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211080221/http://www.ladyboysofbangkok.co.uk/the-sabai-pavilion/ |archive-date=11 February 2017 |access-date=2017-02-10 |work=The Lady Boys of Bangkok |language=en-GB}} for nine months each year.

Ladyboys, also a popular term used in Thailand when referring to transgender women, was the title of a popular documentary in the United Kingdom, where it was aired on Channel 4 TV in 1992 and was directed by Jeremy Marre. Marre aimed to portray the life of two adolescent {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} living in rural Thailand, as they strove to land a job at a cabaret revue in Pattaya.

Thai {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} style and fashion has largely borrowed from Korean popular culture.{{Cite journal |last1=Blackwood |first1=Evelyn |last2=Johnson |first2=Mark |date=2012 |title=Queer Asian Subjects: Transgressive Sexualities and Heteronormative Meanings |url=https://research.gold.ac.uk/17949/1/Queer%20Asian%20Subjects%20Introduction%20-%20Accepted%20Manuscript.pdf |journal=Asian Studies Review |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=441–451 |doi=10.1080/10357823.2012.741037 |s2cid=145600356}}

"Uncle Go Paknam", created by Pratchaya Phanthathorn, is a popular queer advice column that first appeared in 1975 in a magazine titled {{Transliteration|th|Plaek}}, meaning 'strange'.Jackson, Peter A. First Queer Voices from Thailand: Uncle Go's Advice Columns for Gays, Lesbians and Kathoeys. Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2016. Print. Through letters and responses it became an outlet to express the desires and necessities of the queer community in Thailand. The magazine achieved national popularity because of its bizarre and often gay content. It portrayed positive accounts of {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} and men called "sharks" to view transgender people as legitimate or even preferred sexual partners and started a more accepting public discourse in Thailand. Under the pen name of Phan Thathron he wrote the column "Girls to the Power of 2" that included profiles of {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} in a glamorous or erotic pose. "Girls to the Power of 2" were the first accounts of {{Transliteration|th|kathoey}} lives based on interviews that allowed their voices to be published in the mainstream press of Thailand. The heterosexual public became more inclined to read about transgender communities that were previously given negative press in Thai newspapers. Go Paknam's philosophy was "kathoeys are good (for men)."

A documentary entitled Inside Thailand's Third Gender examines the lives of {{Transliteration|th|kathoeys}} in Thailand and features interviews with various transgender women, the obstacles these people face with their family and lovers, but moreover on a larger societal aspect where they feel ostracized by the religious Thai culture. Following contestants participating in one of the largest transgender beauty pageants, known as Miss Tiffany's Universe, the film not only illustrates the process and competition that takes place during the beauty pageant, but also highlights the systems of oppression that take place to target the transgender community in Thailand.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}}

{{Portal|Cambodia|Laos|Thailand}}

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• Anjaree
• Bahasa Binan
• {{Lang|nap|Femminiello}}
• Gender identities in Thailand
• Hijra (South Asia)
• LGBT rights in Cambodia, Laos and Thailand
• Miss Gay Philippines
• {{lang|haw|Māhū}}
• Muxe
• Pandaka
• Tamil sexual minorities
• Third gender
• Travesti
• Two-spirit

{{div col end}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Kathoeys}}

{{Wiktionary}}

• Andrew Matzner, [https://web.archive.org/web/20041120094937/http://home.att.net/~leela2/inlegallimbo.htm In Legal Limbo: Thailand, Transgender Men, and the Law], 1999. Criticizes the common view that kathoey are fully accepted by Thai society.
• Andrew Matzner, [https://web.archive.org/web/20041010103405/http://home.att.net/~leela2/roses.htm Roses of the North: The Katoey of Chiang Mai University], 1999. Reports on a kathoey "sorority" at Chiang Mai University.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070823115109/http://web.hku.hk/~sjwinter/TransgenderASIA/ Transgender Asia] including several articles on kathoey
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080708154644/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1820633,00.html Where the 'Ladyboys' Are]
• Ladyboy: Thailand's Theater of Illusion. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN: B0085S4WQC
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20180407111754/http://www.bangkokpicture.com/spotthekatoeys.php Can you tell the difference between Katoeys and real ladies?"]
• E.G. Allyn: [https://web.archive.org/web/20041010230744/http://www.floatinglotus.com/tmot/gaythai.html Trees in the Same Forest], 2002. Description of the gay and kathoey scene of Thailand.
• Chanon Intramart and Eric Allyn, [https://web.archive.org/web/20041111091140/http://www.floatinglotus.com/tmot/thaimovies6.html Beautiful Boxer], 2003. Describes the story of Nong Tum.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110113033744/http://www.theasiatrust.org/ The Hermaphrodite World] is a film exploring the kathoey culture of Thailand
• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100220010107/http://www.thaiguidetothailand.com/lifestyle-and-culture/katoey-thai-ladyboys/ Katoey Thai-Ladyboys]}}
• [http://asiancorrespondent.com/2015/12/the-price-of-change-and-the-right-to-be-a-woman-in-thailand/ Farrell, James Austin. "The price of change and the right to be a woman in Thailand", Asian Correspondent, 2015-12-14.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223143427/http://asiancorrespondent.com/2015/12/the-price-of-change-and-the-right-to-be-a-woman-in-thailand/ |date=23 December 2015 }}

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