Kiwifruit#Nutrition

Early varieties were discovered and cultivated in China. Common Chinese names for the fruit prior to the 20th century include {{translit|zh|míhóutáo}} ({{lang-zh|c=獼猴桃}}, {{gloss|macaque peach}}), {{translit|zh|húlítáo}} ({{lang-zh|c=狐狸桃}}, {{gloss|fox peach}}), {{translit|zh|ténglí}} ({{lang-zh|c=藤梨}}, {{gloss|vine pear}}) and {{lang|zh|yángtáo}} ({{lang-zh|c=羊桃}}, {{gloss|sheep peach}}).{{cite Q|Q133308627}}{{cite Q|Q133513057}}{{Cite journal| volume = 7| issue = 1| pages = 1–6| last1 = 徐宏化| last2 = 魏芳| last3 = 杨娜| last4 = 赵佳| last5 = 杨嘉辉| last6 = 吕素华| title = 奇异水果猕猴桃--起源, 栽培和应用| journal = Horticulture| date = 2017}} Among the early English language names for the fruit were yangtao, the name that was in popular use in the Yangtze River valley areas of central China, Wilson's gooseberry (after British plant collector Ernest Henry Wilson), gooseberry vine, and Ichang gooseberry, the latter referring to Yichang, a port city in Hubei province. The first known reference to the name Chinese gooseberry comes from 1917 in New Zealand, but it is likely that the name was in use before this time. By the 1920s, Chinese gooseberry became the standard name for the fruit in English until the 1950s. In modern-day Chinese, the fruit is often referred to as {{translit|zh|qíyìguǒ}} ({{lang-zh|c=奇異果}}), a transliteration from English.{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| pages = 92–104| last = Depner| first = Shelley Ching-yu| title = The Routledge handbook of Chinese applied linguistics| chapter = Chinese language and fruits| date = 2019}}

In 1959, Turners & Growers, a major New Zealand exporter, began calling it "kiwifruit" after being advised by a United States client, Norman Sondag, that products with the name gooseberry may have been having difficulty passing through quarantine. Sondag believed that quarantine officials were more suspicious of European gooseberries and other berry shipments, due to fears that berries that were grown closer to the ground could come into contact with soil contaminated with anthrax-causing Bacillus anthracis, something that was not an issue with kiwifruit.{{cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/the-cook-up-with-adam-liaw/article/how-did-the-chinese-kiwifruit-end-up-with-a-maori-name/uho5zagxe |title=How did the Chinese kiwifruit end up with a Māori name? |date=7 September 2021 |first=Thanh |last=Truong |website=SBS |access-date=13 May 2025}}{{Cite magazine|last=Lui|first=Kevin|date=8 February 2017|title=How the Chinese Gooseberry Became the Kiwifruit|url=https://time.com/4662293/kiwifruit-chinese-gooseberry-new-zealand-history-fruit/|access-date=9 November 2021|magazine=TIME|language=en}}{{Cite web |title=The history of the naming of the kiwifruit|last=Turner|first=Jack|url=https://www.epictepuke.co.nz/explore/posts/1313194-the-history-of-the-naming-of-kiwifruit-by-jac?page=posts&tc=795618|publisher=EPIC Te Puke, New Zealand |access-date=15 January 2025 |date=1 September 2024}} The name kiwifruit was coined by Jack Turner of Turners & Growers, referencing kiwi, an informal name used to describe New Zealanders, which Turner felt that United States servicemen stationed in the Pacific during World War II would have fond associations with. The name was first registered by Turners & Growers on 15 June 1959, and by 1970, all exports from New Zealand used the name kiwifruit.

Numerous myths are associated with the naming of kiwifruit, including that it is a reference to New Zealand's furry, brown, national bird – the kiwi, or that the name Chinese gooseberry was replaced in response to Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States.

In New Zealand and Australia, the word kiwi alone either refers to the bird or is used as a nickname for New Zealanders.{{cite book|last1=Deverson|first1=Tony|last2=Kennedy|first2=Graeme|title=The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-558451-6|ref=NZoxforddictionary2005|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001}} Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown kiwifruit from the genus Actinidia.{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/kiwifruit_ars.html|title=Kiwifruit: Actinidia deliciosa In: Fruits of Warm Climates, 1987|publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products at Purdue University|author=Morton J|year=2011|access-date=8 April 2014}} In the United States and Canada, the shortened name kiwi is commonly used when referring to the fruit.{{cite web |author1=Bernadine C. Strik |author2=Amanda J. Davis |title=Growing kiwifruit |url=https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/catalog/files/project/pdf/pnw507.pdf |publisher=Extension Service, Oregon State University |access-date=7 April 2021 |date=1 March 2021 |archive-date=24 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824155835/https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/catalog/files/project/pdf/pnw507.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |title=Northern kiwi |url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/CropOp/en/spec_fruit/vine_fruit/kiwi.html |publisher=Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs |access-date=7 April 2021 |date=17 October 2012}}

{{Further|Kiwifruit industry in New Zealand}}

{{Infobox Chinese

|pic=Kiwifruit (Chinese characters).svg

|piccap="Kiwifruit" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters

|picupright=0.6

|t=獼猴桃

|s=猕猴桃

|l="macaque peach"

|p=míhóutáo

|mi={{IPAc-cmn|m|i|2|.|h|ou|2|.|t|ao|2}}

|j=nei⁴ hau⁴ tou⁴^-²

|y=nèih hàuh tóu

|t2=狐狸桃

|s2=狐狸桃

|p2=húlitáo

|j2=wu⁴ lei² tou⁴

|y2= wùh léi tòuh

|t3=藤梨

|s3=藤梨

|p3=ténglí

|j3=tang⁴ lei⁴^-²

|y3=tàhng léi

|t4=羊桃

|s4=羊桃

|p4=yángtáo

|j4=joeng⁴ tou⁴^-²

|y4=yèuhng tóu

}}

Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China. The first identifiable description of a plant as Actinidia chinensis is from a Tang Dynasty poem by Cen Shen, which describes a mihoutao plant growing above a well in modern-day Shaanxi.{{cite book|first1=A. R.|last1=Ferguson|author-link1=Ross Ferguson|chapter=The Kiwifruit in China|pages=157|title=Kiwifruit Science and Management |editor-last1=Warrington |editor-first1=I. J.|editor-last2=Weston|editor-first2=G. C. |year=1990 |location=Auckland |publisher=New Zealand Society for Horticultural Science |isbn=0-908596-28-6}} The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty. As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for medicinal purposes, the plant was rarely cultivated or bred.{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=H.|author2=Ferguson, A. R. |title=Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinesis and A. deliciosa) plantings and production in China, 2002|journal=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science|year=2003|volume=31|issue=3|pages=197–202|doi=10.1080/01140671.2003.9514253|bibcode=2003NZJCH..31..197H |s2cid=86106541}} Cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. After the Hayward variety was developed, the fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II. Kiwifruits were exported to Great Britain and Australia from 1953,{{rp|204}} and then to California from 1959.{{rp|204}}

In New Zealand during the 1940s and 1950s, the fruit became an agricultural commodity through the development of commercially viable cultivars, agricultural practices, shipping, storage, and marketing.{{Cite web |vauthors=Knowles M|date=25 April 2017|title=NZ kiwifruit: how a major brand emerged |url=https://www.fruitnet.com/eurofruit/nz-kiwifruit-how-a-major-brand-emerged/172018.article |access-date=2025-03-20 |publisher=Fruitnet |language=en}} In the 1970s, New Zealand's kiwifruit industry experienced significant growth. To support this expansion, the Kiwifruit Export Promotion Committee was established in 1970 to coordinate marketing efforts and later, in 1977, the Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority was formed to set market standards and advise the government, giving growers some control over licensing exporters.{{Cite journal |last1=Skallerud |first1=Kåre |last2=and Olsen |first2=Svein Ottar |date=2011-10-01 |title=Export Marketing Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08974438.2011.621841 |journal=Journal of International Food & Agribusiness Marketing |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=310–329 |doi=10.1080/08974438.2011.621841 |issn=0897-4438|url-access=subscription }} The New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board, was later renamed Zespri International Limited in 1997. This rebranding marked a strategic move to enhance global recognition and market presence.

In 1978, China established the National Cooperative Group for Kiwifruit Research, launching a nationwide survey of wild Actinidia germplasm. This effort led to the selection of over 1,400 candidate cultivars.{{Cite journal |title=Actinidia Germplasm Resources and Kiwifruit Industry In China |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283151670|date=1 October 2004|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1165–1172|vauthors= Huang H, Wang Y, Zhang ZH, Jiang ZW |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.39.6.1165|journal=HortScience|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |title=Review: Kiwifruit in China|vauthors=Huang H, Ferguson AR| url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01140671.2001.9514154|year=2001|volume=29|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1080/01140671.2001.9514154|journal=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science |bibcode=2001NZJCH..29....1H |url-access=subscription}} By the early 1980s, China began cultivating kiwifruit commercially, initially planting less than one hectare with the 'Hayward' cultivar from New Zealand. Over the following decades, China's kiwifruit industry expanded significantly, and by 2020, 'Hayward' accounted for only 6.3% of total plantings, as domestically bred cultivars gained prominence.{{Cite journal |title=The breeding progress and development status of the kiwifruit industry in China|vauthors=Zhong C, Huang W, Wang Z, et al|journal=Acta Horticulturae |url=https://www.ishs.org/ishs-article/1332_59 |publisher=International Society for Horticultural Science |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2022.1332.59 |date=2022 |volume=1332 |issue=1332 |pages=445–454|url-access=subscription }}

Among these are 'Hongyang', a red-fleshed kiwifruit selected in Sichuan from seedlings raised from wild-collected seeds,{{Cite journal |title=Selection of a new red-fleshed kiwifruit cultivar "Hongyang'|vauthors=Wang M, Li M, Meng A |url=https://www.actahort.org/books/610/610_13.htm|doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2003.610.13|date=2003|access-date=2025-03-20 |journal=Acta Horticulturae|issue=610 |pages=115–117 |url-access=subscription}} 'Jinyan', a yellow-fleshed variety, and 'Donghong', another red-fleshed cultivar, also known as Oriental Red.{{Cite journal |title='Jinyan' - A superior yellow-fleshed kiwifruit cultivar with excellent storage quality|url=https://www.actahort.org/books/913/913_16.htm|vauthors=Zhong C, Wang S, Huang H, Jiang Z|doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2011.913.16|date=2011|access-date=2025-03-20 |journal=Acta Horticulturae|issue=913 |pages=135–143 |url-access=subscription}}

The Wuhan Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) plays a key role in China's kiwifruit conservation and breeding. It houses the world's largest kiwifruit gene bank, with 73 validated or protected varieties and 426 high-quality strains, including Donghong, Jinyan, and Jintao. In 2001, it sold exclusive breeding rights for Jintao to the Italian company Jingold, and in 2012, a collaboration with Jingold resulted in the development and patenting of the Jinyan and Donghong cultivars.{{Cite web |date=2019-09-06 |title="800 hectares in China will be dedicated to Jintao kiwifruit" |url=https://www.freshplaza.com/north-america/article/9141205/800-hectares-in-china-will-be-dedicated-to-jintao-kiwifruit/ |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=www.freshplaza.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Chinese Kiwifruit Season Starts with Strong Volume |url=https://www.producereport.com/article/chinese-kiwifruit-season-starts-strong-volume|date=9 August 2015 |access-date=20 March 2025 |publisher=Produce Report |language=en}}

File:Hardy-Kiwi-Comparison-3.jpg

The genus Actinidia comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness, and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture, and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than most commercial cultivars.

The most commonly sold kiwifruit is derived from Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa (fuzzy green kiwifruit) and A. chinensis var. chinensis (golden and red kiwifruit). Other species that are commonly eaten include A. arguta (hardy kiwifruit, also known as kiwiberries), A. rubricaulis var. coriacea (Chinese egg gooseberry), , A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit), A. melanandra (purple kiwifruit) and A. polygama (silver vine). Some commercial cultivars are hybrids, such as 'Jinyan', which is a hybrid of A. eriantha and A. chinensis var. chinensis, and 'Issai', a hybrid of A. arguta and A. polygama, known for having relative large fruit, the ability to self-pollinate, and being less hardy than most A. arguta.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJiaAAAAIAAJ&q=Grown+commercially+Issai+is+less+hardy+than+most+hardy+kiwi |title=Annual report ... annual meeting|date=1 January 1996|via=Google Books}}{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/berrygrowerscomp0000bowl|url-access=registration|quote=Grown commercially Issai is less hardy than most hardy kiwi.|title=The Berry Grower's Companion|first=Barbara L.|last=Bowling|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Timber Press|via=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-88192-489-3}}

Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'. They have a fuzzy, dull brown skin and bright green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale, New Zealand, around 1924.{{cite web|last=Ferguson|first=AR|date=1999|publisher=ASHS Press; Purdue University |location=Alexandria, Virginia|pages=342–347|title=New Temperate Fruits: Actinidia chinensis and Actinidia deliciosa; In: Perspectives on new crops and new uses, J. Janick (ed.)|url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-342.html}} It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.

'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but has a smaller, more oval fruit, and the flavour is considered inferior.

Kiwiberries are edible fruits the size of a large grape, similar to fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and internal appearance but with a thin, smooth green skin. They are primarily produced by three species: Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit) and A. polygama (silver vine). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their growing season. They are referred to as kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi.{{cite web|title=Hardy Kiwi|url=http://extension.psu.edu/gardening/fphg/hardy-kiwi|publisher=Penn State University College of Agricultural Sciences|access-date=4 January 2013|archive-date=23 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223101338/http://extension.psu.edu/gardening/fphg/hardy-kiwi|url-status=dead}}

File:Kiwifruit - Golden (Soreli).jpg

{{main|Gold kiwifruit}}

The gold kiwifruit, also known as the yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit, has smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Gold varieties are typically cultivars of Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis. The flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa. One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, tastes better without peeling.

Hort16A is a golden kiwifruit cultivar developed by HortResearch, now Plant & Food Research Institute, during the 1980s and 90s. It is marketed worldwide as Zespri Gold. This cultivar suffered significant losses in New Zealand in 2010–2013 due to the PSA bacterium.{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions: How Was Zespri Gold Kiwifruit Developed? |url=http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/faqs.html |publisher=Zespri Kiwifriut |access-date=4 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117141729/http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/faqs.html |archive-date=17 January 2013 }} A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, Gold3, was found to be more disease-resistant, and most growers have now changed to this cultivar.{{Cite news|title=Golden times return for kiwifruit trade|journal=The New Zealand Herald |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11261601|date=26 May 2014|access-date=29 August 2014}} 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as SunGold is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A',{{cite web|title=Zespri SunGold New! |url=http://www.zespri.com.sg/KP_ZVariety.asp |publisher=Zespri |access-date=29 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815040948/http://www.zespri.com.sg/KP_ZVariety.asp |archive-date=15 August 2014 }} and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip. Clones of the new variety SunGold have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their intellectual property.{{cite news |last1=McClure |first1=Tess |title=Kiwi wars: the golden fruit fuelling a feud between New Zealand and China |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/18/kiwi-wars-the-golden-fruit-fuelling-a-feud-between-new-zealand-and-china |access-date=30 June 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 June 2021}} In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of Sungold orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the Sichuan province.{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-02/china-new-zealand-kiwifruit-trade-impacts-/100129232 |title=Cuttings of prized SunGold kiwifruits were smuggled to China and NZ growers are divided over what to do about it |newspaper=ABC News |date=June 2021 |publisher=ABC}}

Jintao is a variety of golden kiwifruit developed in China from wild Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis vines. Created in the 1980s by researchers at the Wuhan Botanical Garden, it was introduced to Europe for evaluation in 1998 through an EU-funded project (INCO-DC). Between 1998 and 2000, it was evaluated in collaboration with institutions such as I.N.R.A. in Bordeaux (France), the University of Thessaloniki (Greece), and the University of Udine (Italy). Jintao was later released to European kiwifruit growers for commercial propagation in 2001. In the same year, exclusive breeding rights for the variety were sold to the Italian company Jingold, and production subsequently expanded to multiple locations across Portugal, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa over the following two decades.{{Cite web |title=Jintao (Jingold) |url=https://goodfruitguide.co.uk/product/jingold/#:~:text=Jintao%20was%20introduced%20to%20Europe,cultivation%20and%20marketing%20of%20Jintao. |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=Good Fruit Guide |language=en-GB}}{{Cite journal |title='Jintao': A Chinese kiwifruit selection grown in Italy |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283963986 |journal=Acta Horticulturae}}{{Cite web |title=Horti China 2018: Goodwei Kiwifruit Brand from Jingold Officially Launches |url=https://www.producereport.com/article/horti-china-2018-goodwei-kiwifruit-brand-jingold-officially-launches |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=Produce Report |language=en}}

File:Kiwifruit 'Red Passion' cross section - Italy.jpg

{{main|Red kiwifruit}}

Red kiwifruits are cultivars of Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis, distinguished by their red coloured flesh. Its origin can be traced back to China from a natural mutation of gold kiwifruit found in the wild in 1982,{{Cite web |title=Rainbow Red Kiwi |url=https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Rainbow_Red_Kiwi_18290.php |access-date=2025-04-01 |website=specialtyproduce.com |language=en}} which became the Hongyang variety, China's first commercially viable red kiwifruit cultivar.{{Cite journal |last1=Jue |first1=Deng-wei |last2=Sang |first2=Xue-lian |last3=Li |first3=Zhe-xin |last4=Zhang |first4=Wen-lin |last5=Liao |first5=Qin-hong |last6=Tang |first6=Jianmin |date=2023-11-01 |title=Determination of the effects of pre-harvest bagging treatment on kiwifruit appearance and quality via transcriptome and metabolome analyses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0963996923008219 |journal=Food Research International |volume=173 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=113276 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113276 |pmid=37803588 |issn=0963-9969|url-access=subscription }} By 2020, Hongyang became the most grown kiwifruit cultivar in China across all types and varieties.

International varieties include Oriental Red, a licenced version of Donghong variety kiwifruit grown in Italy,{{Cite web |title=Jingold's Oriental Red Kiwi from China Wins Innovation Gold Prize |url=https://www.producereport.com/article/jingolds-oriental-red-kiwi-china-wins-innovation-gold-prize |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=Produce Report |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2019-09-06 |title="800 hectares in China will be dedicated to Jintao kiwifruit" |url=https://www.freshplaza.com/north-america/article/9141205/800-hectares-in-china-will-be-dedicated-to-jintao-kiwifruit/ |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=www.freshplaza.com |language=en}} Zespri RubyRed, which was independently bred in New Zealand in 2007,{{Cite web |title=RubyRed™ Kiwi |url=https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/RubyRed_Kiwi_23789.php#:~:text=Plant%20&%20Food%20Research.-,Red-fleshed%20kiwis%20were%20born%20from%20a%20natural%20mutation%20of,new%20red-fleshed%20kiwi%20varieties. |access-date=2025-04-01 |website=specialtyproduce.com |language=en}} and EnzaRed, a cultivar that descends from the Hongyang variety grown by Turners & Growers in New Zealand.{{cite web|url=http://exportermagazine.co.nz/news/enzared-kiwifruit-set-take-world-stage|title=EnzaRed kiwifruit set to take on world stage|date=14 June 2010|publisher=New Zealand Exporter|access-date=4 January 2013|archive-date=16 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216173137/http://exportermagazine.co.nz/news/enzared-kiwifruit-set-take-world-stage|url-status=dead}}{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=Hong-Li|author2=Wang, Yan-Chang |author3=Jiang, Zheng-Wang |author4= Huang, Hong-Wen |title=[Construction of cDNA library of 'Hongyang' kiwifruit and analysis of F3H expression]|journal=Yi Chuan|year=2009|volume=31|issue=12|pages=1265–1272 |pmid=20042395|language=zh }}{{cite news|url=http://www.nbr.co.nz/article/turners-plugs-its-enza-red-kiwifruit-grown-china-119102|title=Turners plugs its Enza red kiwifruit – grown in China|date=24 February 2010|newspaper=National Business Review |access-date=4 January 2013|archive-date=24 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424141113/http://www.nbr.co.nz/article/turners-plugs-its-enza-red-kiwifruit-grown-china-119102|url-status=dead}}

Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.

File:Kiwifruit-Actinidia deliciosa-plantation.jpg

Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock, fruit-bearing plants, and pollinators. Therefore, the seeds produced are crossbreeds of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit-bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, seedlings take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwifruit is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time-consuming.{{cite web|url=http://fruitandnuteducation.ucdavis.edu/education/fruitnutproduction/Kiwi/Kiwi_Propagation/|title=Kiwifruit Propagation|publisher=University of California-Davis, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|date=2015|access-date=14 July 2015|archive-date=22 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122072939/http://fruitandnuteducation.ucdavis.edu/education/fruitnutproduction/Kiwi/Kiwi_Propagation/|url-status=dead}} Therefore, most kiwifruits, except rootstock and new cultivars, are propagated asexually. This is done by grafting the fruit-producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant.

File:Kiwifruit Female Flowers.JPG

Kiwifruit plants generally are dioecious, meaning a plant is either male or female. The male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the females receive the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit; most kiwifruit requires a male plant to pollinate the female plant. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is considered adequate. Some varieties can self-pollinate, but even they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit. Cross-species pollination is often (but not always) successful as long as bloom times are synchronised.

In nature, the species are pollinated by birds and native bumblebees, which visit the flowers for pollen, not nectar. The female flowers produce fake anthers with what appears to be pollen on the tips to attract the pollinators, although these fake anthers lack the DNA and food value of the male anthers.{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/72-kiwifruit-pollination-problems|title=Kiwifruit pollination problems|website=Science Learning Hub}}

Kiwifruit growers rely on honey bees, the principal 'for-hire' pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, partly because the flowers do not produce nectar, and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar.

Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice "floral fidelity". Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen cross paths.{{cite web | title=How bees transfer pollen between flowers | website=honeybeesuite.com | date=2018-07-17 | url=https://honeybeesuite.com/how-bees-transfer-pollen-between-flowers/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120093519/https://honeybeesuite.com/how-bees-transfer-pollen-between-flowers/ | archive-date=2019-01-20 | url-status=dead}}

To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. Most common, though, is saturation pollination, in which the honey bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance.

File:Kiwifruit skin..jpg

Kiwifruit is picked by hand and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.

Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on 'one-year-old and older' canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere, the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern hemisphere it ripens in May. Four-year-old plants can produce 15 tonnes of fruit per hectare (14,000 lb per acre) while eight-year-old plants can produce 20 tonnes (18,000 lb per acre). The plants produce their maximum at eight to ten years old. The seasonal yields are variable; a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season.

Fruit harvested when firm will ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be stored for up to 8 weeks after harvest.

Firm kiwifruits ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, a pear, or a banana.{{cite web|title=Kiwi fruit|url=http://www.ukfoodguide.net/kiwifruit.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030917043709/http://www.ukfoodguide.net/kiwifruit.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-date=17 September 2003|publisher=The UK Food Guide|access-date=4 January 2013}} Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator. If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit is normally kept for about one to two weeks.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V).{{cite web |url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/kiwifruit-vine-disease |title=Kiwifruit vine disease by MAF Biosecurity NZ |access-date=18 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312133422/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/kiwifruit-vine-disease |archive-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=dead }}{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/nelson-mail/features/primary-focus/4577177/More-virulent-PSA-strain-a-new-worry-for-kiwifruit-growers |title= More virulent PSA strain a new worry for kiwifruit growers |newspaper=The Dominion Post |first = Peter |last= Watson|date= 2011-01-25 |access-date=2011-09-04 }}{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10747234 |title= Relief for kiwifruit industry |newspaper=The New Zealand Herald |first = Owen |last= Hembry |date= 2011-08-25 |access-date=2011-09-04 }} In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty Region kiwifruit orchards in the North Island.{{cite web|url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/media/8-11-10/suspected-bacterial-vine-infection|title=Suspected Bacterial Vine Infection|date=8 November 2010|publisher=MAF Biosecurity New Zealand|access-date=9 November 2010|archive-date=13 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113200914/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/media/8-11-10/suspected-bacterial-vine-infection|url-status=dead}} The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue.{{cite web |title=Kiwifruit and Psa – a timeline |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/interactive_timeline/10-kiwifruit-and-psa-a-timeline |website=Science Learning Hub – Pokapu Akoranga Putaiao |publisher=Curious Minds – New Zealand Government |access-date=25 June 2021}}

Scientists reported they had worked out that the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy, and Chile originated in China.{{cite journal|last=Butler|first=Margi I.|author2=Stockwell, Peter A. |author3=Black, Michael A. |author4=Day, Robert C. |author5=Lamont, Iain L. |author6= Poulter, Russel T. M. |title=Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae from Recent Outbreaks of Kiwifruit Bacterial Canker Belong to Different Clones That Originated in China|journal=PLOS ONE|date=February 2013|volume=8|issue=2|pages=e57464|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0057464|pmid=23555547|bibcode=2013PLoSO...857464B |pmc=3583860|doi-access=free}}

{{Clear}}

In 2020, the Wuhan Botanical Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences patented a method for the early identification of the sex of kiwifruit plants.{{Cite patent|number=CN111394495A|title=Universal molecular marker primers and applications for sex identification of commercial kiwifruit varieties|gdate=2020-07-10|invent1=张琼|invent2=钟彩虹|invent3=汪祖鹏|invent4=郑浩|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/CN111394495A/en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Brantley |first1=Ashley K. |last2=Spiers |first2=James D. |last3=Thompson |first3=Andrew B. |last4=Pitts |first4=James A. |last5=Kessler |first5=J. Raymond |last6=Wright |first6=Amy N. |last7=Coneva |first7=Elina D. |date=2019-04-01 |title=Effective Pollination Period of Actinidia chinensis 'AU Golden Sunshine' and A. deliciosa 'AU Fitzgerald' Kiwifruit |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/54/4/article-p656.xml |journal=HortScience |language=en-US |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=656–660 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI13617-18 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=De Mori |first1=G. |last2=Testolin |first2=R. |last3=Cipriani |first3=G. |date=2022-06-17 |title=A molecular protocol for Early Sex Discrimination (ESD) in Actinidia spp |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3233/JBR-211530 |journal=Journal of Berry Research |language=EN |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=249–266 |doi=10.3233/JBR-211530 |bibcode=2022JBerR..12..249D |issn=1878-5093|hdl=11390/1228645 |hdl-access=free }}

Kiwifruit plants are dioecious, meaning they have separate male and female plants. Crosses between male and female genotypes typically produce male and female offspring in a 1:1 ratio, regardless of ploidy level. Since only female plants bear fruit, male plants are unproductive in commercial breeding programs. Maintaining male seedlings consumes land, labor, and resources without contributing to fruit yield. The breeding process is further hindered by the species' long generation cycle, spanning at least three growing seasons and a period of winter dormancy. Managing large breeding populations over extended periods is resource-intensive, especially for fruit crops like kiwifruit, which require expensive support infrastructure.

To address these challenges, there is a pressing need for sex-linked molecular markers. Early identification of plant sex at the seedling stage enables the efficient removal of male plants, reducing resource waste and improving breeding efficiency.

In 2023, world kiwifruit production was 4.4 million tonnes, led by China with 55% of the total (table). In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River, as well as Sichuan.{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=H.|author2=Ferguson, A. R. |title=Review: Kiwifruit in China|journal=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science|year=2001|volume=29|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1080/01140671.2001.9514154|bibcode=2001NZJCH..29....1H |s2cid=84613254}} Other major producers were New Zealand and Italy (table).

Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late 1960s to the early 1970s in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically.{{cite web |url=http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10289/5794/Economics_wp_1108.pdf?sequence=1 |title=New Zealand Kiwifruit Export Performance: Market Analysis and Revealed Comparative Advantage |publisher=University of Waikato |author1=Sayeeda Bano |author2=Frank Scrimgeour |date= June 2011|access-date=28 November 2012 }} Outside of Australasia, New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label Zespri.{{cite web |title=Zespri History |url=http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/history.html |publisher=Zespri Kiwifruit |access-date=4 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111052329/http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/history.html |archive-date=11 January 2013 }} The general name, "Zespri", has been used for the marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012.{{cite web |title=Zespri – Official Site |url=http://www.zespri.com/ |publisher=Zespri Group Ltd. |access-date=10 September 2018 |date=2018}} In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp, Belgium.

In the 1980s, Italy began cultivating and exporting kiwifruit, leveraging its existing grape-growing infrastructure and techniques. Italy developed yellow-fleshed cultivars, including "Soreli" and "Dorì". Its proximity to the European market further boosted production, and by 1989, Italy had become the world's leading kiwifruit producer. Italy's growing season does not significantly overlap with those of New Zealand or Chile, reducing direct competition with these major exporters.{{cite journal |last1= Skallerud |first1= Kare |last2= Olsen |first2= Svein |s2cid= 154770824 |year= 2011 |title= Export Market Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective |journal= Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing |volume= 23 |issue= 4 |pages= 310–329|doi=10.1080/08974438.2011.621841}}{{cite news

|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2004438598_italy26.html

|title=Italy leads world as top producer of kiwis

|last=Wilkinson

|first=Tracy

|newspaper=Los Angeles Times

|date=26 May 2008

|access-date=4 January 2013

|url-status=dead

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413080819/http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2004438598_italy26.html

|archive-date=13 April 2013

}}

In 1978, China began developing its own kiwifruit cultivars. The Wuhan Botanical Garden, part of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), played a large role in breeding and improving domestic varieties suited to local conditions. Commercial cultivation initially began in the early 1980s on less than one hectare using the Hayward variety from New Zealand. But by 2020, kiwifruit orchards had expanded to 290,000 hectares, and 'Hayward' accounted for only 6.3% of the total planting area, as domestically bred varieties gained prominence. To support commercialization and branding, CASGOLD, the first CAS-backed agricultural brand, was created. By 2023, China had become the world's largest kiwifruit producer, surpassing Italy and New Zealand. However, most of its kiwifruit is consumed domestically, with little exported.

File:Pavlova dessert.JPG with strawberries, passionfruit, kiwifruit and cream]]

Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat, or used as a garnish. The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture.Kiwifruit: Science and Management {{ISBN|978-0-908-59628-7}} p. 467 Sliced kiwifruit is often used as a garnish on top of whipped cream on pavlova, a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who had given birth to help them recover.

Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain (also spelled actinidin) which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer{{cite journal|pmid=24499119|year=2014|last1=Bekhit|first1=A. A.|title=Exogenous proteases for meat tenderization|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=54|issue=8|pages=1012–31|last2=Hopkins|first2=D. L.|last3=Geesink|first3=G|last4=Bekhit|first4=A. A.|last5=Franks|first5=P|s2cid=57554|doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.623247}} and possibly as a digestive aid.{{cite book | author-last=Boland | author-first=Mike | editor-last1=Boland | editor-first1=Mike | editor-last2=Moughan | editor-first2=P. J. | title=Advances in Food and Nutrition Research | chapter=Kiwifruit Proteins and Enzymes | publisher=Elsevier | volume=68 | date=2013 | isbn=978-0-12-394294-4 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-394294-4.00004-3 | pages=59–80| pmid=23394982 }} Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to gelatin-based desserts since the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatin, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying.

In a {{convert|100|g|adj=on}} amount, green kiwifruit provides {{convert|255|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of food energy, is 83% water and 15% carbohydrates, with negligible protein and fat (table). It is particularly rich in vitamin C (103% DV), vitamin K (34% DV), and potassium, and has a moderate content of vitamin E (10% DV) and copper, with no other micronutrients in significant content. Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional value to green kiwifruit, but contains higher vitamin C content (179% DV) and insignificant vitamin K content (table). Both types of kiwifruit are rich in dietary fiber.

Kiwifruit seed oil contains, on average, 62% alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid.{{cite journal |url=https://agritrop.cirad.fr/534935/1/document_534935.pdf |last1=Piombo |first1=Georges |last2=Barouh |first2=Nathalie |last3=Barea |first3=Bruno |last4=Renaud |first4=Boulanger |last5=Brat |first5=Pierre |last6=Pina |first6=Michel |last7=Villeneuve |first7=Pierre |title=Characterization of the seed oils from kiwi (Actinidia chinensis), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) and guava (Psidium guajava) |journal=OCL – Oilseeds and Fats, Crops and Lipids |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=195–199 |year=2006 |doi=10.1051/ocl.2006.0026 }} Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids, such as provitamin A beta-carotene,{{cite journal |vauthors=Kim M, Kim SC, Song KJ, Kim HB, Kim IJ, Song EY, Chun SJ |s2cid=23341156 |title=Transformation of carotenoid biosynthetic genes using a micro-cross section method in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv. Hayward) |journal=Plant Cell Reports |volume=29|issue=12|pages=1339–1349|date=Sep 2010 |pmid=20842364 |doi=10.1007/s00299-010-0920-y|bibcode=2010PCelR..29.1339K }} lutein and zeaxanthin.{{cite journal |vauthors=Sommerburg O, Keunen JE, Bird AC, van Kuijk FJ |title=Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: the macular pigment in human eyes |journal=British Journal of Ophthalmology |volume=82 |issue=8 |pages=907–910 |date=August 1998 |pmid=9828775 |pmc=1722697 |doi=10.1136/bjo.82.8.907}}

Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981 and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localised oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis.{{Cite journal|last1=Lucas|first1=Jane SA|last2=Lewis|first2=Stella A.|last3=Hourihane|first3=Jonathan O'B|date=11 December 2003|title=Kiwi fruit allergy: A review|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0905-6157.2003.00095.x|journal=Pediatric Allergy and Immunology|language=en|volume=14|issue=6|pages=420–428|doi=10.1046/j.0905-6157.2003.00095.x|pmid=14675467|s2cid=26882598|issn=1399-3038|url-access=subscription}}

The enzyme actinidain found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals, with the most common symptoms ranging from an unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth to wheezing as the most common severe symptom.{{cite journal |vauthors=Le TM et al. |title=Kiwifruit allergy across Europe: clinical manifestation and IgE recognition patterns to kiwifruit allergens |journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |date=January 2013|volume=131|issue=1|pages=164–171|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2012.09.009|pmid=23141741|doi-access=free}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite magazine|title=The Captivating Kiwifruit|first=Noel D.|last=Vietmeyer|magazine=National Geographic|pages=683–688|volume=171|issue=5|date=May 1987|issn=0027-9358|oclc=643483454}}

• {{Commons category inline|Kiwifruit}}
• {{Wikispecies-inline|Actinidia}}

{{Actinidia species and kiwifruit}}

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Category:Actinidia

Category:Edible fruits

Category:Berries

Category:Chinese fruit

Category:Food plant cultivars

Category:Garden plants of Asia

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