Liquorice#Liquorice poisoning

{{Distinguish|text =Lycoris, a distinct group of plants, some toxic}}

{{Distinguish|text =Licorice-root, an unrelated genus of plants}}

{{Speciesbox

|name = Liquorice

| status = LC

| status_system = IUCN3.1

| status_ref = Plummer, J. & Chadburn, H. 2021. Glycyrrhiza glabra. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T203353A88313725. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T203353A88313725.en. Accessed on 01 February 2025.

|image = Illustration Glycyrrhiza glabra0.jpg

|image_caption =

|taxon = Glycyrrhiza glabra

|authority = L.{{GRIN | access-date = 6 March 2008}}

|display_parents = 2

|synonyms =

{{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |

Glycyrrhiza brachycarpa {{small|(Boiss.)}}
Glycyrrhiza glandulifera {{small|Waldst. & Kit.)}}
Glycyrrhiza hirsuta {{small|(Pall.)}}
Glycyrrhiza pallida {{small|(Boiss.)}}
Glycyrrhiza violacea {{small|(Boiss.)}}

}}

|synonyms_ref = {{cite web |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-7886 |title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species |access-date=2017-03-07}}{{cite web |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/496964-1 |title=Glycyrrhiza pallida Boiss., Diagn. Pl. Orient. ser. 2, 2: 22 (1856) |website=The International Plant Names Index |access-date=2017-03-07}}{{cite web |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/496975-1 |title=Glycyrrhiza violacea Boiss., Diagn. Pl. Orient. ser. 2, 2: 23 (1856) |website=The International Plant Names Index |access-date=2017-03-07}}

}}

Liquorice (Commonwealth English) or licorice (American English; see spelling differences; {{IPAc-en|IPA|ˈ|l|ɪ|k|ər|ɪ|ʃ|,_|-|ɪ|s}} {{respell|LIK|ər|ish|,_|-|iss}}){{cite Dictionary.com|Liquorice}}{{cite Dictionary.com|Licorice}} is the common name of Glycyrrhiza glabra, a flowering plant of the bean family Fabaceae, from the root of which a sweet, aromatic flavouring is extracted.{{cite web|url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/licoriceroot|title=Licorice root|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|date=August 2020|access-date=11 June 2023}}

The liquorice plant is an herbaceous perennial legume native to West Asia, North Africa, and Southern Europe. Liquorice is used as a flavouring in confectionery, tobacco, beverages, and pharmaceuticals, and is marketed as a dietary supplement.{{cite web |title=Licorice |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/licorice.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=11 June 2023 |date=31 January 2022}}

Liquorice extracts have been used in herbalism and traditional medicine. Excessive consumption of liquorice (more than {{cvt|2|mg/kg|mg/lb|disp=sqbr}} per day of pure glycyrrhizinic acid, a key component of liquorice) can lead to undesirable consequences. Clinically, it is suspected that overindulgence in liquorice may manifest as unexplained hypertension, low blood potassium levels (hypokalemia), and muscle weakness in individuals. Consuming liquorice should be avoided during pregnancy.

Etymology

The word liquorice (UK, CAN), or licorice (US), is derived via the Anglo-French {{lang|xno|lycorys}}, from Late Latin {{lang|la|liquiritia}},{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Liquorice, licorice|date=1908|encyclopedia=A New English Dictionary On Historical Principles (NED)|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford, England|url=https://archive.org/details/oed6aarch/page/n345/mode/1up|access-date=2021-04-07|volume=VI. L to N|page=332|editor-last=Bradley|editor-first=Henry|language=en}} itself ultimately derived from Greek {{langx|grc|γλυκύρριζα|glykyrrhiza|label=none}} (the Modern Greek spelling of the genus is {{langx|el|γλυκόριζα|glykoriza|label=none}}){{Cite web|url=https://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/medieval_greek/kriaras/search.html?lq=%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BA%CF%8D%CF%81%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B6%CE%B1&dq=|title=γλυκύρριζα|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Epitome of the Kriaras Dictionary (online version)|publisher=Center for the Greek Language|at=Portal for the greek language|language=el}} literally meaning 'sweet root' and referring to Glycyrrhiza glabra.{{LSJ|gluku/rriza|γλυκύρριζα|ref}}.

The latter gives the plant binomial name with glabra meaning smooth{{L&S|glaber|glabra|ref}} and referring to the plant's smooth husks; the former came to being via the influence of {{lang|la|liquere}}, 'to become fluid', reflecting the method of extracting the sweet component from the roots.{{OEtymD|Licorice}}

{{as of|2021}}, its English common name is spelled 'liquorice' in most of the Commonwealth, but 'licorice' is also used in some countries.{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Liquorice}}{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Licorice}}

Description

Liquorice is a herbaceous perennial, growing to {{convert|1|m|in|-1}} in height, with pinnate leaves about {{cvt|7|–|15|cm|in|frac=2}} long, with 9–17 leaflets. The flowers are {{cvt|8-12|mm|in|frac=16}} long, purple to pale whitish blue, produced in a loose inflorescence. The fruit is an oblong pod, {{cvt|20-30|mm|in|frac=8}} long, containing several seeds.Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. {{ISBN|0-333-47494-5}} The roots are stoloniferous.Brown, D., ed. (1995). "The RHS encyclopedia of herbs and their uses". {{ISBN|1-4053-0059-0}}

Chemistry

File:Glycyrrhizic Acid.svg.]]

File:Sections of liquorice root.jpg

Liquorice root contains triterpenoids, polyphenols, and polysaccharides. Flavonoids account for the yellow root color. The principal glycoside, glycyrrhizin, exists in content of 7% to 10%, depending on cultivation practices. The isoflavene glabrene and the isoflavane glabridin, found in the roots of liquorice, are phytoestrogens.{{Cite journal |last1=Somjen |first1=D. |last2=Katzburg |first2=S. |last3=Vaya |first3=J. |last4=Kaye |first4=A. M. |last5=Hendel |first5=D. |last6=Posner |first6=G. H. |last7=Tamir |first7=S. |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2004.04.008 |title=Estrogenic activity of glabridin and glabrene from licorice roots on human osteoblasts and prepubertal rat skeletal tissues |journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology |volume=91 |issue=4–5 |pages=241–246 |year=2004 |pmid=15336701 |s2cid=16238533 }}{{Cite journal

| doi = 10.1016/S0960-0760(01)00093-0

| last1 = Tamir | first1 = S.

| last2 = Eizenberg | first2 = M.

| last3 = Somjen | first3 = D.

| last4 = Izrael | first4 = S.

| last5 = Vaya | first5 = J.

| title = Estrogen-like activity of glabrene and other constituents isolated from licorice root

| journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

| volume = 78

| issue = 3

| pages = 291–298

| year = 2001

| pmid = 11595510

| s2cid = 40171833 }}

The scent of liquorice root comes from a complex and variable combination of compounds, of which anethole is some 3% of total volatiles.{{cn|date=June 2023}} Much of the sweetness in liquorice comes from glycyrrhizin, which has 30–50 times the sweetness of sugar.{{cn|date=June 2023}} The sweetness is different from sugar, being less instant, tart, and lasting longer.

Cultivation and uses

Liquorice grows best in well-drained soils in deep valleys with full sun. It is harvested in the autumn two to three years after planting. Countries producing liquorice include Turkey, Greece, Iran, and Iraq.

=Tobacco=

Liquorice is used as a flavouring agent for tobacco, for flavour-enhancing and moistening agents in the manufacture of American blend cigarettes, moist snuff, chewing tobacco, and pipe tobacco.Erik Assadourian, [http://www.worldwatch.org/brain/media/pdf/pubs/vs/2005_cigarettes.pdf Cigarette Production Drops] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209043353/http://www.worldwatch.org/brain/media/pdf/pubs/vs/2005_cigarettes.pdf |date=2011-12-09 }}, Vital Signs 2005, at 70. Liquorice provides tobacco products with a natural sweetness and a distinctive flavour that blends readily with the natural and imitation flavouring components employed in the tobacco industry. Liquorice can also be added to cigarette rolling papers. {{As of|2009}}, the US Food and Drug Administration banned the use of any "characterizing flavors" other than menthol from cigarettes, but not other manufactured tobacco products.{{cite web|title=Flavored Tobacco|url=https://www.fda.gov/TobaccoProducts/Labeling/ProductsIngredientsComponents/ucm2019416.htm|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=21 December 2017|date=22 September 2009}}

=Food and confectionery=

File:Baton de reglisse.jpg

Liquorice flavour is found in a wide variety of candies or sweets. In most of these candies, the taste is reinforced by aniseed oil so the actual content of liquorice is low.

In the Netherlands, liquorice confectionery (drop) is a common sweet sold in many forms. Mixing it with mint, menthol, aniseed, or laurel is common. It is also mixed with ammonium chloride ({{lang|fi|salmiak}}); salmiak liquorice in the Netherlands is known as {{lang|nl|zoute drop}} ('salty liquorice'). Strong, salty sweets are also consumed in Nordic countries where liquorice flavoured alcohols are sold, particularly in Denmark and Finland.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

Dried sticks of the liquorice root are a traditional confectionery in the Netherlands as were they once in Britain. They were sold simply as sticks of {{lang|nl|zoethout}} ('sweet wood') to chew on as a candy.

File:Liquiritiae radix suessholzwurzel.jpg

Pontefract in Yorkshire, England, is where liquorice mixed with sugar began to be used as a sweet in the contemporary way.{{cite news|url=http://www.aboutfood.co.uk/places/yorkshire_guide.html |publisher=AboutFood.com |title=Right good food from the Ridings |date=25 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607194557/http://www.aboutfood.co.uk/places/yorkshire_guide.html |archive-date= 7 June 2007 }} Pontefract cakes were originally made there.{{cite news

|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20190710-the-strange-story-of-britains-oldest-sweet |publisher=BBC Travel |title=The strange story of Britain's oldest sweet|date=2019-07-11

}} In Cumbria, County Durham, Yorkshire and Lancashire, it is colloquially known as 'Spanish', supposedly because Spanish monks grew liquorice root at Rievaulx Abbey near Thirsk.{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/918508.where_liquorice_roots_go_deep/|title=Where Liquorice Roots Go Deep|date=13 September 2006 |publisher=Northern Echo|access-date=9 December 2008}}

In Italy, Spain, and France, liquorice is used in its natural form. The root of the plant is simply harvested, washed, dried, and chewed as a mouth freshener. Throughout Italy, unsweetened liquorice is consumed in the form of small black pieces made only from 100% pure liquorice extract. In Calabria, a liqueur is made from pure liquorice extract and in Reggio Emilia a soft drink called acqua d'orcio is made. In some parts of the Arab world, including Egypt and the Levant, the root of the licorice plant is used to make a cold drink with a sweet and mildly bitter taste, called Erk al-sous. This beverage is especially popular during Ramadan.[https://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/ramadan-five-drinks-thirst-quenching-middle-east Ramadan: Five thirst-quenching drinks from across the Middle East], Nur Ayoubi, 4 April 2022, Middle East Eye

In southeastern Turkey, such as in Diyarbakır, licorice root is traditionally made into a chilled beverage that is most commonly consumed in summer.{{cite web|url=https://mediterranean.observer/lemon-licorice-and-sumac-sherbet-drinks-to-beat-the-summer-heat/ |publisher=Mediterranean Observer |title=Lemon, Licorice and Sumac Sherbet: Drinks to beat the Summer Heat |date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329172000/https://mediterranean.observer/lemon-licorice-and-sumac-sherbet-drinks-to-beat-the-summer-heat/ |archive-date= 29 March 2023 |url-status=live}}

=Research=

Properties of glycyrrhizin are under preliminary research, such as for hepatitis C or topical treatment of psoriasis, but the low quality of studies {{as of|2017|lc=y}} prevents conclusions about efficacy and safety.{{cite journal|pmid=27786567|year=2017|last1=Yu|first1=J. J|title=Compound glycyrrhizin plus conventional therapy for psoriasis vulgaris: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|journal=Current Medical Research and Opinion|volume=33|issue=2|pages=279–287|last2=Zhang|first2=C. S|last3=Coyle|first3=M. E|last4=Du|first4=Y|last5=Zhang|first5=A. L|last6=Guo|first6=X|last7=Xue|first7=C. C|last8=Lu|first8=C|doi=10.1080/03007995.2016.1254605|s2cid=4394282}}

=Traditional medicine=

In traditional Chinese medicine, a related species G. uralensis (often translated as "liquorice") is known as {{transliteration|zh|gancao}} ({{zh|c=甘草|l=sweet grass}}), and is believed to "harmonize" the ingredients in a formula.{{cite book |last=Bensky |first=Dan |title=Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition |publisher=Eastland Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-939616-42-8 |display-authors=etal}} although there is no high-quality clinical research to indicate it is safe or effective for any medicinal purpose. The European Medical Agency added liquorice to their list of herbal medicine.{{cite web |title=Liquiritiae radix |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/herbal/liquiritiae-radix#consultation-section |publisher=European Medicines Agency |access-date=1 June 2021}}

=Fungicide=

The essential oils inhibit the growth of Aspergillus flavus.{{cite book | last1=Mamedov | first1=Nazim A. | last2=Egamberdieva | first2=Dilfuza | title=Plant and Human Health, Volume 3 | chapter=Phytochemical Constituents and Pharmacological Effects of Licorice: A Review | publisher=Springer Publishing | publication-place=Cham | year=2019 | isbn=978-3-030-04407-7 | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04408-4_1 | pages=1–21| s2cid=104427400 }}

Adverse effects

=Consumption levels=

The United States Food and Drug Administration regards that foods containing liquorice and its derivatives (including glycyrrhizin) are generally recognized as safe for use as a food ingredient, if not consumed excessively. Other jurisdictions have suggested no more than {{convert|100|-|200|mg|abbr=in}} of glycyrrhizin per day, the equivalent of about {{convert|70|-|150|g|oz|frac=4|abbr=on}} of liquorice confectionery. Although liquorice is considered safe as a food ingredient, glycyrrhizin can cause serious side effects if consumed in large amounts (above 0.2 mg per kg per day). One estimate is that a normal healthy person can consume {{convert|10|mg|abbr=in}} of glycyrrhizic acid per day.{{cite journal|last1=Størmer|first1=F.C.|last2=Reistad|first2=R.|last3=Alexander|first3=J.|title=Glycyrrhizic acid in liquorice—Evaluation of health hazard|journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology|volume=31|issue=4|year=1993|pages=303–312|issn=0278-6915|doi=10.1016/0278-6915(93)90080-I|pmid=8386690}}

Because the composition of liquorice extracts in various products may exist in a broad range, there is not enough scientific information to determine that a specific level of intake is safe or unsafe.

=Physiological effects=

The effects of excessive liquorice consumption on lowering potassium levels in the blood and increasing blood pressure are a particular concern for people with hypertension (high blood pressure) or heart or kidney disease.

Some adverse effects of liquorice consumed in amounts of 50 to 200 g per day over four weeks appear to be caused by glycyrrhizic acid (75 to 540 mg per day glycyrrhetinic acid) causing increases in blood pressure. Consuming large amounts of liquorice during pregnancy has been associated with premature birth and health problems in the child.

Hyper-mineralocorticosteroid syndrome can occur when the body retains sodium, and loses potassium, altering biochemical and hormonal regulation. Some of these activities may include raised aldosterone levels, decline of the renin-angiotensin system and increased levels of the atrial natriuretic hormone in order to compensate the variations in homoeostasis.{{cite journal|last1=Mackenzie|first1=Marius A.|last2=Hoefnagels|first2=Willibrord H. L.|last3=Jansen|first3=Renè W. M. M.|last4=Benraad|first4=Theo J.|last5=Kloppenborg|first5=Peter W. C.|title=The Influence of Glycyrrhetinic Acid on Plasma Cortisol and Cortisone in Healthy Young Volunteers|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|volume=70|issue=6|year=1990|pages=1637–1643|issn=0021-972X|doi=10.1210/jcem-70-6-1637|pmid=2161425|doi-access=free}}

Other adverse effects may include electrolyte imbalance, edema, increased blood pressure, weight gain, heart problems, and weakness. Symptoms depend on the severity of toxicity. Some other complaints include fatigue, shortness of breath, kidney failure, and paralysis.{{cite journal|last1=Blachley|first1=Jon D.|last2=Knochel|first2=James P.|title=Tobacco Chewer's Hypokalemia: Licorice Revisited|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=302|issue=14|year=1980|pages=784–785|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJM198004033021405|pmid=6986557}}{{cite journal| pmid= 4059165| last1= Toner | first1= J. M.| last2= Ramsey | first2= L. E. | year =1985| title =Liquorice can damage your health| journal= Practitioner| volume= 229| issue =1408| pages= 858–860}}

=Potential for toxicity=

The major dose-limiting toxicities of liquorice are corticosteroid in nature, because of the inhibitory effect that its chief active constituents, glycyrrhizin and enoxolone, have on cortisol degradation, and include edema, hypokalaemia, weight gain or loss, and hypertension.{{cite journal |vauthors=Omar HR, Komarova I, El-Ghonemi M, Fathy A, Rashad R, Abdelmalak HD, Yerramadha MR, Ali Y, Helal E, Camporesi EM |title=Licorice abuse: time to send a warning message |journal=Therapeutic Advances in Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=125–38 |date=August 2012 |pmid=23185686 |pmc=3498851 |doi=10.1177/2042018812454322}}{{cite journal |last1=Olukoga |first1=A |first2=D |last2=Donaldson |title=Liquorice and its health implications. |journal=The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health |date=June 2000 |volume=120 |issue=2 |pages=83–9 |doi=10.1177/146642400012000203 |pmid=10944880|s2cid=39005138 }}{{cite journal |last1=Armanini |first1=D |first2=C |last2=Fiore |first3=MJ |last3=Mattarello |first4=J |last4=Bielenberg |last5=Palermo |first5=M |title=History of the endocrine effects of licorice. |journal=Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes |date=September 2002 |volume=110 |issue=6 |pages=257–61 |doi=10.1055/s-2002-34587 |pmid=12373628}}

Gallery

File:Réglisse(racine).JPG|Liquorice root with bark

File:Glycyrrhiza glabra inflorescence.jpg|Inflorescence of G. glabra

File:2013.02-402-022aP Liquorice products tue05feb2013.jpg|Various liquorice products

File:Liquorice4.jpg|Different flavoured liquorice sticks

File:Gardenology.org-IMG 2804 rbgs11jan.jpg|Foliage

File:Glycyrrhiza glabra - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-207.jpg|G. glabra from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants

References

External links

{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Liquorice |volume=16 |short=x}}
[https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:496941-1 Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice)], Kew plant profile
[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/stuff/8032licorice.html What's That Stuff?: Licorice], Chemical & Engineering News

Category:11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitors

Category:Glycyrrhiza

Category:Spices

Category:Medicinal plants

Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine

Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Category:Demulcents

Category:Plants described in 1753

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