Luna programme
{{Short description|Robotic spacecraft missions to the Moon by the Soviet Union (1958–1976)}}
{{For|the second programme|Luna-Glob}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox space programme
| name = Luna space programme
| image = Moon landing map.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Locations of Luna landings on the Moon are marked in red; Apollo missions in green, and Surveyor in yellow.
| country = Soviet Union
| organization =
| purpose = Uncrewed exploration of the Moon
| programme = y
| status = Operational
| cost =
| duration = 1958–1976
| firstflight = {{Unbulleted list
| 23 September 1958
}}
| lastflight = {{Unbulleted list
| Luna 24
| 9 August 1976
}}
| successes = 15
| failures = 28
| partialfailures = 1
| launchsite = Baikonur Cosmodrome
| launcher = {{Unbulleted list
}}
| native_name = Космическая Программа "Луна"
| native_name_a = Kosmicheskaya Programma "Luna"
}}
The Luna programme (from the Russian word {{Langx|ru|Луна|label=none}} "Luna" meaning "Moon"), occasionally called Lunik by western media,{{cite news|title=How Russia Beat the U.S. to the Moon|author=Amy Shira Teitel|date=April 13, 2017|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/how-russia-beat-the-us-to-the-moon|website=Daily Beast|access-date=March 14, 2023}} was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. The programme accomplished many firsts in space exploration, including first flyby of the Moon, first impact of the Moon and first photos of the far side of the Moon. Each mission was designed as either an orbiter or lander. They also performed many experiments, studying the Moon's chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation.
Twenty-four spacecraft were formally given the Luna designation, although more were launched. Those that failed to reach orbit were not publicly acknowledged at the time, and not assigned a Luna number. Those that failed in low Earth orbit were usually given Cosmos designations.{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_lunar.html|title=Planetary Spacecraft – Moon Missions|website=RussianSpaceWeb.com|last1=Zak|first1=Anatoly}} The estimated cost of the Luna programme in 1964 was US$6–10 billion{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000316255.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123021722/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000316255.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 January 2017|title=Comparison of US and Estimated Soviet Expenditures for Space Programs|date=August 1964|website=CIA}} (equivalent to US${{Inflation|US-GDP|6|1964}}–{{Inflation|US-GDP|10|1964}} billion in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}{{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}}). The Luna 25 mission also continues the Luna designation, although it is considered to be a part of the Luna-Glob exploration programme.{{Cite web |title=Luna-Glob mission lifts off |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob-flight.html |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=www.russianspaceweb.com}} The same applies to other planned missions such as Luna 26, Luna 27 and Luna 28.
Mission types
{{Needs expansion|date=November 2024}}
The name Luna was used to designate a variety of spacecraft designs, to achieve several types of missions:
= Impactors =
{{Main|Lander (spacecraft)#Impactors}}
File:RIAN archive 510848 Interplanetary station Luna 1 - blacked.jpg
Impactor spacecraft had the generic designation of Ye-1 (or E-1 depending on transliteration from Russian) and were designed to hit the near side of the Moon.{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-1 |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e1.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-1A |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e1a.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}} Luna 1 (January 1959) missed its intended impact with the Moon and became the first spacecraft to escape the Earth-Moon system. Luna 2 (September 1959) mission successfully hit the Moon's surface, becoming the first man-made object to reach the Moon.{{cite book|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/beyond-earth-tagged.pdf|title=Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016|page=2|last1=Siddiqi |first1=Asif A.|lccn=2017059404|isbn=9781626830424|publisher=NASA History Program Office|edition=second|year=2018|id=SP2018-4041|series=The NASA history series|location=Washington, D.C.}} This was Luna's only impact success out of six tries from September 1958 to September 1959.
= Flybys =
File:FP2A3122 (23497693608).jpg
A flyby is the simplest lunar spacecraft, requiring neither a propulsion device for slowing, nor a guidance system sensitive enough to hit the Moon. Flyby spacecraft had the generic designations of Ye-2 and Ye-3 (E-2 and E-3 depending on transliteration from Russian).{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-2A |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e2a.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-3 |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e3.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}} Their function was to transmit photographs back to Earth. Luna 3 (October 1959) rounded the Moon later that year, and returned the first photographs of its far side, which can never be seen from Earth. This was Luna's only successful flyby, out of three tries from October 1959 to April 1960.
= Soft landers =
{{Main|Soft landing (aeronautics)}}
File:Kaluga Wikiexpedition (2016-06-11) 0134.jpg
Soft landers require rocket propulsion to slow their speed sufficiently to prevent the craft's destruction. They can continue to transmit pictures from the surface, and possibly dig into the lunar soil or return other information about the lunar environment.
Luna program landers had the generic designations of Ye-6 or Ye-6M (E-6 or E-6M depending on transliteration from Russian).{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-6 |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e6.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-6M |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e6m.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}} Two successful soft landings were achieved out of thirteen attempts from January 1963 to December 1966.
Luna 9 (E-6 No.13) became the first probe to achieve a soft landing on another planetary body in February 1966. It transmitted five black and white stereoscopic circular panoramas, which were the first close-up shots of the lunar surface.{{cite book|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/beyond-earth-tagged.pdf|title=Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016|page=1|last1=Siddiqi|first1=Asif A.|lccn=2017059404|isbn=9781626830424|publisher=NASA History Program Office|edition=second|year=2018|id=SP2018-4041|series=The NASA history series|location=Washington, D.C.}}
= Orbiters =
File:Luna 10 Musee du Bourget P1010504.JPG
Orbiter spacecraft require less thrust and propellant than landers, but still require enough to achieve lunar orbit insertion. Luna 10 (March 1966) became the first artificial satellite of the Moon. Luna program orbiters had the generic designations of Ye-6LF, Ye-6LS, Ye-6S or Ye-8LS (E-6, E-6LS, E-6S or E-8LS depending on transliteration from Russian).{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-6LF |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e6lf.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-6LS |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e6ls.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-6S |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e6s.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-8LS (Luna 19, 22) |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e8ls.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}} Luna flew six successful orbiters out of eight attempts from March 1966 to May 1974.
= Rovers =
{{Main|Lunokhod programme}}
More sophisticated soft lander craft can deploy wheeled vehicles to explore a wider area of the lunar surface than the immediate landing site. Luna program landers with rovers had the generic designations of Ye-8 (E-8 depending on transliteration from Russian).{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-8 (Luna 17, 21 / Lunokhod 1, 2) |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e8.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}
The first attempted Lunokhod failed in February 1969. Luna 17 (November 1970) and Luna 21 (January 1973) carried Lunokhod vehicles, which were the first robotic wheeled vehicles to explore the Moon's terrain. Lunokhod 1 travelled {{convert|10.5|km|mi}} in 322 days and returned more than 20,000 television images and 206 high-resolution panoramas.{{cite web|url=http://www.planetology.ru/panoramas/lunokhod1.php?language=english |title=Lunokhod 1 Panoramas|work=planetology.ru|access-date=April 30, 2013}} Lunokhod 2 operated for about four months, and covered {{convert|42|km|mi}} of terrain,{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/21923-soviet-moon-rover-driving-record.html|title=NASA Moon Probe Helps Revise Off-Planet Driving Record {{!}} Lunokhod 2|work=Space.com|first=Mike|last=Wall|date=July 11, 2013 |access-date=July 12, 2013}} A third Lunokhod was built and intended for launch in 1977, but never flew due to lack of launchers and funding.{{Cite journal|url=http://www.airspacemag.com/space-exploration/other-moon.html|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20140511103222/http://www.airspacemag.com/space/the-other-moon-landings-6457729/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-05-11|title=The Other Moon Landings|first=Andy|last=Chaikin|journal=Air & Space|date=February–March 2004}}
= Sample return =
{{Main|Sample return mission}}
File:Kaluga Wikiexpedition (2016-06-11) 0466.jpg
More complex soft lander craft can robotically scoop up a small amount of lunar material, lift off from the surface, and return the material to Earth. Luna program sample return landers had the generic designations of Ye-8-5 or Ye-8-5M (E-8-5 or E-8-5M depending on transliteration from Russian).{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-8-5 (Luna 15, 16, 18, 20) |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e8-5.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Luna Ye-8-5M (Luna 23, 24) |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/luna_e8-5m.htm |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Gunter's Space Page |language=en}}
Luna 16 (September 1970), Luna 20 (February 1972) and Luna 24 (August 1976), returned samples of lunar soil to Earth. A total of {{convert|301|g|oz|abbr=on}} of soil sample was returned from the three missions.
Luna 15 (July 1969) flew at the same time as the Apollo 11 mission. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin had already performed the first crewed lunar landing when Luna 15 began its descent, and the spacecraft crashed into a mountain minutes later.
Mission success rates
While the programme was active, it was Soviet practice not to release any details of missions that had failed to achieve orbit. This resulted in Western observers assigning their own designations to the missions. For example, Luna E-1 No.1, the first failure of 1958 which NASA believed was associated with the Luna programme, was known as Luna 1958A.{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/tent_launch.html|title=Tentative IDs|last=Williams|first=David R.|website=NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-date=3 August 2010}}
| class="wikitable" | ||||||||||
| colspan="5" | Luna | colspan="5" | Competing United States programmes | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type | First attempt | Attempts | First success | Successes | Rate | First attempt | Attempts | First success | Successes | Rate |
| Impactor | 23 Sep 1958 | style="text-align:center;" | 6 | Luna 2 Sep 13, 1959 | style="text-align:center" | 1 | 16.7% | Ranger 1 23 Aug 1961 | style="text-align:center;" | 9 | Ranger 7 31 July 1964 | style="text-align:center" | 3 | 33.3%{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1964-007A|title=National Space Science Data Center - Ranger 6|publisher=National Air and Space Administration |access-date=June 19, 2012|ref=nssdc1964-007A}} |
| Flyby | Luna 3 6 Oct 1959 | style="text-align:center;" | 3 | Luna 3 | style="text-align:center;" | 1 | 33.3% | Pioneer 3 6 Dec 1958 | style="text-align:center;" | 2 | Pioneer 4 6 Mar 1959 | style="text-align:center;" | 1 | 50.0% |
| Soft lander | 4 Jan 1963 | style="text-align:center;" | 13 | Luna 9 3 Feb 1966 | style="text-align:center;" | 2 | 15.4% | Surveyor 1 2 Jun 1966 | style="text-align:center;" | 7 | Surveyor 1 | style="text-align:center;" | 5 | 71.4% |
| Orbiter | 1 Mar 1966 | style="text-align:center;" | 8 | Luna 10 3 Apr 1966 | style="text-align:center;" | 6 | 75.0% | Pioneer 0 17 Aug 1958 | style="text-align:center;" | 12 | Lunar Orbiter 1 18 Aug 1966 | style="text-align:center;" | 5 | 41.7% |
| Rover | 19 Feb 1969 | style="text-align:center;" | 3 | Luna 17 17 Nov 1970 | style="text-align:center;" | 2 | 66.7% | Apollo 15 31 July 1971 | style="text-align:center;" | 3 | Apollo 15 | style="text-align:center;" | 3 | 100.0% |
| Sample return | 14 Jun 1969 | style="text-align:center;" | 11 | Luna 16 24 Sep, 1970 | style="text-align:center;" | 3 | 27.3% | Apollo 11 24 Jul 1969 | style="text-align:center;" | 7 | Apollo 11 | style="text-align:center;" | 6 | 85.7% |
| Total | style="text-align:center;" |44 | style="text-align:center;" | 15 | 34.1% | Total | style="text-align:center;" |40 | style="text-align:center;" | 24 | 60.0% |
Mission details
| class="wikitable sortable"
! Public name ! Internal name ! Photo ! Mission ! Launch date ! Carrier rocket ! Outcome ! Remarks | |||||||
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-1 No.1 | Impactor | 23 September 1958 | Luna | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit | |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-1 No.2 | Impactor | 11 October 1958 | Luna | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit | |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-1 No.3 | Impactor | 4 December 1958 | Luna | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit | |
| Luna 1 | E-1 No.4 | File:Luna 1 - 2 Spacecraft.png | Impactor | 2 January 1959 | Luna | {{no|Launch failure}} | Also known as Mechta; placed onto incorrect trajectory, flew past the Moon without impacting; first spacecraft to escape geocentric orbit |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-1A No.1 | Impactor | 18 June 1959 | Luna | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit | |
| Luna 2 | E-1A No.2 | File:Luna 1 - 2 Spacecraft.png | Impactor | 12 September 1959 | Luna | {{yes|Successful}} | Impacted Palus Putredinis (29.10 N, 0.00 E) on the Moon on 14 September 1959 at ~07:30 GMT. First man-made object to reach the Moon. |
| Luna 3 | E-2A No.1 | File:FP2A3122 (23497693608).jpg | Flyby | 4 October 1959 | Luna | {{yes|Successful}} | Took first photographs of the far side of the Moon. |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-3 No.1 | File:DLR School Lab Dresden (20).JPG | Flyby | 15 April 1960 | Luna | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-3 No.2 | File:DLR School Lab Dresden (20).JPG | Flyby | 16 April 1960 | Luna | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-6 No.2 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 4 January 1963 | Molniya-L | {{no|Launch failure}} | Never left LEO |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-6 No.3 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 3 February 1963 | Molniya-L | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit |
| Luna 4 | E-6 No.4 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 2 April 1963 | Molniya-L | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Failed to perform course correction manoeuvre; flew past the Moon |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-6 No.6 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 21 March 1964 | Molniya-M | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-6 No.5 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 20 April 1964 | Molniya-M | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit |
| Kosmos 60 | E-6 No.9 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 12 March 1965 | Molniya-L | {{no|Launch failure}} | Never left LEO, decayed five days later |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-6 No.8 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 10 April 1965 | Molniya-L | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit |
| Luna 5 | E-6 No.10 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 9 May 1965 | Molniya-M | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Failed to decelerate; impacted Mare Nubium |
| Luna 6 | E-6 No.7 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 8 June 1965 | Molniya-M | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Failed to perform course correction manoeuvre; flew past the Moon |
| Luna 7 | E-6 No.11 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 4 October 1965 | Molniya | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Attitude control failure; impacted Oceanus Procellarum |
| Luna 8 | E-6 No.12 | File:FP2A3148 (23497692458).jpg | Lander | 3 December 1965 | Molniya | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Attitude control failure; impacted Oceanus Procellarum |
| Luna 9 | E-6 No.13 | File:Luna-9 model.jpg | Lander | 31 January 1966 | Molniya-M | {{yes|Successful}} | Landed in Oceanus Procellarum (7.08 N, 295.63 E) 18:44:52 GMT on 3 February 1966. First soft landing on the Moon. |
| Kosmos 111 | E-6S No.204 | File:Luna 9 Musee du Bourget P1010505.JPG | Orbiter | 1 March 1966 | Molniya-M | {{no|Launch failure}} | Never left LEO, decayed two days later |
| Luna 10 | E-6S No.206 | File:Luna 10 Musee du Bourget P1010504.JPG | Orbiter | 31 March 1966 | Molniya-M | {{yes|Successful}} | |
| Luna 11 | E-6LF No.101 | Orbiter | 24 August 1966 | Molniya-M | {{yes|Successful}} | ||
| Luna 12 | E-6LF No.102 | Orbiter | 22 October 1966 | Molniya-M | {{yes|Successful}} | ||
| Luna 13 | E-6M No.205 | File:Luna13 lander vsm.jpg | Lander | 21 December 1966 | Molniya-M | {{yes|Successful}} | Landed in Oceanus Procellarum (18.87 N, 297.95 E) 18:01 GMT on 24 December 1966 |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-6LS No.112 | Orbiter | 7 February 1968 | Molniya-M | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit | |
| Luna 14 | E-6LS No.113 | Orbiter | 7 April 1968 | Molniya-M | {{yes|Successful}} | ||
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-8 No.201 | Rover | 19 February 1969 | Proton-K/D | {{no|Launch failure}} | First attempt to launch Lunokhod. Failed to orbit, Lunokhod destroyed. | |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-8-5 No.402 | Sample return | 14 June 1969 | Proton-K/D | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit | |
| Luna 15 | E-8-5 No.401 | Sample return | 13 July 1969 | Proton-K/D | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Entered selenocentric orbit successfully, failed during descent on 21 July 1969; impacted the Moon while Apollo 11 was on the surface | |
| Kosmos 300 | E-8-5 No.403 | Sample return | 23 September 1969 | Proton-K/D | {{no|Launch failure}} | Never left LEO, decayed four days later | |
| Kosmos 305 | E-8-5 No.404 | Sample return | 22 October 1969 | Proton-K/D | {{no|Launch failure}} | Never left LEO, decayed two days later | |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-8-5 No.405 | Sample return | 6 February 1970 | Proton-K/D | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit | |
| Luna 16 | E-8-5 No.406 | File:Luna 16.jpg | Sample return | 12 September 1970 | Proton-K/D | {{yes|Successful}} | Landed in Mare Fecunditatis (0.68 S, 56.30 E) at 05:18 GMT on 20 September 1970. Sample returned to Earth on 24 September 1970 |
| Luna 17 | E-8 No.203 | File:Luna and Lunokhod.png | Rover | 10 November 1970 | Proton-K/D | {{yes|Successful}} | Landed in Mare Imbrium (38.28 N, 325.00 E) at 03:47 GMT on 17 November 1970. Deployed Lunokhod 1 |
| Luna 18 | E-8-5 No.407 | Sample return | 2 September 1971 | Proton-K/D | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Entered selenocentric orbit successfully, failed during descent; impacted Mare Fecunditatis (3.57 N, 50.50 E) | |
| Luna 19 | E-8LS No.202 | Orbiter | 28 September 1971 | Proton-K/D | {{yes|Successful}} | ||
| Luna 20 | E-8-5 No.408 | Sample return | 14 February 1972 | Proton-K/D | {{yes|Successful}} | Landed in Mare Fecunditatis (3.57 N, 56.50 E) at 19:19 UTC on 21 February 1972. Sample returned to Earth on 25 February 1972 | |
| Luna 21 | E-8 No.204 | File:Luna 21.jpg | Rover | 8 January 1973 | Proton-K/D | {{yes|Successful}} | Landed in Le Monnier (25.85 N, 30.45 E) at 23:35 UTC on 15 January 1973. Deployed Lunokhod 2 |
| Luna 22 | E-8LS No.206 | Orbiter | 29 May 1974 | Proton-K/D | {{yes|Successful}} | ||
| Luna 23 | E-8-5M No.410 | File:Luna23 figure.png | Sample return | 28 October 1974 | Proton-K/D | {{no2|Spacecraft failure}} | Landed in Mare Crisium, fell over upon landing |
| align=center | {{small|N/A}} | E-8-5M No.412 | Sample return | 16 October 1975 | Proton-K/D | {{no|Launch failure}} | Failed to orbit, intended to return a sample from Mare Crisium | |
| Luna 24 | E-8-5M No.413 | File:Луна-24 3 (24432633921) cropped.jpg | Sample return | 9 August 1976 | Proton-K/D | {{yes|Successful}} | Landed in Mare Crisium (12.25 N, 62.20 E) at 02:00 UTC on 18 August 1976. Sample returned to Earth on 22 August 1976 |
See also
{{Portal|Solar System|Spaceflight}}
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
- [http://selena.sai.msu.ru/Home/moone.htm Lunar and Planetary Department Moscow University]
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20080208080256/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Luna Luna Series (USSR) Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
- [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/351329/Luna Encyclopædia Britannica, Luna Space Probe]
- [http://www.zarya.info/Diaries/Luna/Luna.php Soviet Luna Chronology]
- [http://www.mentallandscape.com/C_CatalogMoon.htm Soviet Lunar Images]
- [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/luna/luna.html Exploring the Moon: Luna Missions]
{{Luna programme}}
{{Moon spacecraft}}
{{URSS space probes}}
{{Russian space program}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Luna Programme}}