Lynching

The origins of the word lynch are obscure, but it likely originated during the American Revolution. The verb comes from the phrase Lynch Law, a term for a punishment without trial. Two Americans during this era are generally credited for coining the phrase: Charles Lynch (1736–1796) and William Lynch (1742–1820), both of whom lived in Virginia in the 1780s.{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=lynch|website=Etymology OnLine|title=lynch|access-date=January 29, 2022}} Charles Lynch is more likely to have coined the phrase, as he was known to have used the term in 1782, while William Lynch is not known to have used the term until much later. There is no evidence that death was imposed as a punishment by either of the two men.{{cite web |title=Lynch |first=Michael |last=Quinion |work=World Wide Words |date=December 20, 2008 |url=http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-lyn1.htm |access-date=August 13, 2014}} In 1782, Charles Lynch wrote that his assistant had administered Lynch's law to Tories "for Dealing with the negroes &c".{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Lynching and Mob Violence |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of African American History 1619–1895 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |last=Waldrep |first=Christopher |editor-last=Finkelman |editor-first=Paul |volume=2 |page=308|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cCMbE4KKlX4C&q=lynch|isbn=9780195167771 }}

Charles Lynch was a Virginia Quaker,{{cite book |title=Lynch-law: An Investigation Into the History of Lynching in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/lynchlawaninves03cutlgoog |first=James Elbert |last=Cutler |publisher=Longmans Green and Co. |year=1905}}{{rp|23ff}} planter, and Patriot who headed a county court in Virginia which imprisoned Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War, occasionally imprisoning them for up to a year. Although he lacked proper jurisdiction for detaining these persons, he claimed this right by arguing wartime necessity. Lynch was concerned that he might face legal action from one or more of those whom he had imprisoned, notwithstanding that the Patriots had won the war. In 1780, he persuaded the Continental Congress to pass Lynch's Law to forgive extrajudicial wartime Loyalist imprisonment.{{Cite book |last1=AndyRice |first1=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ag-rEAAAQBAJ&dq=Continental+Congress+1780+Lynch's+law&pg=PA137 |title=Political Camerawork: Documentary and the Lasting Impact of Reenacting Historical Trauma |last2=Rice |first2=David Andy |date=May 30, 2023 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-06593-3 |language=en}} It was in connection with this that the term Lynch law, meaning the assumption of extrajudicial authority, came into common parlance in the United States. Lynch was not accused of racist bias. He acquitted Black people accused of murder on three occasions.{{cite web|url=http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=atla;cc=atla;rgn=full%20text;idno=atla0088-6;didno=atla0088-6;view=image;seq=00732;node=atla0088-6%3A1 |title=The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0088 Issue 530 (Dec 1901) |website=Digital.library.cornell.edu |access-date=July 27, 2013}}[http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?action=search&word=lynch+law&resource=Webster%27s University of Chicago, Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523010101/http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?action=search&word=lynch%20law&resource=Webster%27s |date=May 23, 2017 }} He was accused, however, of ethnic prejudice in his handling of Welsh miners.

William Lynch from Virginia claimed that the phrase was first used in a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County.

A 17th-century legend of James Lynch fitz Stephen, who was Mayor of Galway in Ireland in 1493, says that when his son was convicted of murder, the mayor hanged him from his own house.{{cite journal |title=Mayor Lynch of Galway: A Review of the Tradition |first=James |last=Mitchell |journal=Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society |volume=32 |date=1966–1971 |pages=5–72 |jstor=25535428 }} The story was proposed by 1904 as the origin of the word "lynch".{{cite journal |title=The Term Lynch Law |first=Albert |last=Matthews |journal=Modern Philology |date=October 1904 |url=https://archive.org/stream/jstor-432538/432538#page/n11 |volume=2 |number=2 |pages=173–195 : 183–184 |jstor=432538 |doi=10.1086/386635 |s2cid=159492304 }} It is dismissed by etymologists, both because of the distance in time and place from the alleged event to the word's later emergence, and because the incident did not constitute a lynching in the modern sense.

The archaic verb linch, to beat severely with a pliable instrument, to chastise or to maltreat, has been proposed as the etymological source; but there is no evidence that the word has survived into modern times, so this claim is also considered implausible.{{rp|16}}

Since the 1970s, and especially since the 1990s, there has been a false etymology claiming that the word lynching comes from a fictitious William Lynch speech that was given by an especially brutal slaveholder to other slaveholders to explain how to control their slaves. Although a real person named William Lynch might have been the origin of the word lynching, the real life William Lynch definitely did not give this speech, and it is unknown whether the real William Lynch even owned slaves at all.{{Cite web|url=https://gregorybeamer.wordpress.com/2008/03/25/the-great-debaters/|title=The Great Debaters|date=March 25, 2008 |access-date=March 30, 2024}}

Lynchings took place in many parts of the world over the centuries.William D. Carrigan, and Christopher Waldrep, eds. Swift to Wrath: Lynching in Global Historical Perspective (University of Virginia Press, 2013)

{{Main|Lynching in the United States|Lynching of American Jews|List of lynching victims in the United States}}

File:Lynching-of-will-james.jpg William "Froggie" James in Cairo, Illinois, on November 11, 1909. A crowd of thousands watched the lynching.{{cite book |title=Black Woman Reformer: Ida B. Wells, Lynching, & Transatlantic Activism |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwomanreform0000silk |url-access=registration |date=2015 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/blackwomanreform0000silk/page/n18 1]|isbn=9780820345574 }}]]

Image:duluth-lynching-postcard.jpg of the 1920 Duluth, Minnesota lynchings. Two of the Black victims are still hanging while the third is on the ground.Moyers, Bill. [https://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/11232007/profile2.html "Legacy of Lynching"]. PBS. Retrieved July 28, 2016]]

Lynchings took place in the United States both before and after the American Civil War, most commonly in Southern states and Western frontier settlements and most frequently in the late 19th century. They were often performed by self-appointed commissions, mobs, or vigilantes as a form of punishment for presumed criminal offenses.The Guardian, 'Jim Crow lynchings more widespread than previously thought', Lauren Gambino, February 10, 2015 From 1883 to 1941 there were 4,467 victims of lynching. Of these, 4,027 were male, and 99 female. 341 were of unknown sex but are assumed to be likely male. In terms of ethnicity, 3,265 were black, 1,082 were white, 71 were Mexican or of Mexican descent, 38 were Native American, ten were Chinese, and one was Japanese.{{Cite journal|last1=Seguin|first1=Charles|last2=Rigby|first2=David|date=2019|title=National Crimes: A New National Data Set of Lynchings in the United States, 1883 to 1941|journal=Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World|volume=5|doi=10.1177/2378023119841780|s2cid=164388036|issn=2378-0231|doi-access=free}} At the first recorded lynching, in St. Louis in 1835, a Black man named McIntosh who killed a deputy sheriff while being taken to jail was captured, chained to a tree, and burned to death on a corner lot downtown in front of a crowd of over 1,000 people.William Hyde and Howard L. Conrad (eds.), [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofhi04hyde Encyclopedia of the History of St. Louis: A Compendium of History and Biography for Ready Reference: Volume 4.] New York: Southern History Company, 1899; pg. 1913.

Universal suffrage indicated the beginning of mass lynching across southern United States. The rise to mobs of outrage such as the "red shirt"{{Cite book |last=Wells |first=Ida B |title=Lynch Law In America |date=1900 |pages=71–72}} bands began to appear in many southern states at the time of when voting became a right for black men, a key historical turn of events that gave uprise to lynching. Initially intended as scare tactics, this outrage continues to grow more and more violent to the point of men being take from their homes, beaten, exiled, and even assassinated.

Mob violence arose as a means of enforcing White supremacy{{cite web|first=Robert A.|last=Gibson|title=The Negro Holocaust: Lynching and Race Riots in the United States, 1880–1950|url=https://teachersinstitute.yale.edu/curriculum/units/1979/2/79.02.04.x.html|access-date=July 26, 2010|publisher=Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute}} and frequently verged on systematic political terrorism. After the American Civil War, secret white supremacist terrorist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, previously known as the "red-shirt bands", instigated extrajudicial assaults and killings due to a perceived loss of white power in America.{{Cite book |last=Wells |first=Ida |title=Lynch Law in America |date=1900 |pages=71–72}}{{cite book|last=Brundage|first=W. Fitzhugh|url=https://archive.org/details/lynchinginnewsou0000brun|title=Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1993|isbn=0-252-06345-7|location=Urbana|url-access=registration}}{{cite journal|last=Crouch|first=Barry A.|year=1984|title=A Spirit of Lawlessness: White violence, Texas Blacks, 1865–1868|journal=Journal of Social History|volume=18|issue=2|pages=217–226|doi=10.1353/jsh/18.2.217|jstor=3787285}}{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060158514/page/119|title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1988|isbn=0-06-015851-4|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060158514/page/119 119–123]|url-access=registration}}{{cite journal|last=Stagg|first=J. C. A.|year=1974|title=The Problem of Klan Violence: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1868–1871|journal=Journal of American Studies|volume=8|issue=3|pages=303–318|doi=10.1017/S0021875800015905}} Mobs usually alleged crimes for which they lynched Black people in order to instill fear. In the late 19th century, however, journalist Ida B. Wells showed that many presumed crimes were either exaggerated or had not even occurred.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Lynching|encyclopedia=MSN Encarta|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576853/Lynching.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028112646/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576853/Lynching.html|archive-date=October 28, 2009|url-status=dead}} The magnitude of the extralegal violence which occurred during election campaigns, to prevent blacks from voting, reached epidemic proportions. The ideology behind lynching was directly connected to the denial of political and social equality, as stated forthrightly in 1900 by United States Senator and former governor of South Carolina Benjamin Tillman: {{blockquote|We of the South have never recognized the right of the negro to govern white men, and we never will. We have never believed him to be the equal of the white man, and we will not submit to his gratifying his lust on our wives and daughters without lynching him.{{cite news |first=Bob |last=Herbert |author-link=Bob Herbert |title=The Blight That Is Still With Us |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/22/opinion/22herbert.html?hp |work=The New York Times |date=January 22, 2008|access-date=January 22, 2008}}{{cite web|url=http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/55/|title='Their Own Hotheadedness': Senator Benjamin R. 'Pitchfork Ben' Tillman Justifies Violence Against Southern Blacks|website=History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web|publisher=George Mason University|access-date=September 3, 2020}}}}

Members of mobs that participated in lynchings often took photographs of what they had done to their victims. Souvenir taking, such as the taking of pieces of rope, clothing, branches and sometimes body parts was not uncommon. Some of those photographs were published and sold as postcards.{{cite news |last=Tharoor|first=Ishaan |date=September 27, 2016 |title= U.S. owes black people reparations for a history of 'racial terrorism,' says U.N. panel|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/09/27/u-s-owes-black-people-reparations-for-a-history-of-racial-terrorism-says-u-n-panel/|newspaper= The Washington Post|access-date=May 1, 2017|quote="Lynching was a form of racial terrorism that has contributed to a legacy of racial inequality that the United States must address. Thousands of people of African descent were killed in violent public acts of racial control and domination and the perpetrators were never held accountable." }}{{cite report|publisher=Equal Justice Initiative|title=Lynching in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror|year=2017|location=Montgomery, Alabama|url=https://lynchinginamerica.eji.org/report/|page=14|edition=3rd|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510151602/https://lynchinginamerica.eji.org/report/|archive-date=May 10, 2018|quote=Public spectacle lynchings were those in which large crowds of white people, often numbering in the thousands, gathered to witness pre-planned, heinous killings that featured prolonged torture, mutilation, dismemberment, and/or burning of the victim. Many were carnival-like events, with vendors selling food, printers producing postcards featuring photographs of the lynching and corpse, and the victim's body parts collected as souvenirs.}}

The Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill was first introduced to the United States Congress in 1918 by Republican Congressman Leonidas C. Dyer of St. Louis, Missouri. The bill was passed by the United States House of Representatives in 1922, and in the same year it was given a favorable report by the United States Senate Committee. Its passage was blocked by White Democratic senators from the Solid South, the only representatives elected since the southern states had disenfranchised African Americans around the start of the 20th century.[https://ssrn.com/abstract=224731 Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol. 17, 2000]. Accessed March 10, 2008. The Dyer Bill influenced later anti-lynching legislation, including the Costigan-Wagner Bill, which was also defeated in the US Senate.Zangrando, NAACP Crusade, pp. 43–44, 54.

The song "Strange Fruit" was composed by Abel Meeropol in 1937, inspired by the photograph of a lynching in Marion, Indiana. Meeropol said of the photograph, "It haunted me for days."{{Cite book|title=The Cross and the Lynching Tree|url=https://archive.org/details/crosslynchingtre0000cone|url-access=registration|last=Cone|first=James H.|publisher=Oribis Books|year=2011|location=Maryknoll, New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crosslynchingtre0000cone/page/134 134]}} It was published as a poem in the New York Teacher and later in the magazine New Masses, in both cases under the pseudonym Lewis Allan. The poem was set to music, also by Meeropol, and the song was performed and popularized by Billie Holiday.{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/strangefruit/film.html|website=Pbs.org|title=Strange Fruit}} PBS Independent Lens credits the music as well as the words to Meeropol, though Billie Holiday's autobiography and the Spartacus article credit her with co-authoring the song. The song has been performed by many other singers, including Nina Simone.

By the 1950s, the civil rights movement was gaining new momentum. It was spurred by the lynching of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old youth from Chicago who was killed while visiting an uncle in Mississippi. His mother insisted on having an open-casket funeral so that people could see how badly her son had been beaten. The Black community throughout the U.S. became mobilized. Vann R. Newkirk wrote "the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy".{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2017/02/how-the-blood-of-emmett-till-still-stains-america-today/516891/|title=How 'The Blood of Emmett Till' Still Stains America Today|last=II|first=Vann R. Newkirk|work=The Atlantic|access-date=July 3, 2017|language=en-US}} The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were acquitted by an all-white jury.Whitfield, Stephen (1991). A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till. pp 41–42. JHU Press. David Jackson writes that it was the photograph of the "child's ravaged body, that forced the world to reckon with the brutality of American racism."{{cite magazine|url=http://100photos.time.com/photos/emmett-till-david-jackson|title=How The Horrific Photograph Of Emmett Till Helped Energize The Civil Rights Movement|magazine=Time|access-date=July 3, 2017|archive-date=July 6, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706123149/http://100photos.time.com/photos/emmett-till-david-jackson|url-status=dead}}

Most lynchings ceased by the 1960s,{{cite web |url=http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingsstate.html |title=Lynchings: By State and Race, 1882–1968 |access-date=July 26, 2010 |quote=Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute. |publisher=University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629081241/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingsstate.html |archive-date=June 29, 2010 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingyear.html |title=Lynchings: By Year and Race |access-date=July 26, 2010 |quote=Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute. |publisher=University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724162418/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingyear.html |archive-date=July 24, 2010 }} but even in 2021 there were claims that racist lynchings still happen in the United States, being covered up as suicides.{{cite news|first=DeNeen L. |last=Brown |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/08/08/modern-day-mississippi-lynchings |title='Lynchings in Mississippi never stopped' |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=August 8, 2021 |accessdate=February 16, 2022}}

In 2018, the National Memorial for Peace and Justice was opened in Montgomery, Alabama, a memorial that commemorates the victims of lynchings in the United States.

On March 29, 2022, President Joe Biden signed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act of 2022 into law, which classified lynching as a federal hate crime.{{Cite news |last=Zaslav |first=Ali |date=March 8, 2022 |title=Senate passes Emmett Till Antilynching Act of 2022 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/03/07/politics/senate-passes-antilynching-law/index.html |access-date=March 29, 2022 |work=CNN}}{{Cite news |last=Shear |first=Michael D. |date=March 29, 2022 |title=Biden Signs Bill to Make Lynching a Federal Crime |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/29/us/politics/biden-signs-anti-lynching-bill.html |access-date=March 30, 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}

File:SeptemberMassacres.jpg of 1792, in which Parisian mobs killed hundreds of royalist prisoners]]

In Liverpool, a series of race riots broke out in 1919 after the end of the First World War between White and Black sailors, many of whom had been demobilized. After a Black sailor had been stabbed by two White sailors in a pub for refusing to give them a cigarette, his friends attacked them the next day in revenge, wounding a policeman in the process. The police responded by launching raids on lodging houses in primarily Black neighborhoods, with casualties on both sides. A White lynch mob gathered outside the houses during the raids and chased a Black sailor, Charles Wootton, into the Mersey River where he drowned.{{cite news |title=The roots of racism in city of many cultures |url=https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/roots-racism-city-many-cultures-3528503 |access-date=March 3, 2021 |work=Liverpool Echo |date=August 3, 2005}} The Charles Wootton College in Liverpool has been named in his memory.Brown, Jacqueline Nassy (2005). Dropping Anchor, Setting Sail: Geographies of Race in Black Liverpool. Princeton University Press, pp. 21, 23, 144.

In 1944, Wolfgang Rosterg, a German prisoner of war known to be unsympathetic to the Nazi regime, was lynched by other German prisoners of war in Cultybraggan Camp, a prisoner-of-war camp in Comrie, Scotland. At the end of the Second World War, five of the perpetrators were hanged at Pentonville Prison – the largest multiple execution in 20th-century Britain.{{cite web|url=http://www.caledonia.tv/index.php?page=16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524202824/http://www.caledonia.tv/index.php?page=16|url-status=dead|title=Execution at Camp 21|archive-date=May 24, 2007|website=Caledonia.tv}}{{Better source needed|date=February 2021}}

The situation is less clear with regards to reported "lynchings" in Germany. Nazi propaganda sometimes tried to depict state-sponsored violence as spontaneous lynchings. The most notorious instance of this was "Kristallnacht", which the government portrayed as the result of "popular wrath" against Jews, but it was carried out in an organized and planned manner, mainly by SA and SS men. Similarly, the approximately 150 confirmed murders of surviving crew members of crashed Allied aircraft in revenge for what Nazi propaganda called "Anglo-American bombing terror" were chiefly conducted by German officials and members of the police or the Gestapo, although civilians sometimes took part in them. The execution of enemy aircrew without trial in some cases had been ordered by Hitler personally in May 1944. It was publicly announced that enemy pilots would no longer be protected from "public wrath". There were secret orders issued that prohibited policemen and soldiers from interfering in favor of the enemy in conflicts between civilians and Allied forces, or prosecuting civilians who engaged in such acts."Hamm 1944". polizeihistorischesammlung-paul.de.{{cite journal|url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-20794719.html|title=KRIEGSVERBRECHEN: Systematischer Mord - DER SPIEGEL 47/2001|first=SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg|last=Germany|journal=Spiegel Online|volume=47|access-date=September 3, 2017|date=November 19, 2001}} In summary:

:...the assaults on crashed allied aviators were not typically acts of revenge for the bombing raids which immediately preceded them. [...] The perpetrators of these assaults were usually National Socialist officials, who did not hesitate to get their own hands dirty. The lynching murder in the sense of self-mobilizing communities or urban quarters was the exception.Grimm, Barbara: "Lynchmorde an alliierten Fliegern im Zweiten Weltkrieg". In: Dietmar Süß (Hrsg.): Deutschland im Luftkrieg. Geschichte und Erinnerung. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 2007, {{ISBN|3-486-58084-1}}, pp. 71–84. p. 83. "Die Übergriffe auf abgestürzte alliierte Flieger waren im Regelfall keine Racheakte für unmittelbar vorangegangene Bombenangriffe. [...] Täter waren in der Regel nationalsozialistische Funktionsträger, die keine Scheu davor hatten, selbst Hand anzulegen. Der Lynchmord im Sinne sich selbstmobilisierender Kommunen und Stadtviertel war dagegen die Ausnahme."

On March 19, 1988, two plain-clothes British soldiers drove straight towards a Provisional IRA funeral procession near Milltown Cemetery in Andersonstown, Belfast. The men were mistaken for Special Air Service members, surrounded by the crowd, dragged out, beaten, kicked, stabbed and eventually shot dead at a waste ground.{{cite news|last=Ware|first=John|title=Guns, grenades and lynchings: Revisiting the funeral murders|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/guns-grenades-and-lynchings-revisiting-the-funeral-murders-1.3431818|access-date=December 21, 2021|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en}}

Lynching of members of the Turkish Armed Forces occurred in the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt.{{Cite episode |title=Europe's Flashpoints |url=https://p.dw.com/p/32LYR |series=Close Up — The Current Affairs Documentary |network=Deutsche Welle TV |year=2018 |number=2 |time=2:12 |archive-date=August 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805112755/https://www.dw.com/en/europes-flashpoints-2/av-44888523 |quote=Public anger erupted. Soldiers were lynched in the streets including young recruits proven to have been deceived by their generals about the true intentions of the attack.}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovxi_k9f-Tg Alt URL]

Lynchings have been present since the colonial period.{{Cite web |last=Kloppe-Santamaría |first=Gema |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Lynchings are not new to Mexico: why does this matter? |url=https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/56218/lynchings-are-not-new-to-mexico-why-does-this-matter/ |access-date=March 30, 2024 |website=UC Press Blog |language=en}} Lynchings are a persistent form of extralegal violence in post-Revolutionary Mexico.{{Cite book|last=Kloppe-Santamaría|first=Gema|title=In the vortex of violence: lynching, extralegal justice, and the state in post-revolutionary Mexico|publisher=University of California Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-520-97532-3|oclc=1145910776}}{{Cite journal |last=Kloppe-Santamaría |first=Gema |date=2022 |title=Martyrs, Fanatics, and Pious Militants: Religious Violence and the Secular State in 1930s Mexico |journal=The Americas |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=197–227 |doi=10.1017/tam.2021.149 |issn=1533-6247 |doi-access=free}}{{Citation |last=Kloppe-Santamaría |first=Gema |title=Violence in Postrevolutionary Mexico |date=August 31, 2021 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |url=https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-859 |access-date=March 30, 2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.859 |isbn=978-0-19-936643-9|url-access=subscription }} A number of them have involved religious motivations.Butler, Matthew. "CATHOLIC MOBILIZATIONS IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MEXICO: From Pious Lynchings and Fascist Salutes to a "Catholic 1968," Maoist Priests, and the Post-Cristero Apocalypse." The Americas (2022): 1-16.{{Cite journal |last=Kloppe-Santamaría |first=Gema |date=2021 |title=Deadly Rumors: Lynching, Hearsay, and Hierarchies of Credibility in Mexico |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/8/article/836818 |journal=Journal of Social History |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=85–104 |doi=10.1093/jsh/shab037 |issn=1527-1897|url-access=subscription }} During and following the period of the Cristero War.{{Cite journal |last=O'Sullivan |first=Lucy |date=January 1, 2024 |title=Martyrdom in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/lalvc/article/6/1/1/199779/Martyrdom-in-the-Age-of-Mechanical-ReproductionThe |journal=Latin American and Latinx Visual Culture |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1525/lavc.2024.6.1.1 |issn=2576-0947 |doi-access=free|url-access=subscription }}

On September 14, 1968, five employees from the Autonomous University of Puebla were lynched in the village of San Miguel Canoa, in the state of Puebla, after Enrique Meza Pérez, the local priest, incited the villagers to murder the employees, who he believed were communists.{{Cite book |last=Kloppe-Santamaría |first=Gema |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/j.ctt1vjqrpr |title=Global Lynching and Collective Violence: Volume 2: The Americas and Europe |date=September 30, 2017 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-09998-4 |editor-last=Pfeifer |editor-first=Michael J. |pages=85–114 |chapter=Lynching, Religion, and Politics in Twentieth-Century Puebla |doi=10.5406/j.ctt1vjqrpr.8|jstor=10.5406/j.ctt1vjqrpr }} The five victims intended to enjoy their holiday climbing La Malinche, a nearby mountain, but they had to stay in the village due to adverse weather conditions. Two of the employees, and the owner of the house where they were staying for the night, were killed; the three survivors sustained serious injuries, including finger amputations.{{cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/trace/1468|title=Representaciones y conductas. Un repertorio de las violencias entre los nahuas de la Sierra Norte de Puebla|last=Pierre|first=Beaucage|date=June 1, 2010|journal=Trace. Travaux et recherches dans les Amériques du Centre|number=57|pages=9–32|access-date=October 1, 2018|language=es|issn=0185-6286}} The alleged main instigators were not prosecuted. The few arrested were released after no evidence was found against them.{{cite web|first=Daniel|last=Hernández|title=A 45 años del linchamiento en Canoa, nunca se hizo justicia|website=YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS6qAqaVzNU| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007104008/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS6qAqaVzNU| archive-date=October 7, 2013|language=es}}

On November 23, 2004, in the Tláhuac lynching,Niels A. Uildriks (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PICx6XnX1DMC&pg=PA201 Policing Insecurity: Police Reform, Security, and Human Rights in Latin America]. Rowman & Littlefield, p. 201. three Mexican undercover federal agents investigating a narcotics-related crime were lynched in the town of San Juan Ixtayopan (Mexico City) by an angry crowd who saw them taking photographs and suspected that they were trying to abduct children from a primary school. The agents immediately identified themselves, but they were held and beaten for several hours before two of them were killed and set on fire. The incident was covered by the media almost from the beginning, including their pleas for help and their murder.

By the time police rescue units arrived, two of the agents were reduced to charred corpses and the third was seriously injured. Authorities suspect that the lynching was provoked by the persons who were being investigated. Both local and federal authorities had abandoned the agents, saying that the town was too far away for them to try to intervene. Some officials said they would provoke a massacre if the authorities tried to rescue the men from the mob.

According to The Wall Street Journal, "Over the past 60 years, as many as 1.5 million Brazilians have taken part in lynchings...In Brazil, mobs now kill—or try to kill—more than one suspected lawbreaker a day, according to University of São Paulo sociologist José de Souza Martins, Brazil's leading expert on lynchings."{{cite news |title=In Latin America, Awash in Crime, Citizens Impose Their Own Brutal Justice |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-a-continent-awash-in-crime-citizens-impose-their-own-brutal-justice-1544110959?mod=cx_picks&cx_navSource=cx_picks&cx_tag=poptarget&cx_artPos=2#cxrecs_s |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=December 6, 2018}}

Extrajudicial punishment, including lynching, of alleged criminals who committed various crimes, ranging from theft to murder, has some endorsement in Dominican society. According to a 2014 Latinobarómetro survey, the Dominican Republic had the highest rate of acceptance in Latin America of such unlawful measures.[http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/dom-summary-eng Amnesty International | Working to Protect Human Rights] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810112039/http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/dom-summary-eng |date=August 10, 2007 }} These issues are particularly evident in the Northern Region.{{cite news|last1=Santana|first1=Antonio|title=Linchamientos en el norte de la República Dominicana alarman a las autoridades|url=http://noticias.lainformacion.com/policia-y-justicia/criminalidad/linchamientos-en-el-norte-de-republica-dominicana-alarman-a-las-autoridades_gWNCA7FNHWgPguFOVzpOK4/|access-date=September 9, 2015|agency=EFE|website=Lainformacion.com|date=June 9, 2012|location=Santiago|language=es|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130905/http://noticias.lainformacion.com/policia-y-justicia/criminalidad/linchamientos-en-el-norte-de-republica-dominicana-alarman-a-las-autoridades_gWNCA7FNHWgPguFOVzpOK4/|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}

After the 2010 earthquake the slow distribution of relief supplies and the large number of affected people created concerns about civil unrest, marked by looting and mob justice against suspected looters.{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/751792--haiti-street-justice-the-worst-in-people|title=Mob justice in Haiti|date=January 17, 2010|work=thestar.com}}{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/17/world/americas/17looting.html|title=Looting Flares Where Authority Breaks Down|first1=Simon|last1=Romero|first2=Marc|last2=Lacey|date=January 17, 2010|access-date=September 3, 2017|website=The New York Times}}{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6990401.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602190023/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6990401.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 2, 2010|title=Login|website=Timesonline.co.uk}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/15/looters-roam-port-au-prince|title=Looters roam Port-au-Prince as earthquake death toll estimate climbs|first=Rory|last=Carroll|newspaper=The Guardian|date=January 16, 2010}}{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/haiti/7005853/Haiti-earthquake-UN-says-worst-disaster-ever-dealt-with.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120912063245/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/haiti/7005853/Haiti-earthquake-UN-says-worst-disaster-ever-dealt-with.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 12, 2012|title=Haiti earthquake: UN says worst disaster ever dealt with|last1=Sherwell |first1=Philip |first2=Colin |last2=Freeman |date=January 16, 2010|website=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=January 17, 2010}} In a 2010 news story, CNN reported, "At least 45 people, most of them Vodou priests, have been lynched in Haiti since the beginning of the cholera epidemic by angry mobs blaming them for the spread of the disease, officials said.{{cite news

|url = http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/12/24/haiti.cholera.killings/index.html?hpt=Sbin%20Officials:%2045%20people%20lynched%20in%20Haiti%20amid%20cholera%20fears

|title = Officials: 45 people lynched in Haiti amid cholera fears

|last1 = Valme

|first1 = Jean M.

|date = December 24, 2010

|publisher = CNN

|access-date = March 22, 2012

}}

{{Main|Necklacing}}

The practice of whipping and necklacing offenders and political opponents evolved in the 1980s during the apartheid era in South Africa. Residents of Black townships formed "people's courts" and used whip lashings and deaths by necklacing in order to terrorize fellow Blacks who were seen as collaborators with the government. Necklacing is the torture and execution of a victim by igniting a kerosene-filled rubber tire that has been forced around the victim's chest and arms. Necklacing was used to punish victims who were alleged to be traitors to the Black liberation movement along with their relatives and associates. Sometimes the "people's courts" made mistakes, or they used the system to punish those whom the anti-Apartheid movement's leaders opposed.{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1991/southafrica1/6.htm |chapter=4. Background: The Black Struggle For Political Power: Major Forces in the Conflict |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1991/southafrica1/index.htm |title=The Killings in South Africa: The Role of the Security Forces and the Response of the State |work=Human Rights Watch |date=January 8, 1991 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=0-929692-76-4 |access-date=November 6, 2006}} A tremendous controversy arose when the practice was endorsed by Winnie Mandela, then the wife of the then-imprisoned Nelson Mandela and a senior member of the African National Congress.{{cite news |url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1980-1989/Story/0,,110268,00.html |title=Row over 'mother of the nation' Winnie Mandela |newspaper=The Guardian |date=January 27, 1989 |access-date=March 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008111400/http://century.guardian.co.uk/1980-1989/Story/0,,110268,00.html |archive-date=October 8, 2006 |first=David |last=Beresford |author-link=David Beresford (journalist) |publisher=Guardian Newspapers Limited}}

In 1996, Rashaad Staggie was killed by a crowd of People Against Gangsterism and Drugs members.{{Cite book |last1=Berg |first1=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcNfAQAAQBAJ&dq=lynched+by+People+Against+Gangsterism+and+Drugs&pg=PT152 |title=Globalizing Lynching History: Vigilantism and Extralegal Punishment from an International Perspective |last2=Wendt |first2=S. |date=November 15, 2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-00124-5 |language=en}}

Kemp (2024)Kemp, Karl. 2024. Why We Kill: Mob Justice and the New Vigilantism in South Africa. Penguin Random House. reports increasing, shockingly high numbers of mob justice murders—from 849 in April 2017-March 2018, to 1,202 in April 2019-March 2020, to 1,293 in 2021, to 1,849 in 2022, to 588 for January–March 2023.Kemp (2024:15-16). As Kemp summarizes, "In the 2017/18 financial year, there were approximately 2.3 mob justice murders every day in South Africa. In the 2021 calendar year, there were 3.4. And in 2022, that had increased to 5.2 – more than double the rate of five years ago."Ibid.:16.

The practice of extrajudicial punishments, including lynching, is referred to as 'jungle justice' in Nigeria.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8021468.stm|title=BBC NEWS - World - Africa - Nigeria's vigilante 'jungle justice'|website=News.bbc.co.uk|access-date=September 3, 2017|date=April 28, 2009}} The practice is widespread and "an established part of Nigerian society", predating the existence of the police. Exacted punishments vary between a "muddy treatment", that is, being made to roll in the mud for hours{{cite web|url=http://pulse.ng/gist/jungle-justice-cable-thief-given-muddy-treatment-in-anambra-graphic-photos-id5655318.html|title=Jungle Justice: Cable thief given muddy treatment in Anambra (Graphic Photos)|first=Isaac|last=Dachen|website=Pulse.ng|access-date=September 3, 2017|date=October 25, 2016}} and severe beatings followed by necklacing.{{cite web|url=http://dailypost.ng/2016/11/18/burning-7-year-old-boy-death-embarrassment-nigeria-annie-idibia-mercy-johnson/|title=Burning 7-year-old boy to death an embarrassment to Nigeria - Annie Idibia, Mercy Johnson|date=November 18, 2016|website=Dailypost.ng|access-date=September 3, 2017}} The case of the Aluu four sparked national outrage. The absence of a functioning judicial system and law enforcement, coupled with corruption are blamed for the continuing existence of the practice.{{cite web|url=http://answersafrica.com/jungle-justice-a-vicious-violation-of-human-rights-in-africa.html|title=Jungle Justice: A Vicious Violation Of Human Rights In Africa|date=July 24, 2015|website=Answersafrica.com|access-date=September 3, 2017 |last1=O |first1=Amara }}{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/when-the-mob-rules-jungle-justice-in-africa/a-19426438|title=When the mob rules: jungle justice in Africa|date=July 26, 2016|work=Deutsche Welle|first=Nneka|last=Luke|access-date=September 3, 2017}}

There are frequent lynchings in Kenya.McKee, Robert. 2024. Lynchings in Modern Kenya: A Continuing Human Rights Scandal (Amended Update, March 2024). Leanpub. https://leanpub.com/lynchingsinmodernkenya_acontinuinghumanrightsscandal. McKee (2024) is written largely with reference to a Kenya Lynchings Database that includes reports of over 3,100 lynched persons for Kenya for the years ca. 1980–2024.{{cite web |url=https://gialedu.sharepoint.com/:f:/s/KenyaLynchingsDatabase/Eu3HCyhtQ71MruRa1IDvW0kB-QJl31w4Y5Q4guz77xRh4w |title=Kenya Lynchings Database |date= |website=gialedu.sharepoint.com |url-access=registration}} That number, however, is just a fraction of the total for that period, which may well exceed 10,000.McKee (2024).

According to Ugandan news media, Uganda has had a continuing problem with lynchings from at least 2000. Example headlines with a smattering of contents, starting from 2000, include: 'Report Condemns Mob Justice' (Monitor, 2000);Mohammed, Katamba G. 2000. 'Report Condemns Mob Justice,' Monitor, December 1, http://allafrica.com/stories/200012010069.html. 'Rule of Jungle is Around the Corner' (Monitor, 2002, from which, "[Given the increasing level of robberies and murders in and around Kampala,] there is an increasing number [of people] who are taking the law in their hands. They are not just apprehending suspects, beating them up and handing them half-dead to the Police[; t]hey kill them, and in very dramatic and horrific fashion. They are impaling them on stakes, or tying them together if they are in a group and burning them up to name a few methods of choice");'Rule of Jungle is Around the Corner,' Monitor, June 7, 2002, http://allafrica.com/stories/200206070063.html. 'Mob Justice Still a Serious Problem in Kampala,' (URN, 2006);Kagumire, Rosebell. 2006. 'Mob Justice Still a Serious Problem in Kampala,' URN, August 14, https://www.ugandaradionetwork.net/story/mob-justice-still-a-serious-problem-in-kampala. 'Mob Justice Thrives' (The New Vision, 2007, from which, "A total of 197 people were killed in mob justice in Uganda last year alone, according to the 2006 Police crime report. Theft was the leading cause of lynching, accounting for 108 cases. Other victims were accused of robbery (14), witchcraft (13), murder (12), burglary (6) and other suspected crimes (31). Of the people lynched in 2006, 191 were male while six were female");'Mob Justice Thrives,' The New Vision, August 24, https://allafrica.com/stories/200708260048.html. 'Mob Justice[: A] Problem That Just Won't Go Away' (The New Vision, 2009, including, "Since 2000, many people have been killed by mobs" );'Mob Justice[: A] Problem That Just Won't Go Away,' The New Vision, April 2, https://allafrica.com/stories/201104040077.html. 'Mob Justice in Uganda: A Troubling Issue' (NilePost, 2023, from which, "Mob justice in Uganda is a serious issue that requires our attention and concerted efforts to address the underlying problems. We must work together to create a Uganda where justice is achieved through a fair and equitable legal system, ensuring the rights and safety of all citizens");NP admin. 2023. 'Mob Justice in Uganda: A Troubling Issue', NilePost, October 6, https://nilepost.co.ug/news/173822. "Deadly Consequences of Mob 'Justice'" (Monitor, 2025).Kyeyune, Elvis Basudde. 2025. 'Deadly Consequences of Mob 'Justice,' Monitor, April 16, https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/lifestyle/reviews-profiles/deadly-consequences-of-mob-justice--5005136.

Glad et al. (2010),Glad, Robin, Åsa Strömberg, & Anton Westerlund. 2010. Mob Justice: A Qualitative Research regarding Vigilante Justice in Modern Uganda. Bachelor's degree final essay, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/handle/2077/23084/?sequence=1. in a Bachelor's final essay about Ugandan mob justice, summarize briefly, from among prior work on the subject, three Makerere University studies (Nalukenge 2001,Nalukenge, Harriet A. 2001. The Right to Life: A Case Study of the Mob Justice "System" in Uganda. Bachelor's thesis, Makerere University, Kampala. Kanaabi 2004,Kanaabi, Margaret. 2004. An Assessment of the Factors Responsible for Mob Justice in the Management of Public Affairs in Kampala District. Master's dissertation, Makerere University, Kampala. Mutabazi 2006Mutabazi, Sam Stewart. 2006. Mob Justice as a Violation of [an] Individual's Human Rights: A Case Study of Kampala District. Master's dissertation, Makerere University, Kampala.) and a journal article (Baker 2005Baker, Bruce. 2005. Multi-Choice Policing in Uganda. Policing & Society 15(1), http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a713947725 (February 10, 2010).).Glad et al. (2010:18-19).

Parenthetically, another source on lynchings in Uganda, Mutabazi (2012),Mutabazi, Sam Stewart. 2012. Mob Justice in Uganda: Lack of Faith in the Judicial Process (Communities Taking the Law into Their Hands. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing: Saarbrücken, Germany. according to some of its early contents, appears to be (no more than) a tweaked-for-publication form of Mutabazi (2006). Mutabazi (2012) does not, e.g., refer to relevant (see in the previous paragraph) 2007 and 2008 lynching figures noted in Glad et al. (2010), but only to 244 and 273 reported cases of mob justice for 2001 and 2002, respectively;Mutabazi (2012:1, 3), with context not making it clear that all the reported cases cited were lethal. and, in its acknowledgments, Mutabazi refers to Mutabazi (2012) as "this dissertation" and has him thanking, among others, his supervisor and his course coordinator.Ibid.:iv.

Glad et al. (2010) also cite, from the Uganda Police's Crime Report 2008,{{cite web | url=https://www.scribd.com/document/354067527/Annual-Crime-Report-2008 | title=Annual Crime Report 2008 | PDF | Crime & Violence | Crime Thriller }} 2007 and 2008 lynching figures of 184 and 368, respectively. They relate, from the report, that the 2008 figure is a 100% increase on the 2007 one; that there was nothing suggesting this "negative trend" was about to reverse itself; that the number of 2007 and 2008 lynchings were, to boot, surely under-reported; that "[t]he most common reasons for a mob to take the law into their own hands [were] theft, murder, robbery, witchcraft and burglary." They say, further, that the Ugandan media carried articles "almost daily regarding mob justice situations in different parts of the country and for different reasons"; that these articles "often tell the same stories about victims beaten or burned to death" for alleged offenses.Glad et al. (2010:3).

The Uganda Police's Annual Crime Report 2010, for the years 2009 and 2010, has 'Death (by Mob Action)' victims numbering 364 and 438, respectively.Ugfacts.net. Uganda Police Annual Crime Report 2010, https://ugfacts.net/uganda-police-annual-crime-report-2010/.

The Uganda Police's Annual Crime Report 2019 says, "A total of 773 persons were lynched [in 2019], out of whom, 749 were male adults, 17 were female adults, 05 were male juveniles and 02 were female juveniles."Uganda Police Force Annual Crime Report 2019, https://thecitizenreport.ug/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Annual-Crime-Report-2019-Public.pdf, 39.

The Uganda Police Force's Annual Crime Report 2024 appears to report 1,032 (not 1,078, per a mistake in the sum of a table's column) lynched persons from 1,016 reported cases of 'Murder by Mob Action'.Uganda Police Force Annual Crime Report 2024, https://upf.go.ug/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/ACR2024.pdf, 43.

One example case for 2025 is the lynching of police constable Suleiman Chemonges, at a burial service in Ibanda;Mutiso, John. 2025. 'How Police Officer Was Lynched by Mob at Burial over Land Dispute,' Unzalendo News, https://uzalendonews.co.ke/how-police-officer-was-lynched-by-mob-at-burial-over-land-dispute/. another is the double-lynching of teenage brothers Paul Amukanga and Stanley Opidi, though several facts of the case differ for the time being, depending on which country's media reports it, whether Uganda's[A]dmin. 2025. 'Tragic Loss: Ugandan Mother Speaks Out on Lynching of Her Two Sons,' Uganda News, February 27, https://ugandanews.org/tragic-loss-ugandan-mother-speaks-out-on-lynching-of-her-two-sons/. or Kenya's.Juliet, Omelo. 2025. 'Ugandan Mob Lynches Two Teenagers amid Tensions at Kenya-Uganda Border,' Standard, March 20, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/counties/article/2001514291/ugandan-mob-lynches-two-teenagers-amid-tensions-at-kenya-uganda-border.

Palestinian lynch mobs have murdered Palestinians suspected of collaborating with Israel.Be'er, Yizhar & 'Abdel-Jawad, Saleh (January 1994), [http://www.btselem.org/Download/199401_Collaboration_Suspects_Eng.doc "Collaborators in the Occupied Territories: Human Rights Abuses and Violations"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040715191230/http://www.btselem.org/Download/1994_Collaborators_Eng.rtf |date=July 15, 2004 }} (Microsoft Word document), B'Tselem – The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories. Retrieved September 14, 2009. Also .Huggler, Justin & Ghazali, Sa'id (October 24, 2003), "Palestinian collaborators executed", The Independent, [http://www.fromoccupiedpalestine.org/node.php?id=944 reproduced] on fromoccupiedpalestine.org. Retrieved September 14, 2009.Goldenberg, Suzanne (March 15, 2002), [https://www.theguardian.com/israel/Story/0,2763,667591,00.html {{"'}}Spies' lynched as Zinni flies in"], The Guardian. Retrieved September 14, 2009. According to a Human Rights Watch report from 2001:

{{blockquote|During the First Intifada, before the PA was established, hundreds of alleged collaborators were lynched, tortured or killed, at times with the implied support of the PLO. Street killings of alleged collaborators continue into the current intifada ... but at much fewer numbers.[https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/pa/isrpa1101-04.htm "Balancing Security and Human Rights During the Intifada"], [https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/pa/index.htm Justice Undermined: Balancing Security and Human Rights in the Palestinian Justice System], Human Rights Watch, November 2001, Vol. 13, No. 4 (E).}}

On October 12, 2000, the Ramallah lynching took place. This happened at the el-Bireh police station, where a Palestinian crowd killed and mutilated the bodies of two Israel Defense Forces reservists, Vadim Norzhich (Nurzhitz) and Yosef "Yossi" Avrahami,{{efn|Vadim Nurzhitz, {{langx|ru|Вадим Нуржиц}}, {{langx|he|ואדים נורז'יץ}}, Yossi Avrahami, {{langx|he|יוסי אברהמי}}}} who had accidentally{{Cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4942631,00.html|title=2000 Ramallah lynch terrorist released from prison|date=March 30, 2017|newspaper=Ynetnews|last1=Zitun|first1=Yoav|last2=Levy|first2=Elior}} entered the Palestinian Authority-controlled city of Ramallah in the West Bank and were taken into custody by Palestinian Authority policemen. The Israeli reservists were beaten and stabbed. At this point, a Palestinian (later identified as Aziz Salha), appeared at the window, displaying his blood-soaked hands to the crowd, which erupted into cheers. The crowd clapped and cheered as one of the soldier's bodies was then thrown out the window and stamped and beaten by the frenzied crowd. One of the two was shot, set on fire, and his head beaten to a pulp.{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4570672.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526210520/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4570672.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 26, 2015|title='I'll have nightmares for the rest of my life,' photographer says|quote=I got out of the car to see what was happening and saw that they were dragging something behind them. Within moments they were in front of me and, to my horror, I saw that it was a body, a man they were dragging by the feet. The lower part of his body was on fire and the upper part had been shot at, and the head beaten so badly that it was a pulp, like red jelly.|work=Chicago Sun-Tribune|access-date=June 7, 2018|date=October 22, 2000}} Soon after, the crowd dragged the two mutilated bodies to Al-Manara Square in the city center and began an impromptu victory celebration.{{cite news |title=A day of rage, revenge and bloodshed |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/1370229/A-day-of-rage%2C-revenge-and-bloodshed.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171014065726/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/1370229/A-day-of-rage-revenge-and-bloodshed.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 14, 2017 |date=October 13, 2000 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=July 2, 2009 |location=London |first=Alan |last=Philps}}{{cite web |title=Coverage of Oct 12 Lynch in Ramallah by Italian TV Station RAI |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2000/10/Coverage%20of%20Oct%2012%20Lynch%20in%20Ramallah%20by%20Italian%20TV |date=October 17, 2000 |publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=July 2, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418160039/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2000/10/Coverage%20of%20Oct%2012%20Lynch%20in%20Ramallah%20by%20Italian%20TV |archive-date=April 18, 2010|url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=Lynch mob's brutal attack|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/969778.stm |date=October 13, 2000|work=BBC News|access-date=September 3, 2006}}{{cite news |title=A strange voice said: I just killed your husband|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/a-strange-voice-said-i-just-killed-your-husband-635341.html |date=October 14, 2000|work=The Independent|access-date=October 16, 2009 |location=London |first=Raymond |last=Whitaker}} Police officers proceeded to try and confiscate footage from reporters.

On October 18, 2015, an Eritrean asylum seeker, Haftom Zarhum, was lynched by a mob of vengeful Israeli soldiers in Be'er Sheva's central bus station. Israeli security forces misidentified Haftom as the person who shot an Israeli police bus and shot him. Moments after, other security forces joined shooting Haftom when he was bleeding on the ground. Then, a soldier hit him with a bench nearby when two other soldiers approached the victim then forcefully kicked his head and upper body. Another soldier threw a bench over him to prevent his movement. At that moment a bystander pushed the bench away, but the security forces put back the chair and kicked the victim again and pushed the stopper away. Israeli medical forces did not evacuate the victim until eighteen minutes after the first shooting although the victim received 8 shots.{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-police-asylum-seeker-was-also-shot-by-border-policeman-1.5413332|title=Slain Eritrean Asylum Seeker Was Also Shot by Border Policeman, Police Say|date=October 26, 2015|website=Haaretz.com}} In January 2016 four security forces were charged in connection with the lynching.{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/01/13/middleeast/israel-charges-eritrean-migrant-beating/index.html|title=Israel: 4 charged over 'lynching' of Eritrean migrant|first1=Tim|last1=Hume|first2=Michael|last2=Schwartz|website=Cnn.com|date=January 13, 2016}} The Israeli civilian who was involved in lynching the Eritrean civilian was sentenced to 100 days community service and 2,000 shekels.{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-man-involved-in-lynching-of-innocent-asylum-seeker-is-sentenced-1.6243033|title=Israeli Man Involved in Lynching of Asylum Seeker Sentenced to 100 Days Community Service|date=July 4, 2018|website=Haaretz.com}}

In August 2012, seven Israeli youths were arrested in Jerusalem for what several witnesses described as an attempted lynching of several Palestinian teenagers. The Palestinians received medical treatment and judicial support from Israeli facilities."[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/21/world/middleeast/7-israelis-held-in-attack-on-palestinians-in-jerusalem.html?pagewanted=all Young Israelis Held in Attack on Arabs]". The New York Times. August 20, 2012.

In March 2025, Hamdan Ballal, a Palestinian co-director of the Oscar-winning documentary No Other Land, was beaten by Israeli settlers in the occupied West Bank before being detained by Israeli forces. According to his co-director Yuval Abraham and witnesses, the Israeli military stated it was investigating the incident.{{Cite news |title='No Other Land' co-director attacked by Israeli settlers and arrested |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/24/no-other-land-co-director-attacked-by-israeli-settlers-and-arrested |work=Al Jazeera |date=March 24, 2025 |access-date=March 25, 2025}}{{Cite news |last1=Usher |first1=Sebastian |last2=Mackintosh |first2=Thomas |date=March 25, 2025 |title=Palestinian Oscar winner Hamdan Ballal held by Israeli soldiers after attack by settlers, activists say |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c0eg04d152zo |work=BBC |access-date=March 25, 2025}}

{{See also|Caste-related violence in India}}

File:July 2018 map of Indian Whatsapp lychings.jpg

In India, lynchings may reflect internal tensions between ethnic communities. Communities sometimes lynch individuals who are accused or suspected of committing crimes. Sociologists and social scientists reject attributing racial discrimination to the caste system and attributed such events to intra-racial ethno-cultural conflicts.{{cite web|author-link=Andre Béteille|first=Andre|last=Béteille|quote=treating caste as a form of racism is politically mischievous and worse, scientifically nonsense since there is no discernible difference in the racial characteristics between Brahmins and Scheduled Castes|url=http://wcar.alrc.net/mainfile2.php/For+the+negative/14/|title=Race and caste|publisher=World Conference Against Racism}}{{cite journal|author=Silverberg, James

|date=November 1969|title=Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium

|journal = The American Journal of Sociology|volume = 75|issue = 3|pages = 443–444|jstor=2775721|quote=The perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, empirical and contextual stratification.}}

There have been numerous lynchings in relation to cow vigilante violence in India since 2014,{{cite news|title=Cowboys and Indians; Protecting India's cows|url=https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21705374-udderworldly-debate-cowboys-and-indians|newspaper=The Economist|date=August 16, 2016}} mainly involving Hindu mobs lynching Indian Muslims.{{cite news|last=Biswas|first=Soutik|title=Why stopping India's vigilante killings will not be easy|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40505719|work=BBC News|date=July 10, 2017|quote=Last month Prime Minister Narendra Modi said murder in the name of cow protection is "not acceptable." ... The recent spate of lynchings in India have disturbed many. Muslim men have been murdered by Hindu mobs, ... for allegedly storing beef.}}{{cite news|last=Kumar|first=Nikhil|title=India's Modi Speaks Out Against Cow Vigilantes After 'Beef Lynchings' Spark Nationwide Protests|url=https://time.com/4838566/india-beef-lynching-attacks-muslims/|magazine=Time|date=June 29, 2017}}{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/04/27/india-cow-protection-spurs-vigilante-violence|title=India: 'Cow Protection' Spurs Vigilante Violence|date=April 27, 2017|website=Human Rights Watch}}{{cite news|last=Chatterji|first=Saubhadra|date=May 30, 2017|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/in-the-name-of-cow-lynching-thrashing-condemnation-in-three-years-of-bjp-rule/story-vMRGhgagVaJG6l9bh884kM.html|title=In the name of cow: Lynching, thrashing, condemnation in three years of BJP rule|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=June 29, 2017}} Some notable examples of such attacks include the 2015 Dadri mob lynching,{{cite news|title=Indian mob kills man over beef eating rumour|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/indian-mob-kills-man-cow-slaughter-rumour-150930193719666.html|access-date=October 4, 2015|work=Al Jazeera|date=October 1, 2015}} the 2016 Jharkhand mob lynching,{{cite news|title=Muslim Cattle Traders Beaten To Death In Ranchi, Bodies Found Hanging From A Tree|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2016/03/19/cattle-traders-killed-ranchi_n_9504182.html|work=Huffington Post India}}{{cite news|title=Another Dadri-like incident? Two Muslims herding cattle killed in Jharkhand; five held|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/jharkhand/another-dadri-like-incident-two-muslims-herding-cattle-killed-in-jharkhand_1867361.html|work=Zee News|date=March 19, 2016|language=en}}{{cite news|title=5 held in Jharkhand killings, section 144 imposed in the area|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/5-held-in-jharkhand-killings-section-144-imposed-in-the-area-1218536.html|work=News18|date=March 19, 2016|archive-date=April 8, 2016|access-date=July 7, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408070702/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/5-held-in-jharkhand-killings-section-144-imposed-in-the-area-1218536.html|url-status=dead}} 2017 Alwar mob lynching.{{cite news|last1=Raj|first1=Suhasini|title=Hindu Cow Vigilantes in Rajasthan, India, Beat Muslim to Death|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/05/world/asia/india-cow-mob-hindu-vigilantes.html|work=The New York Times|date=April 5, 2017}}{{cite news|title=Beaten to death for being a dairy farmer|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-39511556|work=BBC News|date=April 8, 2017}} and the 2019 Jharkhand mob lynching. Mob lynching was reported for the third time in Alwar in July 2018, when a group of cow vigilantes killed a 31-year-old Muslim man named Rakbar Khan.{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cow-vigilantes-strike-in-alwar-again-kill-youth/articleshow/65086684.cms|title=Cow vigilantes strike in Alwar again, kill youth - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=July 23, 2018}}

In 2006, four members of a Dalit family were slaughtered by Kunbi caste members in khairlanji, a village in the Bhandara district of Maharashtra.{{Cite web |date=September 15, 2021 |title=Khairlanji episode: Caste divide cemented by brutality from 15 years ago |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/khairlanji-episode-caste-divide-cemented-by-brutality-from-15-years-ago-101631727662814.html |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}

In the 2015 Dimapur mob lynching, a mob in Dimapur, Nagaland, broke into a jail and lynched an accused rapist on March 5, 2015, while he was awaiting trial.{{cite news|title=Rape accused dragged out of jail, lynched in Nagaland|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rape-accused-dragged-out-of-jail-lynched-in-Nagaland/articleshow/46471326.cms|access-date=March 7, 2015|work=The Times of India|date=March 5, 2015}}

Since May 2017, when seven people were lynched in Jharkhand, India has experienced another spate of mob-related violence and killings known as the Indian WhatsApp lynchings following the spread of fake news, primarily relating to child-abduction and organ harvesting, via the WhatsApp message service.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-44709103|title=Who can stop India WhatsApp lynchings?|date=July 5, 2018|work=BBC}}

In 2018 Junior civil aviation minister of India had garlanded and honored eight men who had been convicted in the lynching of trader Alimuddin Ansari in Ramgarh in June 2017 in a case of alleged cow vigilantism.[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/union-minister-garlands-lynchers-says-honouring-the-due-process-of-law/articleshow/64902269.cms "Union minister garlands lynchers, says 'honouring the due process of law'], "The Times of India"

In June 2019, the Jharkhand mob lynching triggered widespread protests. The victim was a Muslim man named Tabrez Ansari and was forced to chant Hindu slogans, including "Jai Shri Ram".{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/25/world/asia/india-hindu-muslim-beating.html|title=Forced to Chant Hindu Slogans, Muslim Man Is Beaten to Death in India|last1=Raj|first1=Suhasini|date=June 25, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 4, 2020|last2=Nordland|first2=Rod|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48882053|title=The Hindu chant that became a murder cry|date=July 10, 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=February 4, 2020|language=en-GB}}

In July 2019, three men were beaten to death and lynched by mobs in Chhapra district of Bihar, on a minor case of theft of cattle.[https://thewire.in/rights/bihar-three-men-lynched Bihar three men lynched], The Wire, July 20, 2019

Also in 2019, villagers in Jharkhand lynched four people on witchcraft suspicion, after panchayat decided that they were practicing black magic.[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/jharkhand-lynching-4-killed-on-witchcraft-suspicion-1571830-2019-07-21 4 killed on witchcraft suspicion], India Today, July 21, 2019

In September 2024, in Hayarna, five men were members of a cow vigilante group that murdered 24-year-old Sabir Malik from West Bengal.{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/ground-reports/lynched-muslim-man-told-fellow-migrants-people-in-haryana-are-nicer-than-in-delhi/2248718/|title=Lynched Muslim man told fellow migrants people in Haryana are nicer than in Delhi|date=September 2, 2024 |publisher=the print}}{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/2024/Sep/01/five-cow-vigilantes-held-for-lynching-migrant-worker|title=Five cow vigilantes held for lynching migrant worker|date=September 2024 |publisher=Indian Express}}

{{Main|Murder of Farkhunda}}

On March 19, 2015, in Kabul, Afghanistan a large crowd beat a young woman, Farkhunda, after she was accused by a local mullah of burning a copy of the Quran, Islam's holy book. Shortly afterwards, a crowd attacked her and beat her to death. They set the young woman's body on fire on the shore of the Kabul River. Although it was unclear whether the woman had burned the Quran, police officials and the clerics in the city defended the lynching, saying that the crowd had a right to defend their faith at all costs. They warned the government against taking action against those who had participated in the lynching.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-woman-idUSKBN0MG1Z620150320 |title=Afghan cleric and others defend lynching of woman in Kabul |work=Reuters |first1=Hamid |last1=Shalizi |first2=Jessica |last2=Donati |date=March 20, 2015 |access-date=March 22, 2019 |location=Kabul}} The event was filmed and shared on social media.{{cite web |url=http://dailykhabariran.ir/news/10224 |title=در کابل دختر 27 ساله به جرم توهین به قران به طرز وحشتناکی سنگسار و سوزانده شد!+فیلم |work=dailykhabariran.ir |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325000940/http://dailykhabariran.ir/news/10224 |archive-date=March 25, 2015 |access-date=March 22, 2019}} The day after the incident six men were arrested on accusations of lynching, and Afghanistan's government promised to continue the investigation.{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/afghanistan/2015/03/150320_mar_kabul_brutal_killing_6_arrested |title=بازداشت ۶ تن به اتهام کشتن و سوزاندن یک زن در کابل |work=BBC Persian |date=March 29, 2014 |access-date=March 22, 2019 |publisher=BBC |language=fa}} On March 22, 2015, Farkhunda's burial was attended by a large crowd of Kabul residents; many demanded that she receive justice. A group of Afghan women carried her coffin, chanted slogans and demanded justice.{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/afghanistan/2015/03/150322_k05_farkhunda_ceremony_ |title=زنان کابل پیکر فرخنده را به خاک سپردند |work=BBC Persian |date=March 2, 2015 |access-date=March 22, 2019 |publisher=BBC |language=fa}}

A series of high-profile lynchings took place in Papua New Guinea in the late 1970s, in the period following independence. In September 1978, Morris Modeda, a 30-year-old man on trial for dangerous driving causing death, was lynched by a mob of 100 people near the town of Bereina. The lynching took place in front of William Prentice, the Chief Justice of Papua New Guinea, who had adjourned the trial to allow the court to view the site of the accident. Modeda was "battered to death with stones, sticks and a bushknife", while Prentice, his wife, and the court party – including barristers, court officials, witnesses and policemen – were "roughly handled but were not injured".{{cite news|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/250340211|title=Chief Justice in Ambush|newspaper=Papua New Guinea Post-Courier|date=September 13, 1978}} Another prisoner was lynched in the same month in Kainantu while being escorted from a courthouse, receiving axe wounds in the head and chest.{{cite news|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/250341605|title=Lynch mob: defendant axed outside court|newspaper=Papua New Guinea Post-Courier|date=September 22, 1978}} Days later, the police station at Banz in the Western Highlands was raided by a mob which freed 50 prisoners and bludgeoned to death a man who had been involved in a fatal car accident.{{cite news|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/250341833|title=Axed: Banz police station raid|newspaper=Papua New Guinea Post-Courier|date=September 25, 1978}}

In 1979, Prentice and his fellow Supreme Court judges delivered the Special Report on the Developing State of Lawlessness to the National Parliament of Papua New Guinea. The report called on "urgent action to end police and prison staff inefficiency, ignorance and lack of discipline" and called for further support from traditional leaders.{{cite news|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/250424976|title=Crime and punishment|newspaper=Papua New Guinea Post-Courier|date=August 28, 1979}}

• Frontier justice
• Hate crime
• Hate crime laws in the United States
• Posse
• Racism
• Racism by country
• Racism against African Americans
• Racism in the United States
• Black genocide in the United States – the notion that African Americans have been subjected to genocide throughout their history because of racism against them, an aspect of racism in the United States
• Mass racial violence in the United States
• Nadir of American race relations
• Terrorism in the United States
• Domestic terrorism in the United States
• Timeline of terrorist attacks in the United States
• Vigilantism

{{Ibid|date=April 2025}}

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{notelist}}

• Allen, James (ed.), Hilton Als, John Lewis, and Leon F. Litwack, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Twin Palms Pub: 2000), {{ISBN|0-944092-69-1}} accompanied by an [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43312471 online photographic survey of the history of lynchings in the United States]
• Arellano, Lisa, Vigilantes and Lynch Mobs: Narratives of Community and Nation. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2012.
• Bailey, Amy Kate and Stewart E. Tolnay. Lynched: The Victims of Southern Mob Violence. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
• Bakker, Laurens, Shaiel Ben-Ephraim, Nandana Dutta, Weiting Guo, Or Honig, Frank Jacob, Yogesh Raj, and Nicholas Rush Smith. Global Lynching and Collective Violence: Volume 1: Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. University of Illinois Press, 2017.
• Bancroft, H. H., Popular Tribunals (2 vols, San Francisco, 1887).
• Beck, Elwood M. and Stewart E. Tolnay. "The killing fields of the deep south: the market for cotton and the lynching of blacks, 1882–1930." American Sociological Review (1990): 526–539. [http://utminers.utep.edu/trcurry/Lynching%20article.pdf online]
• Berg, Manfred, Popular Justice: A History of Lynching in America. Ivan R. Dee, Chicago 2011, {{ISBN|978-1-56663-802-9}}.
• Bernstein, Patricia, The First Waco Horror: The Lynching of Jesse Washington and the Rise of the NAACP. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press (March 2005), hardcover, {{ISBN|1-58544-416-2}}
• Brundage, W. Fitzhugh, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press (1993), {{ISBN|0-252-06345-7}}
• {{cite book | first = Raymond | last = Caballero | title = Lynching Pascual Orozco, Mexican Revolutionary Hero and Paradox| publisher = Create Space | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1514382509 }}
• Campney, Brent MS, Amy Chazkel, Stephen P. Frank, Dean J. Kotlowski, Gema Santamaría, Ryan Shaffer, and Hannah Skoda. Global Lynching and Collective Violence: Volume 2: The Americas and Europe. University of Illinois Press, 2017.
• Carrigan, William D., and Christopher Waldrep, eds. Swift to Wrath: Lynching in Global Historical Perspective (University of Virginia Press, 2013)
• Crouch, Barry A. "A Spirit of Lawlessness: White violence, Texas Blacks, 1865–1868", Journal of Social History 18 (Winter 1984): 217–26.
• Collins, Winfield, [https://archive.org/stream/truthaboutlynchi00colluoft#page/n1/mode/2up The Truth about Lynching and the Negro in the South]. New York: The Neale Publishing Company, 1918.
• Cutler, James E., Lynch-Law: An Investigation Into the History of Lynching in the United States (New York, 1905)
• Dray, Philip, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America, New York: Random House, 2002.
• Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. 119–23.
• Finley, Keith M., Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938–1965 (Baton Rouge, LSU Press, 2008).
• Ginzburg, Ralph, 100 Years Of Lynchings, Black Classic Press (1962, 1988) softcover, {{ISBN|0-933121-18-0}}
• Hill, Karlos K. Beyond the Rope: The Impact of Lynching on Black Culture and Memory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
• Hill, Karlos K. "Black Vigilantism: The Rise and Decline of African American Lynch Mob Activity in the Mississippi and Arkansas Deltas, 1883–1923," Journal of African American History, 95 no. 1 (Winter 2010): 26–43.
• Ifill, Sherrilyn A., On the Courthouse Lawn: Confronting the Legacy of Lynching in the 21st Century. Boston: Beacon Press (2007).
• Jung, D., & Cohen, D. (2020). Lynching and Local Justice: Legitimacy and Accountability in Weak States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• NAACP, Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889–1918. New York City: Arno Press, 1919.
• Nevels, Cynthia Skove, Lynching to Belong: claiming Whiteness though racial violence, Texas A&M Press, 2007.
• Pfeifer, Michael J., editor. Global Lynching and Collective Violence : Volume 1: Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. University of Illinois Press, 2017.
• Pfeifer, Michael J., editor. Global Lynching and Collective Violence: Volume 2: The Americas and Europe. University of Illinois Press, 2017.
• Pfeifer, Michael J. (ed.), Lynching Beyond Dixie: American Mob Violence Outside the South. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2013.
• Robbins, Hollis The Literature of Lynching, [https://www.chronicle.com/article/the-literature-of-lynching/ Chronicle of Higher Education], 2015.
• Rushdy, Ashraf H. A. American Lynching (Yale UP, 2012)
• Rushdy, Ashraf H. A., The End of American Lynching. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012.
• Seguin, Charles; Rigby, David, 2019, "National Crimes: A New National Data Set of Lynchings in the United States, 1883 to 1941". Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World. 5: 1–9. doi:[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2378023119841780 10.1177/2378023119841780]
• Stagg, J. C. A., "The Problem of Klan Violence: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1868–1871," Journal of American Studies 8 (December 1974): 303–18.
• Tolnay, Stewart E. and E. M. Beck, A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882–1930, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press (1995), {{ISBN|0-252-06413-5}}
• Trelease, Allen W., White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction, Harper & Row, 1979.
• Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 1900, Mob Rule in New Orleans Robert Charles and His Fight to Death, the Story of His Life, Burning Human Beings Alive, Other Lynching Statistics [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14976 Gutenberg eBook]
• Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 1895, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in all its Phases [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14975 Gutenberg eBook]
• Wood, Amy Louise, [http://www.southernspaces.org/2009/they-never-witnessed-such-melodrama "They Never Witnessed Such a Melodrama"], Southern Spaces, April 27, 2009.
• Wood, Joe, Ugly Water, St. Louis: Lulu, 2006.
• Villanueva Jr., Nicholas. The Lynching of Mexicans in the Texas Borderlands. University of New Mexico Press, 2017
• Zangrando, Robert L. The NAACP crusade against lynching, 1909–1950 (1980).

{{Commons category|Lynchings}}

{{Wikiquote}}

{{Wiktionary}}

• [http://www.charlieseguin.com/dot_map.html Interactive map of lynchings in the United States, 1883-1941]
• Auslander, Mark, [http://southernspaces.org/2010/holding-those-who-cant-be-held-reenacting-lynching-moores-ford-georgia "Holding on to Those Who Can't be Held": Reenacting a Lynching at Moore's Ford, Georgia"], Southern Spaces, November 8, 2010.
• Quinones, Sam, [http://samquinones.com True Tales From Another Mexico: the Lynch Mob, the Popsicle Kings, Chalino and the Bronx] (University of New Mexico Press): recounts a lynching in a small Mexican town in 1998.
• {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Lynch Law |volume=17 |page=169 |first=Walter Lynwood |last=Fleming}}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927025825/http://www.dukeupress.edu/books.php3?isbn=978-0-8223-3794-2 Gonzales-Day, Ken, Lynching in the West: 1850–1935. Duke University Press, 2006.]
• [http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/M/markovitz_legacies.html Markovitz, Jonathan, Legacies of Lynching: Racial Violence and Memory. University of Minnesota Press, 2004.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617093917/http://upress.umn.edu/Books/M/markovitz_legacies.html |date=June 17, 2010 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070625053440/http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution.htm Before the Needles, Executions (and Lynchings) in America Before Lethal Injection. Details of thousands of lynchings]
• [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/rcah/html/ah_055200_lynching.htm Houghton Mifflin: The Reader's Companion to American History – Lynching]
• [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/lynching Lynching in Georgia], New Georgia Encyclopedia
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050330094930/http://academic.evergreen.edu/p/pfeiferm/Iowa.html Lynchings in the State of Iowa]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050825225119/http://www.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/african/2000/lynching.htm Lynchings in America]
• [http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/fruitholiday.html Lyrics to "Strange Fruit"] a protest song about lynching, written by Abel Meeropol and recorded by Billie Holiday
• Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry: [http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=346 Lynching in Arkansas]
• Smith, Tom. The Crescent City Lynchings: The Murder of Chief Hennessy, the New Orleans 'Mafia' Trials, and the Parish Prison Mob, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071009005147/http://www.crescentcitylynchings.com/ crescentcitylynchings.com]
• Nussio, Enzo; Clayton, Govinda (2024). "Introducing the Lynching in Latin America (LYLA) dataset". Journal of Peace Research.

{{Authority control}}

{{Lynching}}

{{Racism topics|state=collapsed}}{{Discrimination}}

Category:Attacks by method

Category:Corporal punishments

Category:Crowd psychology

Category:Extrajudicial killings by type

Category:Human rights abuses

Category:Racially motivated violence

Category:Religiously motivated violence

Category:Terrorism tactics

Category:Vigilantism