Masking (behavior)

File:Autism Aspect Masking 1.png]]

In psychology and sociology, masking, also known as social camouflaging, is a defensive behavior in which an individual conceals their natural personality or behavior in response to social pressure, abuse, or harassment. Masking can be strongly influenced by environmental factors such as authoritarian parents, social rejection, and emotional, physical, or sexual abuse.

Masking can be a behavior individuals adopt subconsciously as coping mechanisms or a trauma response, or it can be a conscious behavior an individual adopts to fit in within perceived societal norms. Masking is interconnected with maintaining performative behavior within social structures and cultures.{{Cite journal |last=Radulski |first=Elizabeth M. |date=2022 |title=Conceptualising Autistic Masking, Camouflaging, and Neurotypical Privilege: Towards a Minority Group Model of Neurodiversity |url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/524122 |journal=Human Development |language=english |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=113–127 |doi=10.1159/000524122 |s2cid=248864273 |issn=0018-716X}} Masking is mostly used to conceal a negative emotion (usually sadness, frustration, and anger) with a positive emotion or indifferent affect. Developmental studies have shown that this ability begins as early as preschool and becomes more developed with age.{{cite journal |last=Cole |first=Pamela |date=Dec 1986 |title=Children's Spontaneous Control of Facial Expression |journal=Child Development |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=1309–1321 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.1986.tb00459.x}}

The concept of masking is particularly developed in the understanding of autistic behaviour.

Masks represent an artificial face, in the "saving face" sense. Seeing life as theatre is the core of the closely-related social perspectives of dramatism, dramaturgy and performativity. Masks are a tool of impression management and stigma management, which are parts of reputation management. {{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

History

File:Tragedy and Comedy (8094737104).jpg

Masking has existed since antiquity, with authors like Shakespeare referencing it in fiction long before masking was formally defined and studied within psychology.Rippy, Marguerite Hailey, "All Our Othellos: Black Monsters and White Masks on the American Screen," Spectacular Shakespeare: Critical Theory and Popular Cinema (2002). Google Books. Accessed 3 Oct. 2022.

In the influential book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956), Erving Goffman emphasized the link between social life and performance.

Frantz Fanon is credited with defining masking in his 1957 Black Skin, White Masks, which describes masking behavior in race relations within the stratified post-war United States. Fanon explained how African-Americans, especially those of low social capital, adopted certain behaviors to resemble white people as well as other behaviors intended to please whites and reinforce the white man's higher social status.{{Cite book |last=Fanon |first=Frantz |title=Black Skin, White Masks |publisher=Grove Press |year=1967 |isbn=0802150845 |location=New York |pages=45–52}}

{{Blockquote|text=The black man has two dimensions. One with his fellows, the other with the white man. That this self-division is a direct result of colonialist subjugation is beyond question.|author=Frantz Fanon|title=Black Skins, White Masks|source=}}

The term masking was used to describe the act of concealing disgust by Paul Ekman (1972) and Wallace V Friesen (1969).{{cite journal|last=De Gere|first=Dawn|title=The face of masking: Examining central tendencies and between-person variability in display management and display rule|journal=ProQuest Dissertations and Theses|year=2008}} They thought of it as a learned behavior.

Lorna Wing proposed that females' higher levels of masking than males led to their underdiagnosing of having autism in 1981.{{Cite book |last1=Sedgewick |first1=Felicity |title=Autism and Masking: How and Why People Do It, and the Impact It Can Have |last2=Hull |first2=Laura |last3=Ellis |first3=Helen |date=2021 |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |isbn=978-1-78775-580-2 |location=London |oclc=1287133295}}{{Rp|page=20}}{{Rp|page=134}}

The Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q), which measures autistic masking, was published by Laura Hull,{{Cite web |title=Dr Laura Hull - Our People |url=https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=www.bristol.ac.uk |language=en}} Simon Baron-Cohen and others in March 2019.{{Cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=Laura |last2=Mandy |first2=William |last3=Lai |first3=Meng-Chuan |last4=Baron-Cohen |first4=Simon |author-link4=Simon Baron-Cohen |last5=Allison |first5=Carrie |last6=Smith |first6=Paula |last7=Petrides |first7=K. V. |date=2019 |orig-date=Published 25 October 2018 |title=Development and Validation of the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q) |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=819–833 |doi=10.1007/s10803-018-3792-6 |pmc=6394586 |pmid=30361940}}{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Zachary J. |date=2022 |title=Commentary: The construct validity of 'camouflaging' in autism: psychometric considerations and recommendations for future research - reflection on Lai et al. (2020) |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=118–121 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.13468 |pmc=8678389 |pmid=34145574}}

Causes

The social drivers of masking include social discrimination, cultural dominance, and violence. Elizabeth Radulski argues that masking is a cultural performance within Judith Butler's concept of performativity that helps individuals bypass cultural and structural barriers.

= Situational contexts =

The causes of masking are highly contextual and situational. Masking may disguise emotions considered socially inappropriate within a situational context, such as anger, jealousy, or rage. Individuals may mask in certain social situations, such as job interviews or dates, or around people of different cultures, identities, or ethnicities. Since different social situations require different performances, individuals often switch masks and exhibit different masking behaviors in different contexts. Code-switching, although associated more with linguistics, also refers to the process of changing one's masking behavior around different cultures in social and cultural anthropology.{{Cite book |last=Pountney, Laura & Marić, Tomislav |title=Introducing Anthropology: What Makes Us Human? |publisher=Wiley |year=2015 |isbn=9780745699783 |edition=1st}} Contextual factors including relationships with one's conversation partner, social capital (class) differences, location, and social setting are all reasons why an individual would express, suppress, or mask an emotion.{{cite web|last=Malchiodi|first=Cathy|title=The Healing Arts|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-healing-arts/201003/cool-art-therapy-intervention-8-mask-making|work=Psychology Today}}

Consequences

In the workplace, masking leads to feelings of dissonance, insincerity, job dissatisfaction, emotional and physical exhaustion, and self-reported health problems.{{cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Cynthia |author2=Neal Ashkanasy |year=2000 |title=The Emerging Role of Emotions in Work Life: An introduction |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:139850/Fisher_Ashkanasy_2001.pdf |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=123–129 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200003)21:2<123::AID-JOB33>3.0.CO;2-8}} Some have also reported experiencing somatic symptoms and harmful physiological and cognitive effects as a consequence. It can lead to burnout.

Masking can increase loneliness. In particular, some autistic individuals report that it impedes them forming real connections with other people, and many feel as if they have lost their true identity as an autistic individual, feeling as if they are only playing a role for the majority of their lives.{{Cite web |date=2018-02-21 |title=The costs of camouflaging autism |url=https://www.thetransmitter.org/spectrum/costs-camouflaging-autism/ |access-date=2024-06-30 |website=The Transmitter: Neuroscience News and Perspectives |language=en-US |doi=10.53053/znsg1811}}

Though there are many disadvantages to masking for individuals, many report the benefits masking has brought for them. Such reports stated that individuals felt as though it became easier to socialize, to uphold careers, build relationships, and even at times, were able to protect themselves.{{Cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Louise |last2=Shaw |first2=Rebecca |last3=Baron-Cohen |first3=Simon |last4=Cassidy |first4=Sarah |date=2021-12-01 |title=Autistic Adults' Experiences of Camouflaging and Its Perceived Impact on Mental Health |url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/aut.2020.0071 |journal=Autism in Adulthood |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=320–329 |doi=10.1089/aut.2020.0071 |issn=2573-9581 |pmc=8992917 |pmid=36601637}}

Gender differences

There is a gendered disparity in masking behavior; studies show women mask negative emotions to a greater extent than men. According to psychologist Teresa Davis, this may be due to the greater social expectation for conformity placed on female gender roles, causing women to develop the skill to a greater extent than men during childhood socialization.{{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Teresa |year=1995 |title=Gender Differences in Masking Negative Emotions: Ability or Motivation? |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=660–667 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.31.4.660}}

This causes autism in females to be underdiagnosed relative to males.{{Cite journal |last=Tubío-Fungueiriño |first=María |last2=Cruz |first2=Sara |last3=Sampaio |first3=Adriana |last4=Carracedo |first4=Angel |last5=Fernández-Prieto |first5=Montse |date=2021-07-01 |title=Social Camouflaging in Females with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04695-x |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=51 |issue=7 |pages=2190–2199 |doi=10.1007/s10803-020-04695-x |issn=1573-3432}}{{Cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=Amy |last2=Rose |first2=Kieran |date=2021 |title=A Conceptual Analysis of Autistic Masking: Understanding the Narrative of Stigma and the Illusion of Choice |journal=Autism in Adulthood |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=52–60 |doi=10.1089/aut.2020.0043 |pmc=8992880 |pmid=36601266}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=Laura |last2=Petrides |first2=K. V. |last3=Allison |first3=Carrie |last4=Smith |first4=Paula |last5=Baron-Cohen |first5=Simon |author-link5=Simon Baron-Cohen |last6=Lai |first6=Meng-Chuan |last7=Mandy |first7=William |date=2017 |title="Putting on My Best Normal": Social Camouflaging in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=2519–2534 |doi=10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 |pmc=5509825 |pmid=28527095 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803152545/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 |archive-date=2024-08-03 |access-date=2023-05-05}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=Laura |last2=Petrides |first2=K. V. |last3=Mandy |first3=William |date=2020 |title=The Female Autism Phenotype and Camouflaging: a Narrative Review |journal=Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=306–317 |doi=10.1007/s40489-020-00197-9 |s2cid=256402443 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite book |last=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-89042-575-6 |location=Washington, DC |doi=10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787 |s2cid=249488050}} In turn, females with unrecognised autism do not receive social allowances for this condition, increasing their motivation to mask.

Autistic masking

Autistic masking is masking applied to autistic behaviors, with the aim of suppressing them (and appearing less autistic).{{Cite journal |last1=Petrolini |first1=Valentina |last2=Rodríguez-Armendariz |first2=Ekaine |last3=Vicente |first3=Agustín |date=2023 |title=Autistic camouflaging across the spectrum |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0732118X22000629 |journal=New Ideas in Psychology |language=en |volume=68 |pages=100992 |doi=10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100992|hdl=10810/59712 |s2cid=253316582 |hdl-access=free }} It is a learned coping strategy.{{Cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=Laura |last2=Petrides |first2=K. V. |last3=Allison |first3=Carrie |last4=Smith |first4=Paula |last5=Baron-Cohen |first5=Simon |last6=Lai |first6=Meng-Chuan |last7=Mandy |first7=William |date=2017 |title="Putting on My Best Normal": Social Camouflaging in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=2519–2534 |doi=10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 |pmc=5509825 |pmid=28527095}}{{Cite journal |last=Lawson |first=Wenn B. |date=2020 |title=Adaptive Morphing and Coping with Social Threat in Autism: An Autistic Perspective |url=https://doi.org/10.6000/2292-2598.2020.08.03.29 |journal=Journal of Intellectual Disability - Diagnosis and Treatment |language=en-gb |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=519–526 |doi=10.6000/2292-2598.2020.08.03.29|s2cid=224896658 }}

Typical examples of autistic masking include the suppression of stimming and meltdowns, a common reaction to sensory overload.{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Danielle |last2=Rees |first2=Jon |last3=Pearson |first3=Amy |date=2021-12-01 |title="Masking Is Life": Experiences of Masking in Autistic and Nonautistic Adults |journal=Autism in Adulthood |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=330–338 |doi=10.1089/aut.2020.0083 |issn=2573-9581 |pmc=8992921 |pmid=36601640}} To compensate difficulties in social interaction with non-autistic peers, autistic people might maintain eye contact despite discomfort, use rehearsed conversational scripts, or mirror the body language and tone of others.{{Cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=Laura |last2=Petrides |first2=K. V. |last3=Mandy |first3=William |date=2020-12-01 |title=The Female Autism Phenotype and Camouflaging: a Narrative Review |journal=Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=306–317 |doi=10.1007/s40489-020-00197-9|s2cid=256402443 |doi-access=free }}

This masking often requires an exceptional effort.{{Cite web |title=6A02 Autism spectrum disorder. |url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/437815624 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics |quote=Some individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder are capable of functioning adequately by making an exceptional effort to compensate for their symptoms during childhood, adolescence or adulthood. Such sustained effort, which may be more typical of affected females, can have a deleterious impact on mental health and well-being.}} It is linked with adverse mental health outcomes such as stress,{{Cite journal |last=Radulski |first=Elizabeth M. |date=2022 |title=Conceptualising Autistic Masking, Camouflaging, and Neurotypical Privilege: Towards a Minority Group Model of Neurodiversity |url=https://doi.org/10.1159/000524122 |journal=Human Development |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=113–127 |doi=10.1159/000524122|s2cid=248864273 }} autistic burnout, anxiety and other psychological disorders, loss of identity, and suicidality.{{Cite journal |last1=Cassidy |first1=Sarah |last2=Bradley |first2=Louise |last3=Shaw |first3=Rebecca |last4=Baron-Cohen |first4=Simon |author-link4=Simon Baron-Cohen |date=2018 |title=Risk markers for suicidality in autistic adults |journal=Molecular Autism |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=42 |doi=10.1186/s13229-018-0226-4 |pmc=6069847 |pmid=30083306 |doi-access=free }} Some studies find that compensation strategies are seen as contributing to leading a successful and satisfactory life.{{Cite journal |last1=Livingston |first1=Lucy Anne |last2=Shah |first2=Punit |last3=Happé |first3=Francesca |author-link3=Francesca Happé |date=2019 |title=Compensatory strategies below the behavioural surface in autism: a qualitative study |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30224-x |journal=The Lancet Psychiatry |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=766–777 |doi=10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30224-x |pmc=6706698 |pmid=31350208}}

A 2021 study found masking experiences between autistic and non-autistic groups were similar, but only autistic people masked autism-specific symptoms.