Organic electronics

Traditional conductive materials are inorganic, especially metals such as copper and aluminum as well as many alloys.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In 1862 Henry Letheby described polyaniline, which was subsequently shown to be electrically conductive. Work on other polymeric organic materials began in earnest in the 1960s. For example in 1963, a derivative of tetraiodopyrrole was shown to exhibit conductivity of 1 S/cm (S = Siemens).{{cite journal |title=Electronic Conduction in Polymers. I. The Chemical Structure of Polypyrrole |first1=R. |last1=McNeill |first2=R. |last2=Siudak |first3=J. H. |last3=Wardlaw |first4=D. E. |last4=Weiss |journal=Aust. J. Chem. |year=1963 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=1056–1075 |doi=10.1071/CH9631056}} In 1977, it was discovered that oxidation enhanced the conductivity of polyacetylene. The 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa jointly for their work on polyacetylene and related conductive polymers.{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2000/ |publisher=Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media}} Many families of electrically conducting polymers have been identified including polythiophene, polyphenylene sulfide, and others.

J.E. Lilienfeld{{Cite patent|country=CA|number=272437|title= Electric current control mechanism|pubdate=1927-07-19|inventor1-last=Lilienfeld|inventor1-first=Julius Edgar}} first proposed the field-effect transistor in 1930, but the first OFET was not reported until 1987, when Koezuka et al. constructed one using Polythiophene{{cite journal |title=Field-effect transistor with polythiophene thin film |journal=Synthetic Metals |volume=18 |issue=1–3 |year=1987 |pages=699–704 |doi=10.1016/0379-6779(87)90964-7 |last1=Koezuka |first1=H. |last2=Tsumura |first2=A. |last3=Ando |first3=T.}} which shows extremely high conductivity. Other conductive polymers have been shown to act as semiconductors, and newly synthesized and characterized compounds are reported weekly in prominent research journals. Many review articles exist documenting the development of these materials.{{cite journal |type=free download |journal=Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. |volume=10 |year=2009 |page=024314 |doi=10.1088/1468-6996/10/2/024314 |pmid=27877287 |title=Organic field-effect transistors using single crystals |bibcode=2009STAdM..10b4314H |issue=2 |last1=Hasegawa |first1=Tatsuo |last2=Takeya |first2=Jun|pmc=5090444 }}{{cite journal |type=free download |journal=Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. |volume=10 |year=2009 |page=024313 |doi=10.1088/1468-6996/10/2/024313 |pmid=27877286 |title=Organic semiconductors for organic field-effect transistors |bibcode=2009STAdM..10b4313Y |issue=2 |last1=Yamashita |first1=Yoshiro|pmc=5090443 }}{{cite journal |journal=Adv. Mater. |volume=14 |year=2002 |page=99 |doi=10.1002/1521-4095(20020116)14:2<99::AID-ADMA99>3.0.CO;2-9 |title=Organic Thin Film Transistors for Large Area Electronics |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233927802 |issue=2 |last1=Dimitrakopoulos |first1=C.D. |last2=Malenfant |first2=P.R.L.|bibcode=2002AdM....14...99D }}{{cite journal |journal=Mater. Today |volume=7 |year=2004 |page=20 |doi=10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00398-0 |title=Organic thin film transistors |issue=9 |last1=Reese |first1=Colin |last2=Roberts |first2=Mark |last3=Ling |first3=Mang-Mang |last4=Bao |first4=Zhenan|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |journal=Chem. Soc. Rev. |volume=39 |year=2010 |doi=10.1039/B909902F |pmid=20396828 |title=Organic thin-film transistors |last1=Klauk |first1=Hagen |issue=7|pages=2643–66 }}

In 1987, the first organic diode was produced at Eastman Kodak by Ching W. Tang and Steven Van Slyke.{{Cite journal |doi=10.1557/mrs.2012.125 |title=Energy efficiency with organic electronics: Ching W. Tang revisits his days at Kodak |journal=MRS Bulletin |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=552–553 |year=2012 |last1=Forrest |first1=S. |bibcode=2012MRSBu..37..552F |url=http://www.mrs.org/06-2012-interview/|doi-access=free }}

In the 1950s, organic molecules were shown to exhibit electrical conductivity. Specifically, the organic compound pyrene was shown to form semiconducting charge-transfer complex salts with halogens.{{Cite journal |last=Mulliken |first=Robert S. |date=January 1950 |title=Structures of Complexes Formed by Halogen Molecules with Aromatic and with Oxygenated Solvents 1 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01157a151 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=600–608 |doi=10.1021/ja01157a151 |bibcode=1950JAChS..72..600M |issn=0002-7863}} In 1972, researchers found metallic conductivity (conductivity comparable to a metal) in the charge-transfer complex TTF-TCNQ.

André Bernanose{{cite journal |author=Bernanose, A. |author2=Comte, M. |author3=Vouaux, P. |journal=J. Chim. Phys. |year=1953 |volume=50 |pages=64–68 |title=A new method of light emission by certain organic compounds|doi=10.1051/jcp/1953500064 }}{{cite journal |author=Bernanose, A. |author2=Vouaux, P. |journal=J. Chim. Phys. |year=1953 |volume=50 |pages=261–263 |title=Organic electroluminescence type of emission|doi=10.1051/jcp/1953500261 }} was the first person to observe electroluminescence in organic materials. Ching W. Tang and Steven Van Slyke, reported fabrication of the first practical OLED device in 1987. The OLED device incorporated a double-layer structure motif composed of copper phthalocyanine and a derivative of perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride.{{cite journal |doi=10.1515/nanoph-2020-0322|doi-access=free|title=Waiting for Act 2: What lies beyond organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays for organic electronics? |year=2020 |last1=Forrest |first1=Stephen R. |journal=Nanophotonics |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=31–40 |bibcode=2020Nanop..10..322F }}

In 1990, a polymer light emitting diodes was demonstrated by Bradley, Burroughes, Friend. Moving from molecular to macromolecular materials solved the problems previously encountered with the long-term stability of the organic films and enabled high-quality films to be easily made.{{cite journal |journal=Nature |volume=347 |issue=6293 |pages=539–541 |doi=10.1038/347539a0 |date=1990 |url=http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-back/burroughes/index.html |title=Light-emitting diodes based on conjugated polymers|bibcode=1990Natur.347..539B |last1=Burroughes |first1=J. H. |last2=Bradley |first2=D. D. C. |last3=Brown |first3=A. R. |last4=Marks |first4=R. N. |last5=MacKay |first5=K. |last6=Friend |first6=R. H. |last7=Burns |first7=P. L. |last8=Holmes |first8=A. B. |s2cid=43158308 }} In the late 1990's, highly efficient electroluminescent dopants were shown to dramatically increase the light-emitting efficiency of OLEDs{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/25954|title=Highly efficient phosphorescent emission from organic electroluminescent devices |year=1998 |last1=Baldo |first1=M. A. |last2=O'Brien |first2=D. F. |last3=You |first3=Y. |last4=Shoustikov |first4=A. |last5=Sibley |first5=S. |last6=Thompson |first6=M. E. |last7=Forrest |first7=S. R. |journal=Nature |volume=395 |issue=6698 |pages=151–154 |bibcode=1998Natur.395..151B |s2cid=4393960 }} These results suggested that electroluminescent materials could displace traditional hot-filament lighting. Subsequent research developed multilayer polymers and the new field of plastic electronics and organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) research and device production grew rapidly.{{cite book |author1=National Research Council |title=The Flexible Electronics Opportunity |date=2015 |publisher=The National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-30591-4 |pages=105–6 |url=http://www.nap.edu/read/18812/chapter/7}}

File:SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg charge transfer salt, highlighting the segregated stacking. Such molecular semiconductors exhibit anisotropic electrical conductivity.{{cite journal|author1=D. Chasseau|author2=G. Comberton|author3=J. Gaultier|author4=C. Hauw|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section B|title=Réexamen de la structure du complexe hexaméthylène-tétrathiafulvalène-tétracyanoquinodiméthane|year=1978| volume=34|issue=2|page=689|doi=10.1107/S0567740878003830|doi-access=|bibcode=1978AcCrB..34..689C }}]]

Organic conductive materials can be grouped into two main classes: polymers and conductive molecular solids and salts. Polycyclic aromatic compounds such as pentacene and rubrene often form semiconducting materials when partially oxidized.

Conductive polymers are often typically intrinsically conductive or at least semiconductors. They sometimes show mechanical properties comparable to those of conventional organic polymers. Both organic synthesis and advanced dispersion techniques can be used to tune the electrical properties of conductive polymers, unlike typical inorganic conductors. Well-studied class of conductive polymers include polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polythiophenes, and polyaniline. Poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and its derivatives are electroluminescent semiconducting polymers. Poly(3-alkythiophenes) have been incorporated into prototypes of solar cells and transistors.

{{Main|OLED|AMOLED}}

An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) consists of a thin film of organic material that emits light under stimulation by an electric current. A typical OLED consists of an anode, a cathode, OLED organic material and a conductive layer.{{cite book|title=OLED Fundamentals: Materials, Devices, and Processing of Organic Light-Emitting Diodes|edition= 1|editor=Daniel J. Gaspar, Evgueni Polikarpov|year=2015|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1466515185}}

File:Br6Acrystal.png

File:Bilayer-OLED.png

OLED organic materials can be divided into two major families: small-molecule-based and polymer-based. Small molecule OLEDs (SM-OLEDs) include tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium{{cite journal |doi=10.1063/1.98799 |title=Organic electroluminescent diodes |year=1987 |last1=Tang |first1=C. W. |last2=Vanslyke |first2=S. A. |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=51 |page=913 |issue=12 |bibcode=1987ApPhL..51..913T}} fluorescent and phosphorescent dyes, and conjugated dendrimers. Fluorescent dyes can be selected according to the desired range of emission wavelengths; compounds like perylene and rubrene are often used. Devices based on small molecules are usually fabricated by thermal evaporation under vacuum. While this method enables the formation of well-controlled homogeneous film; is hampered by high cost and limited scalability.{{cite journal |doi=10.1063/1.1317547 |title=Role of CsF on electron injection into a conjugated polymer |year=2000 |last1=Piromreun |first1=Pongpun |last2=Oh |first2=Hwansool |last3=Shen |first3=Yulong |last4=Malliaras |first4=George G. |last5=Scott |first5=J. Campbell |last6=Brock |first6=Phil J. |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=77 |page=2403 |issue=15 |bibcode=2000ApPhL..77.2403P}}

{{cite journal |last=Holmes |first=Russell |author2=Erickson, N. |title=Highly efficient, single-layer organic light-emitting devices based on a graded-composition emissive layer |journal=Applied Physics Letters |date=27 August 2010 |volume=97 |issue=1 |page=083308 |bibcode=2010ApPhL..97a3308S |doi=10.1063/1.3460285 |last3=Lüssem |first3=Björn |last4=Leo |first4=Karl}} Polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs) are generally more efficient than SM-OLEDs. Common polymers used in PLEDs include derivatives of poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and polyfluorene. The emitted color is determined by the structure of the polymer. Compared to thermal evaporation, solution-based methods are more suited to creating films with large dimensions.

{{Main|Organic field-effect transistor}}

File:Rubrene.svg

An organic field-effect transistor (OFET) is a field-effect transistor utilizing organic molecules or polymers as the active semiconducting layer. A field-effect transistor (FET) is any semiconductor material that utilizes electric field to control the shape of a channel of one type of charge carrier, thereby changing its conductivity. Two major classes of FET are n-type and p-type semiconductor, classified according to the charge type carried. In the case of organic FETs (OFETs), p-type OFET compounds are generally more stable than n-type due to the susceptibility of the latter to oxidative damage.

As for OLEDs, some OFETs are molecular and some are polymer-based system. Rubrene-based OFETs show high carrier mobility of 20–40 cm²/(V·s). Another popular OFET material is Pentacene. Due to its low solubility in most organic solvents, it's difficult to fabricate thin film transistors (TFTs) from pentacene itself using conventional spin-cast or, dip coating methods, but this obstacle can be overcome by using the derivative TIPS-pentacene.

{{Main|Organic solar cell|Photovoltaics}}

File:Flexible display.jpg]]

File:Organic photovoltaic material.pdf

Organic solar cells could cut the cost of solar power compared with conventional solar-cell manufacturing.{{cite magazine |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/21574/page1/ |title=Mass Production of Plastic Solar Cells |magazine=Technology Review |author=Bullis, Kevin |date=17 October 2008}} Silicon thin-film solar cells on flexible substrates allow a significant cost reduction of large-area photovoltaics for several reasons:Koch, Christian (2002) [http://www.ipe.uni-stuttgart.de/index.php?lang=eng&pulldownID=12&ebene2ID=18&ID=3394 Niedertemperaturabscheidung von Dünnschicht-Silicium für Solarzellen auf Kunststofffolien], Doctoral Thesis, ipe.uni-stuttgart.de

1. The so-called 'roll-to-roll'-deposition on flexible sheets is much easier to realize in terms of technological effort than deposition on fragile and heavy glass sheets.
2. Transport and installation of lightweight flexible solar cells also saves cost as compared to cells on glass.

Inexpensive polymeric substrates like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polycarbonate (PC) have the potential for further cost reduction in photovoltaics. Protomorphous solar cells prove to be a promising concept for efficient and low-cost photovoltaics on cheap and flexible substrates for large-area production as well as small and mobile applications.

One advantage of printed electronics is that different electrical and electronic components can be printed on top of each other, saving space and increasing reliability and sometimes they are all transparent. One ink must not damage another, and low temperature annealing is vital if low-cost flexible materials such as paper and plastic film are to be used. There is much sophisticated engineering and chemistry involved here, with iTi, Pixdro, Asahi Kasei, Merck & Co.|Merck, BASF, HC Starck, Sunew, Hitachi Chemical, and Frontier Carbon Corporation among the leaders.{{Cite web |author=Raghu Das, IDTechEx |url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2008/09/25/44587/printed-electronics-is-it-a-niche.htm |title=Printed electronics, is it a niche? – 25 September 2008 |work=Electronics Weekly |date=25 September 2008 |access-date=14 February 2010}}

Electronic devices based on organic compounds are now widely used, with many new products under development. Sony reported the first full-color, video-rate, flexible, plastic display made purely of organic materials;[http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/News/Press/200705/07-053/index.html プラスチックフィルム上の有機TFT駆動有機ELディスプレイで世界初のフルカラー表示を実現]. sony.co.jp (in Japanese)[http://pinktentacle.com/2007/05/flexible-full-color-organic-el-display/ Flexible, full-color OLED display]. pinktentacle.com (24 June 2007). television screen based on OLED materials; biodegradable electronics based on organic compound and low-cost organic solar cell are also available.

Small molecule semiconductors are often insoluble, necessitating deposition via vacuum sublimation. Devices based on conductive polymers can be prepared by solution processing methods. Both solution processing and vacuum based methods produce amorphous and polycrystalline films with variable degree of disorder. "Wet" coating techniques require polymers to be dissolved in a volatile solvent, filtered and deposited onto a substrate. Common examples of solvent-based coating techniques include drop casting, spin-coating, doctor-blading, inkjet printing and screen printing. Spin-coating is a widely used technique for small area thin film production. It may result in a high degree of material loss. The doctor-blade technique results in a minimal material loss and was primarily developed for large area thin film production. Vacuum based thermal deposition of small molecules requires evaporation of molecules from a hot source. The molecules are then transported through vacuum onto a substrate. The process of condensing these molecules on the substrate surface results in thin film formation. Wet coating techniques can in some cases be applied to small molecules depending on their solubility.

File:BilayerElectrode.pdf

Organic semiconductor diodes convert light into electricity. Figure to the right shows five commonly used organic photovoltaic materials. Electrons in these organic molecules can be delocalized in a delocalized π orbital with a corresponding π* antibonding orbital. The difference in energy between the π orbital, or highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), and π* orbital, or lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) is called the band gap of organic photovoltaic materials. Typically, the band gap lies in the range of 1-4eV.

The difference in the band gap of organic photovoltaic materials leads to different chemical structures and forms of organic solar cells. Different forms of solar cells includes single-layer organic photovoltaic cells, bilayer organic photovoltaic cells and heterojunction photovoltaic cells. However, all three of these types of solar cells share the approach of sandwiching the organic electronic layer between two metallic conductors, typically indium tin oxide.

File:Tft.png

An organic field-effect transistor is a three terminal device (source, drain and gate). The charge carriers move between source and drain, and the gate serves to control the path's conductivity. There are mainly two types of organic field-effect transistor, based on the semiconducting layer's charge transport, namely p-type (such as dinaphtho[2,3-b:2′,3′-f]thieno[3,2-b]thiophene, DNTT),{{Cite journal |last1=Sugiyama |first1=Masahiro |last2=Jancke |first2=Sophie |last3=Uemura |first3=Takafumi |last4=Kondo |first4=Masaya |last5=Inoue |first5=Yumi |last6=Namba |first6=Naoko |last7=Araki |first7=Teppei |last8=Fukushima |first8=Takanori |last9=Sekitani |first9=Tsuyoshi |date=September 2021 |title=Mobility enhancement of DNTT and BTBT derivative organic thin-film transistors by triptycene molecule modification |journal=Organic Electronics |language=en |volume=96 |pages=106219 |doi=10.1016/j.orgel.2021.106219|doi-access=free }} and n-type (such phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester, PCBM).{{Cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=John E. |last2=Facchetti |first2=Antonio |last3=Heeney |first3=Martin |last4=Marder |first4=Seth R. |last5=Zhan |first5=Xiaowei |date=2010-09-08 |title=n-Type Organic Semiconductors in Organic Electronics |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.200903628 |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=22 |issue=34 |pages=3876–3892 |doi=10.1002/adma.200903628|pmid=20715063 |bibcode=2010AdM....22.3876A |s2cid=205235378 }} Certain organic semiconductors can also present both p-type and n-type (i.e., ambipolar) characteristics.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Yan |last2=Guo |first2=Yunlong |last3=Liu |first3=Yunqi |date=2013-10-11 |title=25th Anniversary Article: Recent Advances in n-Type and Ambipolar Organic Field-Effect Transistors |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.201302315 |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=25 |issue=38 |pages=5372–5391 |doi=10.1002/adma.201302315|pmid=24038388 |bibcode=2013AdM....25.5372Z |s2cid=6042903 }}

Such technology allows for the fabrication of large-area, flexible, low-cost electronics.{{Cite journal |last1=Di |first1=Chong-an |last2=Zhang |first2=Fengjiao |last3=Zhu |first3=Daoben |date=2013-01-18 |title=Multi-Functional Integration of Organic Field-Effect Transistors (OFETs): Advances and Perspectives |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.201201502 |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1002/adma.201201502|pmid=22865814 |bibcode=2013AdM....25..313D |s2cid=26645918 }} One of the main advantages is that being mainly a low temperature process compared to CMOS, different type of materials can be utilized. This makes them in turn great candidates for sensing.{{Cite journal |last1=Dudhe |first1=Ravishankar S. |last2=Sinha |first2=Jasmine |last3=Kumar |first3=Anil |last4=Rao |first4=V. Ramgopal |date=2010-06-30 |title=Polymer composite-based OFET sensor with improved sensitivity towards nitro based explosive vapors |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925400510003503 |journal=Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical |language=en |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=158–165 |doi=10.1016/j.snb.2010.04.022 |bibcode=2010SeAcB.148..158D |issn=0925-4005}}

{{Main|Printed electronics}}

Conductive polymers are lighter, more flexible, and less expensive than inorganic conductors. This makes them a desirable alternative in many applications. It also creates the possibility of new applications that would be impossible using copper or silicon.

Organic electronics not only includes organic semiconductors, but also organic dielectrics, conductors and light emitters.

New applications include smart windows and electronic paper. Conductive polymers are expected to play an important role in the emerging science of molecular computers.

{{portal|Electronics}}

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• Annealing
• Bioplastic
• Carbon nanotube
• Circuit deposition
• Conductive ink
• Flexible electronics
• Laminar
• Melanin
• Organic field-effect transistor (OFET)
• Organic semiconductor
• Organic light-emitting diode
• Photodetector
• Printed electronics
• Radio frequency identification
• Radio tag
• Schön scandal
• Spin coating

{{div col end}}

{{Reflist|30em

|refs=

{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/347539a0 |title=Light-emitting diodes based on conjugated polymers |year=1990 |last1=Burroughes |first1=J. H. |last2=Bradley |first2=D. D. C. |last3=Brown |first3=A. R. |last4=Marks |first4=R. N. |last5=MacKay |first5=K. |last6=Friend |first6=R. H. |last7=Burns |first7=P. L. |last8=Holmes |first8=A. B. |journal=Nature |volume=347 |page=539 |issue=6293 |bibcode=1990Natur.347..539B|s2cid=43158308 }}

{{cite journal |author=Nelson J. |journal=Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=87–95 |year=2002 |doi=10.1016/S1359-0286(02)00006-2 |title=Organic photovoltaic films |bibcode=2002COSSM...6...87N}}

{{cite book |author1=Halls J.J.M. |author2=Friend R.H. |name-list-style=amp |editor1=Archer M.D. |editor2=Hill R.D. |title=Clean electricity from photovoltaics |isbn=978-1860941610 |place=London |publisher=Imperial College Press |pages=377–445 |year=2001}}

{{cite journal |author1=Hoppe, H. |author2=Sarıçiftçi, N. S. |author-link2=Niyazi Serdar Sarıçiftçi |journal=J. Mater. Res. |volume=19 |pages=1924–1945 |year=2004 |doi=10.1557/JMR.2004.0252 |title=Organic solar cells: An overview |issue=7 |bibcode=2004JMatR..19.1924H}}

{{cite journal |author1=McGehee D.G. |author2=Topinka M.A. |name-list-style=amp |journal=Nature Materials |volume=5 |pages=675–676 |year=2006 |doi=10.1038/nmat1723 |pmid=16946723 |title=Solar cells: Pictures from the blended zone |issue=9 |bibcode=2006NatMa...5..675M|s2cid=43074502 }}

{{cite journal |doi=10.1063/1.98799 |title=Organic electroluminescent diodes |year=1987 |last1=Tang |first1=C. W. |last2=Vanslyke |first2=S. A. |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=51 |page=913 |issue=12 |bibcode=1987ApPhL..51..913T}}

}}

• Grasser, Tibor., Meller, Gregor. Baldo, Marc. (Eds.) (2010) Organic electronics Springer, Heidelberg. {{ISBN|978-3-642-04537-0}} (Print) 978-3-642-04538-7 (Online)
• {{cite journal |title=Electronic Conduction in Polymers. II. The Electrochemical Reduction of Polypyrrole at Controlled Potential |first1=B. A. |last1=Baracus |first2=D. E. |last2=Weiss |journal=Aust. J. Chem. |year=1963 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=1076–1089 |doi=10.1071/CH9631076}}
• {{cite journal |title=Electronic Conduction in Polymers. III. Electronic Properties of Polypyrrole |first1=B. A. |last1=Bolto |first2=R. |last2=McNeill |first3=D. E. |last3=Weiss |journal=Aust. J. Chem. |year=1963 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=1090–1103 |doi=10.1071/CH9631090}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Hush |first1=Noel S. |year=2003 |title=An Overview of the First Half-Century of Molecular Electronics |journal=Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1006 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1196/annals.1292.016 |pmid=14976006 |bibcode=2003NYASA1006....1H|s2cid=24968273 }}
• Electronic Processes in Organic Crystals and Polymers, 2 ed. by Martin Pope and Charles E. Swenberg, Oxford University Press (1999), {{ISBN|0-19-512963-6}}
• Handbook of Organic Electronics and Photonics (3-Volume Set) by Hari Singh Nalwa, American Scientific Publishers. (2008), {{ISBN|1-58883-095-0}}

• {{Commons category-inline}}
• [http://www.orgworld.de orgworld] – Organic Semiconductor World homepage.

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