Pandemic prevention#Technologies

{{Further|Pandemic predictions and preparations prior to COVID-19}}

{{See also|List of pandemics|Smallpox#Eradication}}

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| image1 = Studies about pandemic prevention in PubMed by year until 2019.png

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| image2 = Studies about pandemic prevention in PubMed by year, 2019–2023 (during the COVID-19 pandemic).png

| caption2 = Studies about pandemic prevention in PubMed by year until 2020 (end of 2019) and 2020–Q1-2023 (during the COVID-19 pandemic);{{cite journal |title=("pandemic prevention"[Title/Abstract]) OR ("prevent pandemic"[Title/Abstract]) - Search Results - PubMed |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%28%22pandemic+prevention%22%5BTitle%2FAbstract%5D%29+OR+%28%22prevent+pandemic%22%5BTitle%2FAbstract%5D%29 |journal=Journal of Mid-Life Health | date=2022 | pmid=36950212 |language=en | last1=Khatak | first1=S. | last2=Gupta | first2=M. | last3=Grover | first3=S. | last4=Aggarwal | first4=N. | volume=13 | issue=3 | pages=233–240 | doi=10.4103/jmh.jmh_92_22 | pmc=10025817 | doi-access=free }} multiple studies about PP are not in PudMed or have used other terminology in their abstracts; there were scientific warnings relating to PP before 1994 (since at least 1988)}}

During the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak, the SARS-CoV-1 virus was prevented from causing a pandemic of Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Rapid action by national and international health authorities such as the World Health Organization helped to slow transmission and eventually broke the chain of transmission, which ended the localized epidemics before they could become a pandemic. Human-to-human transmission of SARS may be considered eradicated, however, it could re-emerge as SARS-CoV-1 probably persists as a potential zoonotic threat in its original animal reservoir.{{cite journal | vauthors = Morens DM, Fauci AS | title = Emerging Pandemic Diseases: How We Got to COVID-19 | journal = Cell | volume = 182 | issue = 5 | pages = 1077–1092 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32846157 | pmc = 7428724 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.021 }} This warrants monitoring and reporting of suspicious cases of atypical pneumonia.{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2003/pr56/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040825184057/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2003/pr56/en/|archive-date=August 25, 2004|title=WHO | SARS outbreak contained worldwide|website=WHO|date=}} Effective isolation of patients was enough to control spread because infected individuals usually do not transmit the virus until several days after symptoms begin and are most infectious only after developing severe symptoms.{{cite web |title=SARS: How a global epidemic was stopped |url=https://iris.wpro.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665.1/5530/9290612134_eng.pdf |access-date=25 March 2020|date=}} Nevertheless several studies warned about the possible pandemic threat posed by coronaviruses.{{Cite journal |last1=Mahroum |first1=Naim |last2=Seida |first2=Imen |last3=Esirgün |first3=Serhat N. |last4=Bragazzi |first4=Nicolò L. |title=The COVID-19 pandemic - How many times were we warned before? |journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine |date=November 2022 |volume=105 |pages=8–14 |doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2022.07.009 |pmid=35864073 |pmc=9289047 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejim.2022.07.009}}{{Cite book |last1=Turinici |first1=Gabriel |last2=Danchin |first2=Antoine |chapter=The SARS Case Study: An Alarm Clock? |editor-last=Tibayrenc |editor-first=Michel |editor-link=Michel Tibayrenc |title=Encyclopedia of Infectious Diseases |date=2007 |pages=151–162 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9780470114209.ch9|isbn=978-0-471-65732-3 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00536581/file/sars_encyclopedia_turinici_danchin2007.pdf }}

In January 2022, Chinese scientists at the Wuhan University and other institutions reported in a preprint the detection of the closest MERS-CoV relative in bats to date, NeoCoV, and another virus, PDF-2180-CoV, that can efficiently use bats' ACE2 for cell entry. The study, now published in Nature found that one mutation could result in a theoretical 'MERS-CoV-2' that, like SARS-CoV-2, can use humans' ACE2 receptor. The theoretical virus could also have a high mortality burden, since MERS-CoV had a case fatality rate of around 35%.{{cite web |title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/middle-east-respiratory-syndrome-coronavirus-(mers-cov) |website=www.who.int |access-date=18 February 2022 |language=en}} This 'MERS-CoV-2' therefore represents a risk to biosafety and potential zoonotic spillover.{{cite journal | vauthors = Xiong Q, Cao L, Ma C, Tortorici MA, Liu C, Si J, Liu P, Gu M, Walls AC, Wang C, Shi L, Tong F, Huang M, Li J, Zhao C, Shen C, Chen Y, Zhao H, Lan K, Corti D, Veesler D, Wang X, Yan H | display-authors = 6 | title = Close relatives of MERS-CoV in bats use ACE2 as their functional receptors | journal = Nature | volume = 612 | issue = 7941 | pages = 748–757 | date = December 2022 | pmid = 36477529 | pmc = 9734910 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-022-05513-3 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2022Natur.612..748X }}{{cite news |title=Scientists evaluate zoonotic potential of NeoCoV, a coronavirus related to MERS-CoV |url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20220130/Scientists-evaluate-zoonotic-potential-of-NeoCoV-a-coronavirus-related-to-MERS-CoV.aspx |access-date=12 February 2022 |work=News-Medical.net |date=30 January 2022 |language=en}} The study emphasized the need for pathogen/spillover surveillance to further understand any possible threat from related viruses.{{cite news |title=Fact Check-NeoCov is not a new type of human transmissible coronavirus |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/factcheck-neocov-virus-idUSL1N2UC2MH |work=Reuters |date=1 February 2022 |language=en}} The WHO stated that further study is needed to find out "whether the virus detected in the study will pose a risk for humans".{{cite news |title=NeoCov's potential danger to humans requires further study — WHO |url=https://tass.com/society/1394163 |access-date=12 February 2022 |work=TASS}}{{additional citation needed|date=February 2023}}

On 21 May 2022, the WHO reported on the international 2022 monkeypox outbreak in non-endemic countries which involved an unprecedented number of cases detected outside of Africa.{{cite news |title=Multi-country monkeypox outbreak in non-endemic countries |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON385 |access-date=22 June 2022 |work=www.who.int |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Kozlov M | title = Monkeypox goes global: why scientists are on alert | journal = Nature | volume = 606 | issue = 7912 | pages = 15–16 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 35595996 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-022-01421-8 | s2cid = 248947652 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2022Natur.606...15K }} The first of these cases was detected on 6 May 2022.{{cite news |title=Monkeypox - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON381 |access-date=22 June 2022 |work=www.who.int |language=en}} The main method used for early containment {{see below|below}} is 'ring vaccination' – vaccinating close contacts of positive cases via already-existing vaccines alongside pre-exposure vaccination of members of the public at higher risk.{{cite magazine | vauthors = Cox D |title=Monkeypox Can Be Contained—but Time Is Running Out |url=https://www.wired.com/story/monkeypox-can-be-contained-time-running-out/ |access-date=22 June 2022 |magazine=Wired}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Titanji BK, Tegomoh B, Nematollahi S, Konomos M, Kulkarni PA | title = Monkeypox: A Contemporary Review for Healthcare Professionals | journal = Open Forum Infectious Diseases | volume = 9 | issue = 7 | pages = ofac310 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35891689 | pmc = 9307103 | doi = 10.1093/ofid/ofac310 }}

Robust, collaborating public health systems that have the capacity for active surveillance for early detection of cases and to mobilize their health care coordination capacity may be required to be able stop contagion promptly.{{cite book | author = World Bank Group |title=The World Bank Group A to Z 2015 |date=2014 |publisher=World Bank Publications |isbn=978-1-4648-0382-6 |pages=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Km1BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en}}{{cite news | vauthors = Tolliver S |title=Want to stop pandemics? Strengthen public health systems in poor countries |url=https://thehill.com/opinion/international/490690-want-to-stop-pandemics-strengthen-public-health-systems-in-poor |access-date=7 June 2020 |work=The Hill |date=3 April 2020 |language=en}} After an outbreak there is a certain window of time during which a pandemic can still be stopped by the competent authorities isolating the first infected and/or fighting the pathogen. A good global infrastructure, consequent information exchange, minimal delays due to bureaucracy and effective, targeted treatment measures can be prepared.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sterzel E |title=Pandemie-Prävention: Im Ernstfall Zeit gewinnen |trans-title=Pandemic prevention: save time in an emergency |journal=Nachrichten aus der Chemie |date=2006 |volume=54 |issue=12 |pages=1226–1227 |doi=10.1002/nadc.20060541217 |language=en |issn=1868-0054}} In 2012 it has been proposed to consider pandemic prevention as an aspect of international development in terms of health-care infrastructure and changes to the pathogen-related dynamics between humans and their environment including animals.{{cite book | vauthors = Jackson M |title=The Routledge History of Disease |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-85787-6 |pages=140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esTLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA140 |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en}} Often local authority carers or doctors in Africa, Asia or Latin America register uncommon accumulations (or clusterings) of symptoms but lack options for more detailed investigations.{{cite web |title=Pandemie-Bekämpfung Der nächste Ausbruch kommt bestimmt |trans-title=Pandemic control The next outbreak is sure to come |work=Deutschlandfunk |date=16 October 2017 |url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/pandemie-bekaempfung-der-naechste-ausbruch-kommt-bestimmt.676.de.html?dram:article_id=398358 |access-date=30 March 2020 |language=de-DE}} Scientists state that "research relevant to countries with weaker surveillance, lab facilities and health systems should be prioritized" and that "in those regions, vaccine supply routes should not rely on refrigeration, and diagnostics should be available at the point of care".{{cite journal | vauthors = Watts CH, Vallance P, Whitty CJ | title = Coronavirus: global solutions to prevent a pandemic | journal = Nature | volume = 578 | issue = 7795 | pages = 363 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 32071448 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-020-00457-y | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020Natur.578R.363W }} Two researchers have suggested that public health systems "in each country" need to be capable of detecting contagion early, diagnosing it accurately, implementing effective disease control measures, and fully collaborating with the relevant international authorities at each stage {{see below|below}}.{{cite journal |title=Promoting the Development of a Pandemic Risk Prevention and Monitoring System in Health Organizations for Post Covid-19 Restart |journal=PM World Journal |date=2021 |url=https://pmworldlibrary.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/pmwj104-Apr2021-Spezie-Bragantini-pandemic-risk-prevention-and-monitoring-system.pdf}} U.S. officials have proposed a range of reforms to international health regulations and global institutions for global health security.{{cite journal | vauthors = Blinken AJ, Becerra X | title = Strengthening Global Health Security and Reforming the International Health Regulations: Making the World Safer From Future Pandemics | journal = JAMA | volume = 326 | issue = 13 | pages = 1255–1256 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34464446 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2021.15611 | s2cid = 237373952 | doi-access = free }} The "entire architecture of the response to epidemics" may need to get adapted, evolving "from crisis response during discrete outbreaks to an integrated cycle of preparation, response and recovery" {{see below|also #International coordination}}.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bedford J, Farrar J, Ihekweazu C, Kang G, Koopmans M, Nkengasong J | title = A new twenty-first century science for effective epidemic response | journal = Nature | volume = 575 | issue = 7781 | pages = 130–136 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31695207 | pmc = 7095334 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-019-1717-y | bibcode = 2019Natur.575..130B }}

{{See also|Health information technology}}

{{Further|#Bioresearch and development regulation}}

Potential policies that support global biosafety could make use of various technologies, including but not limited to laboratory containment technologies – for example, tools could promote compliance with existing and novel biosecurity norms and standards. Proposals to increase biosafety in terms of laboratories, scientific field work and research and development-related activities include:

• limiting research on highly contagious biological agents to only trained researchers in well-protected environments and advanced biological safety systems and disposal of biohazards.
• improving physical security and educating scientists about the misuse potentials{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunger I |title=Winning the battle against emerging pathogens |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=July 2014 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=22–25 |doi=10.1177/0096340214539133 |bibcode=2014BuAtS..70d..22H |s2cid=145732199 |issn=0096-3402}}
• review processes for gain-of-function research involving enhanced potential pandemic pathogens.{{cite web |title=Debating the transparency surrounding risky pathogen research |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/hsph-in-the-news/debating-the-transparency-surrounding-risky-pathogen-research/ |language=en-us |date=30 January 2020}}{{cite news |date=August 26, 2021 |title=A science in the shadows |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/interactive/2021/a-science-in-the-shadows/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en |vauthors=Willman D, Muller M}}{{cite web |title=The Challenges of Calculating a Lab Leak Risk |url=https://undark.org/2022/06/01/scientists-challenges-calculate-risk-lab-leak/ |publisher=Undark Magazine |date=1 June 2022}} While such research can help develop vaccines and therapeutics preemptively, it requires careful risk assessment and safety protocols to minimize potential hazards.
• monitoring and strengthening laboratory protocols around the world{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Kerkhove MD, Ryan MJ, Ghebreyesus TA | title = Preparing for "Disease X" | language = EN | journal = Science | volume = 374 | issue = 6566 | pages = 377 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34643114 | doi = 10.1126/science.abm7796 | s2cid = 238746506 | bibcode = 2021Sci...374..377V }}
• Work on coronaviruses at the Wuhan Institute of Virology was carried out at biosafety level 2 with level 4 being the most secure.{{cite news |title=Inside the risky bat-virus engineering that links America to Wuhan |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/06/29/1027290/gain-of-function-risky-bat-virus-engineering-links-america-to-wuhan/ |access-date=21 February 2022 |work=MIT Technology Review |language=en|quote=Two years later, Daszak and Shi published a paper reporting how the Chinese lab had engineered different versions of WIV1 and tested their infectiousness in human cells. The paper announced that the WIV had developed its own reverse-genetics system, following the Americans' lead. It also included a troubling detail: the work, which was funded in part by the NIH grant, had been done in a BSL-2 lab."}} Level 3 containment is now recommended for SARS-CoV-2.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kaufer AM, Theis T, Lau KA, Gray JL, Rawlinson WD | title = Laboratory biosafety measures involving SARS-CoV-2 and the classification as a Risk Group 3 biological agent | journal = Pathology | volume = 52 | issue = 7 | pages = 790–795 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33070960 | pmc = 7524674 | doi = 10.1016/j.pathol.2020.09.006 }} As of 2020, the CDC and other health agencies recommended handling non-SARS non-MERS human coronaviruses and SARS-related coronaviruses from wild animals at Biosafety Level 2 in vitro and Level 3 in vivo.{{cite book | author = U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title=Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories |date=June 2020 |publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services |edition=Sixth |pages=452 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/labs/pdf/CDC-BiosafetyMicrobiologicalBiomedicalLaboratories-2020-P.pdf}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Herman P, Verlinden Y, Breyer D, Van Cleemput E, Brochier B, Sneyers M, Snacken R, Hermans P, Kerkhofs P, Liesnard C, Rombaut B | display-authors = 6 | title = Biosafety Risk Assessment of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Coronavirus and Containment Measures for the Diagnostic and Research Laboratories | journal = Applied Biosafety | date = September 2004 | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 128–142 | issn = 1535-6760 | eissn = 2470-1246 | doi = 10.1177/153567600400900303 | pmid = | s2cid = 74181037 | url = }}{{cite web | author = Public Health Agency of Canada |title=Biosafety advisory: SARS-CoV-2 (Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/biosafety-directives-advisories-notifications/sars-cov-2.html |website=www.canada.ca |access-date=3 February 2023 |date=2 November 2021}}
• According to a study of Indian BSL-2 and BSL-3 facilities, "there are no national guidelines or reference standards available in India on certification and validation of biosafety laboratories"{{cite journal |vauthors=Mourya DT, Yadav PD, Khare A, Khan AH |date=October 2017 |title=Certification & validation of biosafety level-2 & biosafety level-3 laboratories in Indian settings & common issues |journal=The Indian Journal of Medical Research |volume=146 |issue=4 |pages=459–467 |doi=10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_974_16 |doi-access=free |pmc=5819027 |pmid=29434059}}
• In a 2018 study it was suggested that there is a need "to update international laboratory biosafety guidance" "to globalize biosafety"{{cite journal | vauthors = Kojima K, Booth CM, Summermatter K, Bennett A, Heisz M, Blacksell SD, McKinney M | title = Risk-based reboot for global lab biosafety | language = EN | journal = Science | volume = 360 | issue = 6386 | pages = 260–262 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29674576 | doi = 10.1126/science.aar2231 | s2cid = 5046071 | bibcode = 2018Sci...360..260K | url = https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:48494af3-3b4d-4434-8709-5f1e9a36d112 }}
• In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic there was a "global surge in labs that handle dangerous pathogens" and as of 2022 some researchers "are concerned about [these]".{{cite journal | vauthors = Mallapaty S | title = COVID prompts global surge in labs that handle dangerous pathogens | journal = Nature | volume = 610 | issue = 7932 | pages = 428–429 | date = October 2022 | pmid = 36220900 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-022-03181-x | bibcode = 2022Natur.610..428M | doi-access = free }}
• monitoring and strengthening field work protocols around the world (such as viral sampling)
• A small survey reported that many biosafety professionals conducting field collection of potentially infectious specimens have not been formally trained on the topic.{{cite journal |vauthors=Patlovich SJ, Emery RJ, Whitehead LW, Brown EL, Flores R |title=Assessing the Biological Safety Profession's Evaluation and Control of Risks Associated with the Field Collection of Potentially Infectious Specimens |journal=Applied Biosafety |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=27–40 |date=March 2015 |pmid=29326541 |pmc=5760186 |doi=10.1177/153567601502000104}}
• There are multiple known examples of field-associated infections.{{cite web |title=FIELD BIORISK MANAGEMENT: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE BIOLOGICAL SAFETY PROFESSION |url=https://arssymposium.absa.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/2017ARS_S5_910Patlovich.pdf |access-date=6 June 2022}}
• making deadly viruses harder to engineer
• oversight of high-risk pathogen research
• measures that don't rely on relevant technological equipment and biotechnology products (as well as data and knowledge) only being available to registered scientists and all of these scientists to act responsibly may also be possible{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}
• According to one expert, the "international bioweapons community" should work towards having supply chain choke points identified and help implement robust monitoring of them, such as, for example, key input material
• One international team plans to make DNA synthesis screening available for free to countries worldwide and could establish a level of safety if regulations require that DNA synthesis companies send sequences for screening against a certified database
• Only "approximately 80 percent of DNA providers are members of the International Gene Synthesis Consortium, which screens customers and DNA order sequences to prevent the building blocks of dangerous pathogens from falling into the hands of malicious actors". Screening is "costly, time-consuming, and requires human expertise", e.g. making non-participation economically beneficial.
• Reducing risks from methods that "may enable the creation of (or expand access to) particularly dangerous engineered pathogens" may involve careful regulation.{{cite web |title=Research questions that could have a big social impact, organised by discipline |url=https://80000hours.org/articles/research-questions-by-discipline/#epidemiology-synthetic-biology-and-medicine-research-questions |website=80,000 Hours |access-date=3 February 2023}}
• Several technological local production capabilities create additional challenges
• Some companies that manufacture DNA started collaboration to limit access to dangerous genes so that only authorized laboratories can obtain DNA of "about 60" lethal germs and toxins{{cite news |title=Biologists rush to re-create the China coronavirus from its genetic code |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/02/15/844752/biologists-rush-to-re-create-the-china-coronavirus-from-its-dna-code/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=MIT Technology Review |language=en}}

Efforts of pandemic prevention and related endeavors carry risks of triggering pandemics themselves. These risk include unwitting laboratory escape and accidents such as spillovers during field interventions like wildlife virus sampling,{{cite news | vauthors = Lerner S |title=The Virus Hunters: How the Pursuit of Unknown Viruses Risks Triggering the Next Pandemic |url=https://theintercept.com/2021/12/28/covid-pandemic-virus-hunters-ecohealth-alliance-peter-daszak-wuhan/ |access-date=12 February 2022 |work=The Intercept |date=28 December 2021}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Ali Al Shehri S, Al-Sulaiman AM, Azmi S, Alshehri SS | title = Bio-safety and bio-security: A major global concern for ongoing COVID-19 pandemic | journal = Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 132–139 | date = January 2022 | pmid = 34483699 | pmc = 8404373 | doi = 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.08.060 | bibcode = 2022SJBS...29..132A }} and misuse of its results due to e.g. insecure commercial sales of required equipment and/or materials and/or data. However, not engaging in any form of sampling also carries risks, as it could leave communities unprepared for future spillover events and unaware of future potential pathogens.{{cn|date=January 2025}}

One approach to mitigate risks from pandemic prevention is to "maintain a database with hashes of deadly and dangerous sequences" which don't contain data with a potential for danger (depending on various factors) and also "can't be reverse-engineered to learn the dangerous original sequence if you don't already know it". This would theoretically enable checking sequences against a database of recorded pathogens without maintaining a database of deadly sequences. Another approach is not building such databases or not collecting dangerous sequences in the first place. A 2014 study proposed safer "alternatives to experiments with novel potential pandemic pathogens" than some of the current methods.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lipsitch M, Galvani AP | title = Ethical alternatives to experiments with novel potential pandemic pathogens | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = e1001646 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24844931 | pmc = 4028196 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001646 | doi-access = free }}

{{See also|#Viral hotspots and zoonotic genomics}}

File:Genomic signatures for predicting the zoonotic potential of novel viruses (graphical summary).png

In a 2012 study it is claimed that "new mathematical modelling, diagnostic, communications, and informatics technologies can identify and report hitherto unknown microbes in other species, and thus new risk assessment approaches are needed to identify microbes most likely to cause human disease". The study investigates challenges in moving the global pandemic strategy from response to pre-emption.{{cite journal | vauthors = Morse SS, Mazet JA, Woolhouse M, Parrish CR, Carroll D, Karesh WB, Zambrana-Torrelio C, Lipkin WI, Daszak P | display-authors = 6 | title = Prediction and prevention of the next pandemic zoonosis | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9857 | pages = 1956–1965 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23200504 | pmc = 3712877 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61684-5 }} Some scientists are screening blood samples from wildlife for new viruses.{{cite magazine | vauthors = Walsh B |title=Virus Hunter: How One Scientist Is Preventing the Next Pandemic |url=https://time.com/3782263/virus-hunter-how-one-scientist-is-preventing-the-next-pandemic |magazine=Time |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en-us}} The international Global Virome Project (GVP) aims to identify the causes of fatal new diseases before emergence in human hosts by genetically characterizing viruses found in wild animals.{{cite web | vauthors = McKie R |title=Scientists aim to stop the devastation of Zika-like pandemics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/jun/24/global-pandemic-prevented-map-animal-virus-ebola-sars-zika |website=The Observer |access-date=3 April 2020 |date=24 June 2018}} The project aims to enlist an international network of scientists to collect hundreds of thousands of viruses, map their genomes, characterize and risk-stratify them to identify which ones to pay attention to. However, some infectious disease experts have criticized the project as too broad and expensive due to limited global scientific and financial resources and because only a small percentage of the world's zoonotic viruses may cross into humans and pose a threat. They argue for prioritizing rapidly detecting diseases when they cross into humans and an improving the understanding of their mechanisms.{{cite web |title=Before the Next Pandemic, an Ambitious Push to Catalog Viruses in Wildlife |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/before-the-next-pandemic-an-ambitious-push-to-catalog-viruses-in-wildlife |website=Yale E360 |access-date=8 June 2020}} A successful prevention of a pandemic from specific viruses may also require ensuring that it does not re-emerge – for instance by sustaining itself in domestic animals.

Pathogen detection mechanisms may allow the construction of an early warning system which could make use of artificial intelligence surveillance and outbreak investigation.{{cite web | vauthors = Lu MC |title=What the world can do to halt future pandemics |url=https://www.newsday.com/opinion/coronavirus/world-future-pandemics-stop-prevent-coronavirus-covid-19-1.43923945 |website=Newsday |publisher=The Washington Post |access-date=5 June 2020 |language=en}} Edward Rubin notes that after sufficient data has been gathered artificial intelligence could be used to identify common features and develop countermeasures and vaccines against whole categories of viruses. It might be possible to predict viral evolution using machine learning.{{cite journal | vauthors = Salama MA, Hassanien AE, Mostafa A | title = The prediction of virus mutation using neural networks and rough set techniques | journal = EURASIP Journal on Bioinformatics & Systems Biology | volume = 2016 | issue = 1 | pages = 10 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27257410 | pmc = 4867776 | doi = 10.1186/s13637-016-0042-0 | doi-access = free }} In April 2020 it was reported that researchers developed a predictive algorithm which can show in visualizations how combinations of genetic mutations can make proteins highly effective or ineffective in organisms – including for viral evolution for viruses like SARS-CoV-2.{{cite news |title=Predicting the evolution of genetic mutations |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-04-evolution-genetic-mutations.html |access-date=16 May 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhou J, McCandlish DM | title = Minimum epistasis interpolation for sequence-function relationships | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 1782 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32286265 | pmc = 7156698 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-020-15512-5 | bibcode = 2020NatCo..11.1782Z | doi-access = free }} In 2021, pathogen researchers reported the development of machine learning models for genome-based early detection and prioritization of high-risk potential zoonotic viruses in animals prior to spillover to humans which could be used for virus surveillance for (i.a.) measures of "early investigation and outbreak preparedness" and, according to the study, would have been capable of predicting SARS-CoV-2 as a high-risk strain without prior knowledge of zoonotic SARS-related coronaviruses.{{cite news |title=AI may predict the next virus to jump from animals to humans |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-09-ai-virus-animals-humans.html |access-date=19 October 2021 |work=Public Library of Science |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Mollentze N, Babayan SA, Streicker DG | title = Identifying and prioritizing potential human-infecting viruses from their genome sequences | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 19 | issue = 9 | pages = e3001390 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34582436 | pmc = 8478193 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001390 | doi-access = free }}

An artificial "global immune system"-like technological system that includes pathogen detection may be able to substantially reduce the time required to take on a biothreat agent. A system of that sort would also include a network of well-trained epidemiologists who could be rapidly deployed to investigate and contain an outbreak.

Funding for the United States' PREDICT government research program that sought to identify animal pathogens that might infect humans and to prevent new pandemics was cut in 2019.{{cite news | vauthors = McNeil Jr DG |title=Scientists Were Hunting for the Next Ebola. Now the U.S. Has Cut Off Their Funding. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/25/health/predict-usaid-viruses.html |access-date=25 March 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=25 October 2019}} Funding for United States' CDC programs that trained workers in outbreak detection and strengthened laboratory and emergency response systems in countries where disease risks are greatest to stop outbreaks at the source was cut by 80% in 2018.{{cite news | vauthors = Sun LH |title=CDC to cut by 80 percent efforts to prevent global disease outbreak |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2018/02/01/cdc-to-cut-by-80-percent-efforts-to-prevent-global-disease-outbreak/ |access-date=26 March 2020 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en}}

In 2022, researchers reported the development of an ultra-high-throughput sequence alignment technology that enables searching the planetary collection of nucleic acid sequences. The open source supercomputing-based Serratus Project identified over 130,000 RNA-based viruses, including 9 coronaviruses. While such and related endeavors and data are reportedly risky themselves as of 2021, the project aims to improve pathogen surveillance, the understanding of viral evolutionary origins and enable quickly connecting strange emerging illnesses to recorded viruses.{{cite news | vauthors = Pelley L |title=Supercomputer helps Canadian researcher uncover thousands of viruses that could cause human diseases |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/supercomputer-virus-study-disease-1.6345158 |access-date=12 February 2022}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Edgar RC, Taylor B, Lin V, Altman T, Barbera P, Meleshko D, Lohr D, Novakovsky G, Buchfink B, Al-Shayeb B, Banfield JF, de la Peña M, Korobeynikov A, Chikhi R, Babaian A | display-authors = 6 | title = Petabase-scale sequence alignment catalyses viral discovery | journal = Nature | volume = 602 | issue = 7895 | pages = 142–147 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35082445 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-021-04332-2 | s2cid = 246297430 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2022Natur.602..142E }}

Despite recent advances in pandemic modeling, experts using mostly experience and intuition are still more accurate in predicting the spread of disease than strictly mathematical models.The Economist, April 4th 2020, page 14.

{{See also|Immunity (medical)|Immunomics|CRISPR gene editing#CRISPR in the treatment of infection|#Vaccination}}

In March 2020 scientists of Stanford University presented a CRISPR-based system, called PAC-MAN (Prophylactic Antiviral Crispr in huMAN cells), that can find and destroy viruses in vitro. However, they weren't able to test PAC-MAN on the actual SARS-CoV-2, use a targeting-mechanism that uses only a very limited RNA-region, haven't developed a system to deliver it into human cells and would need a lot of time until another version of it or a potential successor system might pass clinical trials. In the study published as a preprint they write that it could be used prophylactically as well as therapeutically. The CRISPR-Cas13d-based system could be agnostic to which virus it's fighting so novel viruses would only require a small change.{{cite magazine | vauthors = Levy S |title=Could Crispr Be Humanity's Next Virus Killer? |url=https://www.wired.com/story/could-crispr-be-the-next-virus-killer/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en}}{{cite bioRxiv | vauthors = Abbott TR, Dhamdhere G, Liu Y, Lin X, Goudy L, Zeng L, Chemparathy A, Chmura S, Heaton NS, Debs R, Pande T, Endy D, La Russa M, Lewis DB, Qi LS | display-authors = 6 |title=Development of CRISPR as a prophylactic strategy to combat novel coronavirus and influenza |date=14 March 2020 |biorxiv=10.1101/2020.03.13.991307}} In an editorial published in February 2020 another group of scientists claimed that they have implemented a flexible and efficient approach for targeting RNA with CRISPR-Cas13d which they have put under review and propose that the system can be used to also target SARS-CoV-2 in specific.{{cite journal | vauthors = Nguyen TM, Zhang Y, Pandolfi PP | title = Virus against virus: a potential treatment for 2019-nCov (SARS-CoV-2) and other RNA viruses | journal = Cell Research | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 189–190 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32071427 | pmc = 7054296 | doi = 10.1038/s41422-020-0290-0 }} There have also been earlier successful efforts in fighting viruses with CRISPR-based technology in human cells.{{cite web | vauthors = Lewis T |title=Scientists Program CRISPR to Fight Viruses in Human Cells |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientists-program-crispr-to-fight-viruses-in-human-cells/ |website=Scientific American |access-date=1 April 2020 |language=en |date=23 October 2019}}{{cite web |title=Combatting Viruses with RNA-Targeted CRISPR |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/daily-news/combatting-viruses-with-rna-targeted-crispr-35580 |website=The Scientist Magazine® |access-date=1 April 2020 |language=en}} In March 2020 researchers reported that they have developed a new kind of CRISPR-Cas13d screening platform for effective guide RNA design to target RNA. They used their model to predict optimized Cas13 guide RNAs for all protein-coding RNA-transcripts of the human genome's DNA. Their technology could be used in molecular biology and in medical applications such as for better targeting of virus RNA or human RNA. Targeting human RNA after it has been transcribed from DNA, rather than DNA, would allow for more temporary effects than permanent changes to human genomes. The technology is made available to researchers through an interactive website and free and open source software and is accompanied by a guide on how to create guide RNAs to target the SARS-CoV-2 RNA genome.{{cite news |title=New kind of CRISPR technology to target RNA, including RNA viruses like coronavirus |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-03-kind-crispr-technology-rna-viruses.html |access-date=3 April 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en-us}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Wessels HH, Méndez-Mancilla A, Guo X, Legut M, Daniloski Z, Sanjana NE | title = Massively parallel Cas13 screens reveal principles for guide RNA design | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 38 | issue = 6 | pages = 722–727 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32518401 | pmc = 7294996 | doi = 10.1038/s41587-020-0456-9 }}

Scientists report to be able to identify the genomic pathogen signature of all 29 different SARS-CoV-2 RNA sequences available to them using machine learning and a dataset of 5000 unique viral genomic sequences. They suggest that their approach can be used as a reliable real-time option for taxonomic classification of novel pathogens.{{cite news |title=Researchers crack COVID-19 genome signature |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-04-covid-genome-signature.html |access-date=18 May 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Randhawa GS, Soltysiak MP, El Roz H, de Souza CP, Hill KA, Kari L | title = Machine learning using intrinsic genomic signatures for rapid classification of novel pathogens: COVID-19 case study | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = e0232391 | date = 24 April 2020 | pmid = 32330208 | pmc = 7182198 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0232391 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020PLoSO..1532391R }}

File:CDC 2019-nCoV Laboratory Test Kit.jpg

{{Further|COVID-19 testing|Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic|Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections|Lockdown|Quarantine}}

Timely use and development of quick testing systems for novel virus in combination with other measures might (possibly) make it possible to end transmission lines of outbreaks before they become pandemics.{{cite journal | vauthors = Souf S |title=Recent advances in diagnostic testing for viral infections |journal=Bioscience Horizons |date=1 January 2016 |volume=9 |doi=10.1093/biohorizons/hzw010 |url=https://academic.oup.com/biohorizons/article/doi/10.1093/biohorizons/hzw010/2622464 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en|doi-access=free |pmc=7189836 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tang P, Chiu C | title = Metagenomics for the discovery of novel human viruses | journal = Future Microbiology | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 177–189 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20143943 | doi = 10.2217/fmb.09.120 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Bearinger JP, Dugan LC, Baker BR, Hall SB, Ebert K, Mioulet V, Madi M, King DP | display-authors = 6 | title = Development and initial results of a low cost, disposable, point-of-care testing device for pathogen detection | journal = IEEE Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | pages = 805–808 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21342806 | pmc = 3071014 | doi = 10.1109/TBME.2010.2089054 }}{{Additional citation needed|date=March 2020}} After an outbreak there may be a certain window of time during which a pandemic can still be prevented. A key difficulty with early detection and containment is that in the globalized and urbanized world, pathogens can spread rapidly to several regions worldwide via travel,{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee VJ, Aguilera X, Heymann D, Wilder-Smith A | title = Preparedness for emerging epidemic threats: a Lancet Infectious Diseases Commission | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–19 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31876487 | pmc = 7158988 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30674-7 }} before it may be possible to notice them and e.g. initiate contact-tracing and containment measures. Rapid communication of data for health systems to implement any public intervention measures may be important.{{cite journal | vauthors = Velavan TP, Meyer CG | title = Monkeypox 2022 outbreak: An update | journal = Tropical Medicine & International Health | volume = 27 | issue = 7 | pages = 604–605 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35633308 | doi = 10.1111/tmi.13785 | s2cid = 249128882 }} A "'One Health' global network for proactive surveillance, rapid detection, and prevention of MERS-CoV and other epidemic infectious diseases threats" has been proposed in 2016.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zumla A, Alagaili AN, Cotten M, Azhar EI | title = Infectious diseases epidemic threats and mass gatherings: refocusing global attention on the continuing spread of the Middle East Respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) | journal = BMC Medicine | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 132 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27604081 | pmc = 5015245 | doi = 10.1186/s12916-016-0686-3 | doi-access = free }}

Moreover, there are several issues with tests. For example, a high discovery-rate is important. For instance, this is the reason why no thermal scanners with a low discovery-rate were used in airports for containment during the 2009 swine flu pandemic.{{cite news |title=Pandemie-Prävention: Experten gegen Wärmescanner auf Flughäfe |trans-title=Pandemic prevention: experts against heat scanners at airports |url=https://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/pandemie-praevention-experten-gegen-waermescanner-auf-flughaefen-a-621716.html |newspaper=DER SPIEGEL |date=28 April 2009 |access-date=30 March 2020 |language=de| vauthors = Dambeck H }} Coverage may also be important. (See also: pooled COVID-19 populations testing, possibly based on CRISPR) Wastewater surveillance likely cannot replace large-scale diagnostic testing, but could "complement clinical surveillance by providing early signs of potential transmission for more active public health responses".{{cite journal | vauthors = Shah S, Gwee SX, Ng JQ, Lau N, Koh J, Pang J | title = Wastewater surveillance to infer COVID-19 transmission: A systematic review | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 804 | pages = 150060 | date = January 2022 | pmid = 34798721 | pmc = 8423771 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150060 | bibcode = 2022ScTEn.80450060S }}

Some argue that the best forms of prevention for natural nonsynthetic viruses would be stopping the viruses from spilling into humans in the first place, rather than trying to contain outbreaks.{{cite web |title=Harvard Launches International Scientific Task Force to Prevent Pandemics at the Source |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/c-change/news/preventing-pandemics-task-force/ |website=C-CHANGE {{!}} Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=6 June 2022 |date=20 May 2021}}

{{cite web |title=Preventing Pandemics at the Source |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/c-change/subtopics/preventing-pandemics-at-the-source/ |website=C-CHANGE {{!}} Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=6 June 2022 |date=30 June 2021}}

The German program InfectControl 2020 seeks to develop strategies for prevention, early recognition and control of infectious diseases.{{cite web |title=InfectControl 2020 - InfectControl 2020 |url=https://www.infectcontrol.de/de/english.html |website=www.infectcontrol.de |access-date=1 April 2020}}{{cite web |title=Hygiene durch Architektur statt Antibiotika |trans-title=Hygiene through architecture instead of antibiotics |url=https://medizin-aspekte.de/hygiene-durch-architektur-statt-antibiotika-117201/ |website=Medizin Aspekte |access-date=1 April 2020 |language=de-DE |date=1 April 2020}} In one of its projects "HyFly" partners of industry and research work on strategies to contain chains of transmission in air traffic, to establish preventive countermeasures and to create concrete recommendations for actions of airport operators and airline companies. One approach of the project is to detect infections without molecular-biological methods during passenger screening. For this researchers of the Fraunhofer-Institut for cell therapy and immunology are developing a non-invasive procedure based on ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS).{{cite web |title=Pandemie-Prävention am Flughafen |trans-title=Pandemic prevention at the airport |url=https://www.fraunhofer.de/de/presse/presseinformationen/2018/September/Pandemie-Praevention-am-Flughafen.html |website=Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft |access-date=30 March 2020 |language=de}}

Incentives for countries to report new viruses may be important for sufficiently fast detection and for avoiding cover-ups. A global treaty proposed by the E.U. could address this issue. Rapid regional, possibly also national, capacities in terms of e.g. means, mobile laboratories or diagnostics,{{cite journal | vauthors = Xing W, Wang J, Zhao C, Wang H, Bai L, Pan L, Li H, Wang H, Zhang Z, Lu Y, Chen X, Shan S, Wang D, Pan Y, Weng D, Zhou X, Huang R, He J, Jin R, Li W, Shang H, Zhong N, Cheng J | display-authors = 6 | title = A Highly Automated Mobile Laboratory for On-site Molecular Diagnostics in the COVID-19 Pandemic | journal = Clinical Chemistry | volume = 67 | issue = 4 | pages = 672–683 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33788940 | pmc = 8083610 | doi = 10.1093/clinchem/hvab027 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Fall C, Cappuyns A, Faye O, Pauwels S, Fall G, Dia N, Diagne MM, Diagne CT, Niang M, Mbengue A, Faye M, Dieng I, Gningue B, Bousso A, Faye O, Pauwels R, Sall AA | display-authors = 6 | title = Field evaluation of a mobile biosafety laboratory in Senegal to strengthen rapid disease outbreak response and monitoring | journal = African Journal of Laboratory Medicine | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 1041 | date = 2020 | pmid = 32934915 | pmc = 7479379 | doi = 10.4102/ajlm.v9i2.1041 }} personnel, technologies, financial insurances and coordination may also be important.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

In cases where vaccines already exist a major method for early containment is 'ring vaccination' – vaccinating close contacts of positive cases (and/or geographical areas) via existing vaccines as well as pre-exposure vaccination of people at higher risk. There are also precautionary vaccine stockpiles.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yen C, Hyde TB, Costa AJ, Fernandez K, Tam JS, Hugonnet S, Huvos AM, Duclos P, Dietz VJ, Burkholder BT | display-authors = 6 | title = The development of global vaccine stockpiles | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 340–347 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25661473 | pmc = 4712379 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70999-5 }} Production capacities may also be important.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kis Z, Kontoravdi C, Dey AK, Shattock R, Shah N | title = Rapid development and deployment of high-volume vaccines for pandemic response | journal = Journal of Advanced Manufacturing and Processing | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = e10060 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 33977274 | pmc = 7361221 | doi = 10.1002/amp2.10060 }}{{additional citation needed|date=August 2022}} See also: vaccine-to-variant adjustment for SARS-CoV-2 Omicron

Researchers have developed a portable virus capture device, coupled with label-free Raman spectroscopy for identification of newly emerging or circulating viruses as a major first step toward managing the public health response to potential outbreaks. It could rapidly obtain the Raman signature of a virus and use machine learning to recognize the virus based on its weighted combination Raman spectrum fingerprint, being able to distinguish between influenza virus type A versus type B.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ye J, Yeh YT, Xue Y, Wang Z, Zhang N, Liu H, Zhang K, Ricker R, Yu Z, Roder A, Perea Lopez N, Organtini L, Greene W, Hafenstein S, Lu H, Ghedin E, Terrones M, Huang S, Huang SX | display-authors = 6 | title = Accurate virus identification with interpretable Raman signatures by machine learning | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 119 | issue = 23 | pages = e2118836119 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 35653572 | pmc = 9191668 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.2118836119 | doi-access = free | arxiv = 2206.02788 | bibcode = 2022PNAS..11918836Y }}

{{Further|Disease surveillance|Public health surveillance|Biosurveillance|#Testing and containment|#Pathogen detection and prediction}}

Monitoring people who are exposed to animals in viral hotspots – including via virus monitoring stations – can register viruses at the moment they enter human populations - this might enable prevention of pandemics.{{cite web | vauthors = Wolfe N |title=Opinion {{!}} How to Prevent a Pandemic |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/30/opinion/30wolfe.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=25 March 2020 |date=29 April 2009}} The most important transmission pathways often vary per underlying driver of emerging infectious diseases such as the vector-borne pathway and direct animal contact for land-use change – the leading driver for emerging zoonoses by number of emergence events as defined by Jones et al. (2008).{{cite journal | vauthors = Loh EH, Zambrana-Torrelio C, Olival KJ, Bogich TL, Johnson CK, Mazet JA, Karesh W, Daszak P | display-authors = 6 | title = Targeting Transmission Pathways for Emerging Zoonotic Disease Surveillance and Control | journal = Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = 432–437 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26186515 | pmc = 4507309 | doi = 10.1089/vbz.2013.1563 }} 75% of the reviewed 1415 species of infectious organisms known to be pathogenic to humans account for zoonoses by 2001.{{cite journal | vauthors = Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME | title = Risk factors for human disease emergence | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 356 | issue = 1411 | pages = 983–989 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11516376 | pmc = 1088493 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2001.0888 }} Genomics could be used to precisely monitor virus evolution and transmission in real time across large, diverse populations by combining pathogen genomics with data about host genetics and about the unique transcriptional signature of infection.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rasmussen AL, Katze MG | title = Genomic Signatures of Emerging Viruses: A New Era of Systems Epidemiology | journal = Cell Host & Microbe | volume = 19 | issue = 5 | pages = 611–618 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 27173929 | pmc = 7104983 | doi = 10.1016/j.chom.2016.04.016 | doi-access = free }} The "Surveillance, Outbreak Response Management and Analysis System" (SORMAS) of the German Helmholtz-Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (HZI) and Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), who collaborate with Nigerian researchers, gathers and analyzes data during an outbreak, detects potential threats and allows to initiate protective measures early. It's meant specifically for poorer regions and has been used for the fight against a monkeypox outbreak in Nigeria.{{cite web |title=Pandemie-Prävention in Nigeria |url=https://www.umweltdialog.de/de/wirtschaft/Innovation-Forschung/2017/Pandaemie-Praevention-in-Nigeria.php |website=www.umweltdialog.de |access-date=30 March 2020}}{{cite web |title=Official Website of SORMAS |url=https://sormasorg.helmholtz-hzi.de/ |website=sormasorg.helmholtz-hzi.de |access-date=30 March 2020}}

Improving "frontline healthcare provision and testing capacity for deprived communities around the world" could enable detecting, identifying and controlling outbreaks without delays {{see above|above}}.{{cite web | vauthors = Lawler D, Tourne I |title=The age of outbreaks: Experts warn of more animal disease threats |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-06-age-outbreaks-experts-animal-disease.html |website=medicalxpress.com |access-date=10 July 2022 |language=en}}

Expert on infectious diseases at the Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, Amesh Adalja states that the most immediate way to predict a pandemic is with deeper surveillance of symptoms that fit the virus' profile. The scientific and technological ways of quickly detecting a spillover could be improved so that an outbreak can be isolated before it becomes an epidemic or pandemic. David Quammen states that he heard about the idea to develop technology to screen people at airport security points for whether or not they carry an infectious disease ten years ago and thought it was going to be done by now. Thermometers whose measurement data is directly shared via the Internet and medical guidance apps have been used to plot and map unusual fever levels to detect anomalous outbreaks.{{cite news | vauthors = Sharma S |title=We need an early-warning system to prevent pandemics like Covid-19: Inder Singh |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/interviews/we-need-an-early-warning-system-to-prevent-pandemics-like-covid-19-inder-singh/articleshow/75687552.cms |website=The Economic Times |access-date=12 August 2021}} Various forms of data-sharing could be added to health care institutions such as hospitals so that e.g. anonymized data about symptoms and incidences found to be unusual or characteristic of a pandemic threat could enable high-resolution "syndromic surveillance" as an early warning system. In 1947, the World Health Organization established such a global network of some hospitals.{{cite web | vauthors = Miller M |title=The next pandemic is already happening – targeted disease surveillance can help prevent it |url=https://theconversation.com/the-next-pandemic-is-already-happening-targeted-disease-surveillance-can-help-prevent-it-160429 |website=The Conversation |date=June 2021 |access-date=12 August 2021 |language=en}}{{cite web |title=Syndromic Surveillance and Bioterrorism-related Epidemics |url=https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/462206_2 |website=Medscape |access-date=12 August 2021 |language=en}} Such sharing and off-site evaluation of symptoms and possibly related medical data may have complementary benefits such as improving livelihoods of workers who work with livestock{{cite web |title=Syndromic e-surveillance: averting livestock disease outbreaks, improving livelihoods |url=https://www.ilri.org/news/syndromic-e-surveillance-averting-livestock-disease-outbreaks-improving-livelihoods |website=International Livestock Research Institute |access-date=12 August 2021 |language=en |date=2 August 2021}} and improving the accuracy, timeliness and costs of disease prognoses.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} The WHO Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence is an early-warning center that attempts to aggregate data and quickly analyze it to predict, prevent, detect, prepare for, and respond to outbreaks and was set up Berlin in September 2021. It uses machine learning and may analyze data about animal health, unusual symptoms in humans, migration and other related developments that may contain detectable patterns.{{cite news | work = Süddeutsche Zeitung|title=WHO-Frühwarnzentrum für Pandemien in Berlin eingeweiht |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/gesundheit/gesundheit-who-fruehwarnzentrum-fuer-pandemien-in-berlin-eingeweiht-dpa.urn-newsml-dpa-com-20090101-210901-99-52810 |access-date=6 June 2022 |language=de |quote=Das Zentrum soll unter anderem mithilfe von künstlicher Intelligenz Unmengen von Daten analysieren. Dabei geht es etwa um Tiergesundheit, ungewöhnliche Krankheiten bei Menschen, Verhaltensänderungen der Menschen, Klimawandelfolgen oder Bevölkerungsverschiebungen. So sollen Muster früh erkannt werden. Es soll Modelle entwickeln, damit Risiken frühzeitig erkannt und besser eingeschätzt werden können.}}{{cite news |title=WHO to set up pandemic early warning center in Germany {{!}} DW {{!}} 05.05.2021 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/who-to-set-up-pandemic-early-warning-center-in-germany/a-57438194 |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=Deutsche Welle (www.dw.com)}}

{{See also|#Pathogen detection and prediction|#Viral hotspots and zoonotic genomics}}

File:Biology of SARS-CoV-2 – Evolution and Mutations.webm.]]

File:Omicron SARS-CoV-2 radial distance tree 2021-Dec-01.svg of SARS-CoV-2 depicted in a tree scaled radially by genetic distance, derived from Nextstrain on 1 December 2021]]

In December 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, national and international officials reported mutated variants of SARS-CoV-2, including some with higher transmissibility and worldwide spread. While mutations are common for viruses and the spread of some of the virus' mutations have been tracked earlier, mutations that make it more transmittable or severe can be problematic. Resources for disease surveillance have improved during the pandemic so that medical systems around the world are starting to be equipped to detect such mutations with genomic surveillance in a manner relevant to pandemic mitigation and the prevention of sub-pandemics of specific variants or types of variants. As of December 2020, contemporary measures such as COVID-19 vaccines and medications seem to be effective in the treatment of infections with the tracked mutated variants compared to earlier forms that are closer to the original virus/es.{{cite news | vauthors = Zimmer C, Carey B |title=The U.K. Coronavirus Variant: What We Know |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/21/health/new-covid-strain-uk.html |access-date=16 January 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=21 December 2020}}{{cite web |title=WHO {{!}} SARS-CoV-2 Variants |url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/31-december-2020-sars-cov2-variants/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231181601/https://www.who.int/csr/don/31-december-2020-sars-cov2-variants/en/ |archive-date=December 31, 2020 |website=WHO |access-date=16 January 2021}}{{cite news |title=Update On Covid-19 (18th December 2020) - SA Corona Virus Online Portal |url=https://sacoronavirus.co.za/2020/12/18/update-on-covid-19-18th-december-2020/ |access-date=16 January 2021 |work=SA Corona Virus Online Portal |language=en-ZA}}{{cite web | vauthors = Carlson AM, Nicholas HB |title=The unlikely prospect of a COVID-19 variant that outsmarts vaccines 'keeps me up at night,' CDC Director Rochelle Walensky says in The EIC Interview |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/cdc-head-covid-escape-variant-keeps-me-up-at-night-2021-8 |website=Business Insider |access-date=12 August 2021}} Tools used in the pandemized outbreak of COVID-19 included PANGOLIN{{cite journal | vauthors = Hirotsu Y, Omata M | title = SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.7 lineage rapidly spreads and replaces R.1 lineage in Japan: Serial and stationary observation in a community | journal = Infection, Genetics and Evolution | volume = 95 | pages = 105088 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34560289 | pmc = 8454025 | doi = 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.105088 | bibcode = 2021InfGE..9505088H }} and Nextstrain.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mercatelli D, Holding AN, Giorgi FM | title = Web tools to fight pandemics: the COVID-19 experience | journal = Briefings in Bioinformatics | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 690–700 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33057582 | pmc = 7665357 | doi = 10.1093/bib/bbaa261 | quote = The architecture of Nextstrain is well designed and responds to the need for a continual surveillance to prevent uncontrolled outbreaks. }}{{relevance inline|date=June 2022}} In July 2021, scientists reported the detection of anomalous unnamed unknown-host SARS-CoV-2 lineages via wastewater surveillance.{{cite news |title=Detecting novel SARS-CoV-2 variants in New York City wastewater |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-02-sars-cov-variants-york-city-wastewater.html |access-date=10 March 2022 |work=University of Missouri |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Smyth DS, Trujillo M, Gregory DA, Cheung K, Gao A, Graham M, Guan Y, Guldenpfennig C, Hoxie I, Kannoly S, Kubota N, Lyddon TD, Markman M, Rushford C, San KM, Sompanya G, Spagnolo F, Suarez R, Teixeiro E, Daniels M, Johnson MC, Dennehy JJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Tracking cryptic SARS-CoV-2 lineages detected in NYC wastewater | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 635 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35115523 | pmc = 8813986 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-022-28246-3 | bibcode = 2022NatCo..13..635S }}

Genomic surveillance refers to monitoring pathogens and analyzing their genetic similarities and differences, which may enable (early) alerts and tailoring interventions, countermeasures and recommendations for the public, like vaccines.{{cite web |title=WHO global genomic surveillance strategy for pathogens with pandemic and epidemic potential 2022-2032 |url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/genomic-surveillance-strategy |website=www.who.int |access-date=6 June 2022 |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Inzaule SC, Tessema SK, Kebede Y, Ogwell Ouma AE, Nkengasong JN | title = Genomic-informed pathogen surveillance in Africa: opportunities and challenges | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 21 | issue = 9 | pages = e281–e289 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 33587898 | pmc = 7906676 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30939-7 }} In terms of pandemic prevention, it may be especially useful for vaccine-preventable diseases. A problem with the surveillance for mutated variants during the COVID-19 pandemic was that entities don't have sufficient incentives (and/or requirements) to report such variants. A global treaty proposed by the E.U. includes such incentives. A further issue was that vaccines did not provide a high enduring protection against the variants. One approach to solve this problem are pan-virus vaccines that protect against many strains (in this case a pan-SARS-CoV-2-like/variant-coronavirus vaccine), possibly including variants that do not yet exist.{{cite news |title='This May Not Be The Big One': Army Scientists Warn of Deadlier Pandemics to Come |url=https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2021/06/may-not-be-big-one-army-scientists-warn-deadlier-pandemics-come/174853/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=Defense One |language=en}}

{{See also|Science policy|Funding of science|Evidence-based policy|Labour shortage|Risk management|Strategic planning}}

A 2014 analysis asserts that "the window of opportunity to deal with pandemics as a global community is within the next 27 years. Pandemic prevention therefore should be a critical health policy issue for the current generation of scientists and policymakers to address.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pike J, Bogich T, Elwood S, Finnoff DC, Daszak P | title = Economic optimization of a global strategy to address the pandemic threat | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 111 | issue = 52 | pages = 18519–18523 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25512538 | pmc = 4284561 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1412661112 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PNAS..11118519P }} A 2007 study warns that "the presence of a large reservoir of SARS-CoV-like viruses in horseshoe bats, together with the culture of eating exotic mammals in southern China, is a time bomb. The possibility of the reemergence of SARS and other novel viruses from animals or laboratories and therefore the need for preparedness should not be ignored".{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheng VC, Lau SK, Woo PC, Yuen KY | title = Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 660–694 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17934078 | pmc = 2176051 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00023-07 | doi-access = free }} The US' National Security Council Directorate for Global Health Security and Biodefense, which worked on preparing for the next disease outbreak and preventing it from becoming an epidemic or pandemic, was closed in 2018.{{cite news | vauthors = Cameron B |title=Perspective {{!}} I ran the White House pandemic office. Trump closed it. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/nsc-pandemic-office-trump-closed/2020/03/13/a70de09c-6491-11ea-acca-80c22bbee96f_story.html |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=1 April 2020 |language=en}} A study concluded that the three practical actions "better surveillance of pathogen spillover and development of global databases of virus genomics and serology, better management of wildlife trade, and substantial reduction of deforestation" would have a highly favorable cost-benefit ratio.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bernstein AS, Ando AW, Loch-Temzelides T, Vale MM, Li BV, Li H, Busch J, Chapman CA, Kinnaird M, Nowak K, Castro MC, Zambrana-Torrelio C, Ahumada JA, Xiao L, Roehrdanz P, Kaufman L, Hannah L, Daszak P, Pimm SL, Dobson AP | display-authors = 6 | title = The costs and benefits of primary prevention of zoonotic pandemics | journal = Science Advances | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = eabl4183 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35119921 | pmc = 8816336 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.abl4183 | bibcode = 2022SciA....8.4183B }} A second study affirms that if policy priorities were refocused from disease control to prevention, implementing such proactive actions would "cost a very small fraction of the reconstruction budgets".

Some experts link pandemic prevention with environmental policy and caution that environmental destruction as well as climate change drives wildlife to live close to people.{{cite web | vauthors = Vidal J |title='Tip of the iceberg': is our destruction of nature responsible for Covid-19? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/18/tip-of-the-iceberg-is-our-destruction-of-nature-responsible-for-covid-19-aoe |website=The Guardian |access-date=28 March 2020 |date=18 March 2020}}

{{Main|Effects of climate change on human health#Zoonotic diseases}}

The WHO projects that climate change will also affect infectious disease occurrence.{{cite web |title=WHO {{!}} Climate change and human health - risks and responses. Summary. |url=https://www.who.int/globalchange/summary/en/index5.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223121212/http://www.who.int/globalchange/summary/en/index5.html |archive-date=December 23, 2009 |website=WHO |access-date=27 March 2020}} It is projected that interspecies viral sharing, that can lead to novel viral spillovers, will increase due to ongoing climate change-caused geographic range-shifts of mammals (most importantly bats). Risk hotspots would mainly be located at "high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa".{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlson CJ, Albery GF, Merow C, Trisos CH, Zipfel CM, Eskew EA, Olival KJ, Ross N, Bansal S | display-authors = 6 | title = Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk | journal = Nature | volume = 607 | issue = 7919 | pages = 555–562 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35483403 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w | s2cid = 248430532 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2022Natur.607..555C | biorxiv = 10.1101/2020.01.24.918755 }}

• News article: {{cite news | vauthors = Zimmer C |title=Climate Change Will Accelerate Viral Spillovers, Study Finds |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/28/science/climate-change-virus-spillover.html |access-date=13 May 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=28 April 2022}} A 2016 study reviews literature on the evidences for the impact of climate change on human infectious disease, suggests a number of proactive measures for controlling health impacts of climate change and finds that climate change impacts human infectious disease via alterations to pathogen, host and transmission.{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu X, Lu Y, Zhou S, Chen L, Xu B | title = Impact of climate change on human infectious diseases: Empirical evidence and human adaptation | journal = Environment International | volume = 86 | pages = 14–23 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26479830 | doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2015.09.007 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2016EnInt..86...14W }}

Another way climate change may affect pandemic risks, is by pathogens in thawing permafrost (e.g. in the Arctic) that may have infected now-extinct ancestral humans in such regions.{{cite news |title=Could ancient viruses from melting permafrost cause the next pandemic? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25333743-200-could-ancient-viruses-from-melting-permafrost-cause-the-next-pandemic/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=New Scientist}} However, a scientist concluded that probably permafrost per se shouldn't host more pathogens than any other environment.{{cite news |title=Biggest-ever virus revived from Stone Age permafrost |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25151-biggest-ever-virus-revived-from-stone-age-permafrost/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=New Scientist}} Nevertheless, the risk from permafrost pathogens is unknown and viruses from the very first humans to populate the Arctic could emerge.{{cite news |title=BBC Earth {{!}} Home |url=http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20170504-there-are-diseases-hidden-in-ice-and-they-are-waking-up |access-date=6 June 2022 |language=en}} Moreover, researchers have suggested more work on microbes soon to be released from melting glaciers across the world to identify and understand potential threats in advance.{{cite news | vauthors = Yirka B |title=Bacteria species found in glacial ice could pose disease risk as glaciers melt from global warming |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-06-bacteria-species-glacial-ice-pose.html |access-date=15 July 2022 |work=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu Y, Ji M, Yu T, Zaugg J, Anesio AM, Zhang Z, Hu S, Hugenholtz P, Liu K, Liu P, Chen Y, Luo Y, Yao T | display-authors = 6 | title = A genome and gene catalog of glacier microbiomes | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 40 | issue = 9 | pages = 1341–1348 | date = September 2022 | pmid = 35760913 | doi = 10.1038/s41587-022-01367-2 | s2cid = 250091380 }}

File:One-Health-Triad-en.png

Studies have shown that the risk of disease outbreaks can increase substantially after forests are cleared.{{cite web |title=How Forest Loss Is Leading To a Rise in Human Disease |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/how_forest_loss_is_leading_to_a_rise_in_human_disease_malaria_zika_climate_change |website=Yale E360 |access-date=27 March 2020}}{{cite web |title=Deforestation is leading to more infectious diseases in humans |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/11/deforestation-leading-to-more-infectious-diseases-in-humans/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191124025849/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/11/deforestation-leading-to-more-infectious-diseases-in-humans/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 24, 2019 |website=Science |access-date=27 March 2020 |language=en |date=22 November 2019}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Olivero J, Fa JE, Real R, Márquez AL, Farfán MA, Vargas JM, Gaveau D, Salim MA, Park D, Suter J, King S, Leendertz SA, Sheil D, Nasi R | display-authors = 6 | title = Recent loss of closed forests is associated with Ebola virus disease outbreaks | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 14291 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 29085050 | pmc = 5662765 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-14727-9 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2017NatSR...714291O }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Sehgal RN | title = Deforestation and avian infectious diseases | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 213 | issue = 6 | pages = 955–960 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20190120 | pmc = 2829318 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.037663 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2010JExpB.213..955S }} The likelihood of human-nonhuman primates contact events is increased jointly by forest landscape fragmentation and certain smallholders' behaviors in forest patches.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bloomfield LS, McIntosh TL, Lambin EF |title=Habitat fragmentation, livelihood behaviors, and contact between people and nonhuman primates in Africa |journal=Landscape Ecology |date=1 April 2020 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=985–1000 |doi=10.1007/s10980-020-00995-w |s2cid=214731443 |language=en |issn=1572-9761|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020LaEco..35..985B |hdl=2078.1/243632 |hdl-access=free }} A study identified the mechanistic connections among habitat loss, climate, and increased bat virus spillover risk.{{cite journal | vauthors = Eby P, Peel AJ, Hoegh A, Madden W, Giles JR, Hudson PJ, Plowright RK | title = Pathogen spillover driven by rapid changes in bat ecology | journal = Nature | volume = 613 | issue = 7943 | pages = 340–344 | date = January 2023 | pmid = 36384167 | pmc = 9768785 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-022-05506-2 | bibcode = 2023Natur.613..340E }} Loss of biodiversity may remove natural regulation of viruses and make fleeing animals meet other species for the first time. According to Kate Jones, chair of ecology and biodiversity at University College London, the disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanisation and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before, resulting in transmission of diseases from wildlife to humans.{{Cite news| vauthors = Vidal J | date=2020-03-18|title='Tip of the iceberg': is our destruction of nature responsible for Covid-19?|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/18/tip-of-the-iceberg-is-our-destruction-of-nature-responsible-for-covid-19-aoe|access-date=2020-11-10|issn=0261-3077}} An August 2020 study published in Nature concludes that the anthropogenic destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, who are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics.{{Cite web|date=2020-08-05|title=Deadly diseases from wildlife thrive when nature is destroyed, study finds|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/aug/05/deadly-diseases-from-wildlife-thrive-when-nature-is-destroyed-study-finds|access-date=2020-11-10|website=The Guardian|language=en}} In October 2020, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services published its report on the 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields, and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of biodiversity is paving the way to the pandemic era, and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, palm oil, and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by a growing human population. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment."{{Cite web| vauthors = Fisher JL, Woolaston K |title=UN report says up to 850,000 animal viruses could be caught by humans, unless we protect nature|url=http://theconversation.com/un-report-says-up-to-850-000-animal-viruses-could-be-caught-by-humans-unless-we-protect-nature-148911|access-date=2020-11-10|website=The Conversation|date=29 October 2020 |language=en}}

Stanford biological anthropologist James Holland Jones notes that humanity has "engineer[ed] a world where emerging infectious diseases are both more likely and more likely to be consequential", referring to the modern world's prevalent highly mobile lifestyles, increasingly dense cities, various kinds of human interactions with wildlife and alterations of the natural world.{{cite web |title=Stanford: How Humanity Has 'Engineered a World Ripe for Pandemics' |url=https://scitechdaily.com/stanford-how-humanity-has-engineered-a-world-ripe-for-pandemics/ |website=SciTechDaily |access-date=3 April 2020 |date=28 March 2020}} Furthermore, when multiple species that are not usually next to each other are driven to live closely together new diseases may emerge.{{cite web |title=To prevent pandemics, bridging the human and animal health divide |url=https://www.salon.com/2020/05/31/to-prevent-pandemics-bridging-the-human-and-animal-health-divide_partner/ |website=Salon |access-date=8 June 2020 |language=en |date=1 June 2020}} Research shows that abundant animals, plants, insects, and microbes living in complex, mature ecosystems can limit the spread of disease from animals to people.[https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(17)30010-4/fulltext Biodiversity loss and the ecology of infectious disease] The United Nations is formulating nature-focused action plans that could help to stop the next pandemic before it starts. These strategies include conserving ecosystems and wilderness that are still untouched by human activity, and restoring and protecting significant areas of land and ocean (i.e. through protected areas).[https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/seychelles-conservation-nature-coronavirus-pandemics/ The best way to avoid future pandemics? Protect the natural world]{{additional citation needed|date=June 2020}} Protected areas (which may hold wildlife) also limits human presence and/or limits the exploitation of resources (including non-timber forest products such as game animals, fur-bearers, ...).{{Cite journal |last1=Lele |first1=Sharachchandra |last2=Wilshusen |first2=Peter |last3=Brockington |first3=Dan |last4=Seidler |first4=Reinmar |last5=Bawa |first5=Kamaljit |date=2010 |title=Beyond exclusion: alternative approaches to biodiversity conservation in the developing tropics |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S187734351000014X |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1–2 |pages=94–100 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2010.03.006|bibcode=2010COES....2...94L |url-access=subscription }} An article by the World Economic Forum states that studies have shown that deforestation and loss of wildlife cause increases in infectious diseases and concludes that the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic should be linked to nature recovery, which it considers economically beneficial.{{cite web |title=COVID-19 and nature are linked. So should be the recovery. |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/covid-19-nature-deforestation-recovery/ |website=World Economic Forum |date=14 April 2020 |access-date=5 June 2020 |language=en}}

Dennis Caroll of the Global Virome Project stated that the "extractive industry — oil and gas and minerals, and the expansion of agriculture, especially cattle" are the biggest predictors of where spillovers can be seen. A study proposes that policy responses "addressing zoonotic threats should include ecosystem regeneration".{{cite journal | vauthors = Everard M, Johnston P, Santillo D, Staddon C | title = The role of ecosystems in mitigation and management of Covid-19 and other zoonoses | journal = Environmental Science & Policy | volume = 111 | pages = 7–17 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32501392 | pmc = 7247996 | doi = 10.1016/j.envsci.2020.05.017 | bibcode = 2020ESPol.111....7E }}

In the 2000s, a WHO spokesperson summarized the animal-related aspects of pandemics, stating "the whole relationship between the animal kingdom and the human kingdom is coming under stress".{{cite journal | vauthors = Greger M | title = Primary Pandemic Prevention | journal = American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 498–505 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34646097 | pmc = 8504329 | doi = 10.1177/15598276211008134 }}

The integrated, unifying approach of One Health addresses health of people, animals and the environment at once. It could "boost risk identification, reduction, and surveillance in animals and at the human-animal-environment interface".

File:Figure 3- Examples of Zoonotic Diseases and Their Affected Populations (6323431516).jpg

A study which was published in April 2020 and is part of the PREDICT program found that "virus transmission risk has been highest from animal species that have increased in abundance and even expanded their range by adapting to human-dominated landscapes", identifying domesticated species, primates and bats as having more zoonotic viruses than other species and "provide further evidence that exploitation, as well as anthropogenic activities that have caused losses in wildlife habitat quality, have increased opportunities for animal–human interactions and facilitated zoonotic disease transmission".{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson CK, Hitchens PL, Pandit PS, Rushmore J, Evans TS, Young CC, Doyle MM | title = Global shifts in mammalian population trends reveal key predictors of virus spillover risk | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 287 | issue = 1924 | pages = 20192736 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32259475 | pmc = 7209068 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2019.2736 | doi-access = free }}

An UN Environment report presents the causes of the emerging diseases with a large share being environmental:{{cite book |title=UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concern |date=2016 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |location=Nairoby |isbn=978-92-807-3553-6 |pages=18–32 |url=https://environmentlive.unep.org/media/docs/assessments/UNEP_Frontiers_2016_report_emerging_issues_of_environmental_concern.pdf |access-date=1 May 2020}} 50px Text is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]

The report also lists some of the latest emerging diseases and their environmental causes:

According to a 2001 study and its criteria a total of 1415 species of infectious agents in 472 different genera have been reported to date to cause disease in humans. Out of these reviewed emerging pathogen species 75% are zoonotic. A total of 175 species of infectious agents from 96 different genera are associated with emerging diseases according its criteria. Some of these pathogens can be transmitted by more than one route. Data on 19 categories of the 26 categories which contained more than 10 species includes:{{relevance inline|date=June 2020}}

{{Further|#Biosafety technologies and biotechnology regulation}}

{{See also|Genetically modified virus#Safety concerns and regulation|Regulation of genetic engineering}}

File:NIAID Integrated Research Facility - Positive Pressure Personnel Suit.jpg

In a paywalled article, American scientists proposed policy-based measures to reduce large risks from life sciences research – including pandemics through accident or misapplication. Risk management measures may include novel international guidelines and standards of conduct, effective oversight, improvement of US policies to influence policies globally, and identification of gaps in biosecurity policies along with potential approaches to address them.{{cite web |title=Forschung an Krankheitserregern soll sicherer werden |url=https://www.sciencemediacenter.de/alle-angebote/research-in-context/details/news/forschung-an-krankheitserregern-soll-sicherer-werden/ |website=www.sciencemediacenter.de |access-date=17 January 2023 |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Pannu J, Palmer MJ, Cicero A, Relman DA, Lipsitch M, Inglesby T | title = Strengthen oversight of risky research on pathogens | journal = Science | volume = 378 | issue = 6625 | pages = 1170–1172 | date = December 2022 | pmid = 36480598 | doi = 10.1126/science.adf6020 | s2cid = 254998228 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2022Sci...378.1170P }}

• University press release: {{cite news |title=Stanford Researchers Recommend Stronger Oversight of Risky Research on |url=https://fsi.stanford.edu/news/stanford-researchers-recommend-stronger-oversight-risky-research-pathogens |access-date=17 January 2023 |work=Stanford University |language=en}}

Concerning systematic comprehensive identification of challenges, the Centre for the Study of Existential Risk (CSER) convened policy-makers and academics to identify challenges for the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) in 2017. A key issue identified was that the rapid rate of progress in relevant sciences and technologies has made it very difficult for governance bodies including the BWC to keep pace.{{Cite web | url=https://www.cser.ac.uk/resources/eighth-review-conference-biological-weapons-convention-where-next/ | title=Biological Weapons Convention: Where Next?}} Luke Kemp, a member of CSER, notes that "just a few key countries [are] blocking regulation of catastrophic hazards" and that "[f]or biological weapons it was the US who was the primary culprit in preventing the adoption of a global verification scheme under the Biological Weapons Convention" and suggests that "attempts at regulation are often delayed, distorted or destroyed".{{cite news | vauthors = Kemp L |title=Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why |access-date=3 February 2023 |work=BBC |language=en}}

A 2021 Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) report concluded that "[t]he international system for governing dual-use biological research is neither prepared to meet today’s security requirements, nor is it ready for significantly expanded challenges in the future".{{cite web |title=Strengthening Global Systems to Prevent and Respond to High-Consequence Biological Threats |url=https://www.nti.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/NTI_Paper_BIO-TTX_Final.pdf |access-date=3 February 2023}} Toby Ord, author of the book The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity which addresses the issue, puts into question whether current public health and international conventions, and self-regulation by biotechnology companies and scientists are adequate.{{cite web | vauthors = Ord T |title=Why we need worst-case thinking to prevent pandemics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/mar/06/worst-case-thinking-prevent-pandemics-coronavirus-existential-risk |website=The Guardian |access-date=1 April 2020 |date=6 March 2020}}{{Cite web| vauthors = Ord T |date=2021-03-23|title=Covid-19 has shown humanity how close we are to the edge|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/mar/23/covid-19-humanity-resilience-climate-ai-pandemic|access-date=2021-03-26|website=The Guardian|language=en}} As of 2017, there is "no concerted international approach to identify, collect, analyze, and disseminate lessons and best practices in strengthening the organizational culture of life sciences research laboratories worldwide" in terms of biosafety, biosecurity, and responsible conduct, albeit a number of international treaties and partnerships do exist.{{cite web |title=Fostering an International Culture of Biosafety, Biosecurity, and Responsible Conduct in the Life Sciences |url=https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2017/biosafety |website=Science & Diplomacy |access-date=3 February 2023 |language=en}} Around 2022, the International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science (IBBIS) was set up by the NTI to improve biosecurity and biosafety, calling i.a. for tighter controls on custom-order DNA companies.{{cite news |title=International Biosecurity and Biosafety Initiative for Science (IBBIS) |url=https://www.nti.org/about/programs-projects/project/international-biosafety-and-biosecurity-initiative-for-science-ibbis/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=3 February 2023}}{{cite web |title=New global body aims to improve biosecurity and biosafety |url=https://sciencebusiness.net/news/new-global-body-aims-improve-biosecurity-and-biosafety |website=Science{{!}}Business |access-date=3 February 2023 |language=en}}{{cite news |title=Jaime Yassif on the need for better safeguarding of bioscience |url=https://www.economist.com/by-invitation/2022/12/19/jaime-yassif-on-the-need-for-better-safeguarding-of-bioscience |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=3 February 2023}}

The WHO has published the "Global guidance framework for the responsible use of the life sciences: mitigating biorisks and governing dual-use research" in 2022.{{cite web |title=Global guidance framework for the responsible use of the life sciences: mitigating biorisks and governing dual-use research |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240056107 |website=www.who.int |access-date=3 February 2023 |language=en}}

In the context of the 2019–2020 coronavirus pandemic Neal Baer writes that the "public, scientists, lawmakers, and others" "need to have thoughtful conversations about gene editing now".{{cite web |title=Could a rogue scientist use CRISPR to conjure another pandemic? |url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/03/26/could-rogue-scientist-use-crispr-create-pandemic/ |website=STAT |access-date=27 March 2020 |date=26 March 2020}} Ensuring the biosafety level of laboratories may also be an important component of pandemic prevention. This issue may have gotten additional attention in 2020 after news outlets reported that U.S. State Department cables indicate that, although there may be no conclusive proof at the moment, the COVID-19 virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic may, possibly, have accidentally come from a Wuhan (China) laboratory, studying bat coronaviruses that included modifying virus genomes to enter human cells,{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang Y, Liu C, Du L, Jiang S, Shi Z, Baric RS, Li F | title = Two Mutations Were Critical for Bat-to-Human Transmission of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus | journal = Journal of Virology | volume = 89 | issue = 17 | pages = 9119–9123 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26063432 | pmc = 4524054 | doi = 10.1128/JVI.01279-15 | doi-access = free }}{{cite news | vauthors = Chen S |title=Coronavirus: bat scientist's cave exploits offer hope to beat virus 'sneakier than Sars' - Shi Zhengli is one of the scores of scientists joining a global effort to hunt down the new coronavirus - But some people have blamed her for creating it in the first place |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3049397/bat-ladys-cave-exploits-offer-hope-beat-virus-sneakier-sars |date=6 February 2020 |work=South China Morning Post |access-date=15 April 2020 }} and determined to be unsafe by U.S. scientists in 2018, rather than from a natural source.{{cite news | vauthors = Rogin J |title=State Department cables warned of safety issues at Wuhan lab studying bat coronaviruses |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/04/14/state-department-cables-warned-safety-issues-wuhan-lab-studying-bat-coronaviruses/ |date=14 April 2020 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=15 April 2020 }}{{cite news | vauthors = Campbell J, Atwood K, Perez E |title=US explores possibility that coronavirus spread started in Chinese lab, not a market |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/15/politics/us-intelligence-virus-started-chinese-lab/index.html |date=16 April 2020 |work=CNN News |access-date=16 April 2020 }}{{cite news | vauthors = Rincon P |title=Coronavirus: Is there any evidence for lab release theory? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-52318539 |date=16 April 2020 |work=BBC News |access-date=17 April 2020 }} As of 18 May 2020, an official UN investigation into the origins of the COVID-19 virus, supported by over 120 countries, was being considered.{{cite news | vauthors = Porter T |title=More than 120 countries are backing a UN motion to investigate the origins of the coronavirus, despite China's objections |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/120-nations-support-un-investigating-coronavirus-origin-china-angry-2020-5 |date=18 May 2020 |work=Business Insider |access-date=18 May 2020 }} United States' president Donald Trump claimed to have seen evidence that gave him a "high degree of confidence" that the novel coronavirus originated in the Chinese laboratory but did not offer any evidence, data or details, contradicted statements by the United States' intelligence community and garnered a lot of harsh criticism and doubts.{{cite news |title=Trump contradicts US intel community by claiming he's seen evidence coronavirus originated in Chinese lab |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/30/politics/trump-intelligence-community-china-coronavirus-origins/index.html |access-date=7 June 2020 |work=CNN}} As of 5 May, assessments and internal sources from the Five Eyes nations indicated that the coronavirus outbreak being the result of a laboratory accident was "highly unlikely", since the human infection was "highly likely" a result of natural human and animal interaction.{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/04/politics/coronavirus-intelligence/index.html| title=Intel shared among US allies indicates virus outbreak more likely came from market, not a Chinese lab |date=5 May 2020|publisher= CNN| vauthors = Marquardt A, Atwood K, Cohen Z |access-date=7 May 2020}} Many others have also criticized statements by US government officials and theories of laboratory release. Virologist and immunologist Vincent R. Racaniello said that "accident theories – and the lab-made theories before them – reflect a lack of understanding of the genetic make-up of Sars-CoV-2."{{cite news | newspaper=South China Morning Post |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3079391/bat-virus-bioweapon-what-science-says-about-covid-19-origins |title=Bat virus? Bioweapon? What the science says about Covid-19 origins |date=11 April 2020| vauthors = McCarthy S, Chen S }} Virologist Peter Daszak stated that an estimated 1–7 million people in Southeast Asia who live or work in proximity to bats are infected each year with bat coronaviruses.{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2020/4/23/21226484/wuhan-lab-coronavirus-china |title=Why these scientists still doubt the coronavirus leaked from a Chinese lab |date=23 April 2020|website=Vox | vauthors = Barclay E }} In January 2021, the WHO's investigations into the origin of COVID-19 was launched.{{cite web| vauthors = Nebehay S |date=18 January 2021|title=U.S. and China clash at WHO over scientific mission in Wuhan|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-who-usa-china/u-s-and-china-clash-at-who-over-scientific-mission-in-wuhan-idUSKBN29N1IX|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118165232/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-who-usa-china/u-s-and-china-clash-at-who-over-scientific-mission-in-wuhan-idUSKBN29N1IX|archive-date=18 January 2021|access-date=18 January 2021|work=Reuters}}{{cite news| vauthors = Fujiyama EW |date=28 January 2021|title=WHO team in Wuhan departs quarantine for COVID origins study|newspaper=AP News|url=https://apnews.com/article/who-wuhan-coronavirus-origin-af03b28a0594add8df2b959cfc7dc3fe|access-date=12 February 2021|archive-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211231101/https://apnews.com/article/who-wuhan-coronavirus-origin-af03b28a0594add8df2b959cfc7dc3fe|url-status=live}} In early 2021, the hypothesis of a laboratory cause of the pandemic received renewed interest and expert consideration due to renewed media discussion.{{cite web | vauthors = Knight P |title=COVID-19: Why lab-leak theory is back despite little new evidence |url=https://theconversation.com/covid-19-why-lab-leak-theory-is-back-despite-little-new-evidence-162215 |work=The Conversation |date=21 June 2021 |access-date=18 July 2021 |archive-date=18 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718135624/https://theconversation.com/covid-19-why-lab-leak-theory-is-back-despite-little-new-evidence-162215 |url-status=live |publication-place=Melbourne }}

On 6 May 2024, the White House released an official policy to more safely manage medical research projects involving potentially hazardous pathogens, including viruses and bacteria, that may pose a risk of a pandemic.{{cite news |last1=Zimmer |first1=Carl |last2=Mueller |first2=Benjamin |date=7 May 2024 |title=U.S. Tightens Rules on Risky Virus Research - A long-awaited new policy broadens the type of regulated viruses, bacteria, fungi and toxins, including those that could threaten crops and livestock. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/07/science/covid-lab-leak-biosafety-rules-virus-research.html |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20240507162105/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/07/science/covid-lab-leak-biosafety-rules-virus-research.html |archivedate=7 May 2024 |accessdate=8 May 2024 |work=The New York Times}}{{cite news |author=White House |date=6 May 2024 |title=United States Government Policy for Oversight of Dual Use Research of Concern and Pathogens with Enhanced Pandemic Potential |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/USG-Policy-for-Oversight-of-DURC-and-PEPP.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240508110439/https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/USG-Policy-for-Oversight-of-DURC-and-PEPP.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2024 |access-date=8 May 2024 |work=Whitehouse.gov}}

While biotechnology policies {{See above|above}} can substantially reduce the risk of a serious catastrophe, it may be important that relevant steps are initiated immediately and on a global basis.

{{See also|Dual-use technology}}

Martin Rees, author of the book Our Final Hour which also addresses this issue, states that while better understanding of viruses may allow for an improved capability to develop vaccines it may also lead to an increase in "the spread of 'dangerous knowledge' that would enable mavericks to make viruses more virulent and transmissible than they naturally are".{{cite news | vauthors = Overbye D |title=Going Viral, or Not, in the Milky Way |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/02/science/coronavirus-space-travel-colonization.html |access-date=7 June 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=2 June 2020}} Different accelerations and priorizations of research may however be critical to pandemic prevention. A multitude of factors shape which knowledge about viruses with different use-cases, including vaccine-development, can be used by whom.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Rees also states that "the global village will have its village idiots, and they will have global range".{{cite web |title=Coronavirus: 'Recipe for instability', says futurist who predicted extinction event |url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/coronavirus-recipe-for-instability-says-futurist-who-predicted-extinction-event-1.1027729 |website=The National |date=2 June 2020 |access-date=7 June 2020 |language=en}}

Experts have clarified that, for example, the definition of "dual use" is not well known and that the international community should better engage with the DIY bio community or biohacker students and in a way that does not stifle "localised innovation for peaceful purposes or people wanting to learn about biology".{{cite news |title=The garage biohackers who manipulate DNA |url=https://www.afr.com/companies/healthcare-and-fitness/the-garage-biohackers-who-manipulate-dna-20210921-p58tmn |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=Australian Financial Review |date=23 September 2021 |language=en}} As of 2022, only very few sophisticated centers could recreate SARS-CoV-2 However, for example the progress in genetic engineering enabled all the tools needed to create a virus to be "cheap, simple, and readily available".{{cite news | vauthors = Wadhwa V |title=The Genetic Engineering Genie Is Out of the Bottle |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/11/crispr-pandemic-gene-editing-virus/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=Foreign Policy}}

94% of countries have no national-level oversight measures for dual-use research.{{cite news | vauthors = Piper K |title=Why experts are terrified of a human-made pandemic — and what we can do to stop it |url=https://www.vox.com/22937531/virus-lab-safety-pandemic-prevention |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=Vox |date=5 April 2022 |language=en}}

A biodefense expert cautions that overly strict rules "could prompt researchers to move their experiments to nations with less stringent oversight", suggesting there to be a need for international policies.{{cite news |title=Spurred by pandemic, U.S. government will revisit federal policies on risky virus research |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/spurred-pandemic-u-s-government-will-revisit-federal-policies-risky-virus-research |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=www.science.org |language=en}}

File:Fowl cages at wet market in Shenzhen, China.jpg, China]]

{{See also|Wildlife trafficking and emerging zoonotic diseases|Market regulation|Science education}}

In January 2020 during the SARS-CoV 2 outbreak experts in and outside China warned that wild animal markets, where the virus originated from, should be banned worldwide.{{cite web | vauthors = Carrington D |title=Coronavirus: 'Nature is sending us a message', says UN environment chief |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/25/coronavirus-nature-is-sending-us-a-message-says-un-environment-chief |website=The Guardian |access-date=25 March 2020 |date=25 March 2020}}{{cite news | vauthors = Boseley S |title=Calls for global ban on wild animal markets amid coronavirus outbreak |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jan/24/calls-for-global-ban-wild-animal-markets-amid-coronavirus-outbreak |access-date=25 March 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=24 January 2020}} Some scientists point out that banning informal wet markets worldwide isn't the appropriate solution as fridges aren't available in many places and because much of the food for Africa and Asia is provided through such traditional markets. Some also caution that simple bans may force traders underground, where they may pay less attention to hygiene and some state that it's wild animals rather than farmed animals that are the natural hosts of many viruses. National Geographic's Jonathan Kolby cautions about the risks and vulnerabilities present in the massive legal wildlife trade.{{cite web |title=To prevent the next pandemic, it's the legal wildlife trade we should worry about |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/05/to-prevent-next-pandemic-focus-on-legal-wildlife-trade/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507192031/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/05/to-prevent-next-pandemic-focus-on-legal-wildlife-trade/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 7, 2020 |website=NationalGeographic |access-date=5 June 2020 |language=en |date=7 May 2020}} Helping ensure people are provided with viable and profitable alternatives to the wildlife trade is also important.{{cite news | vauthors = Felbab-Brown V |title=Preventing pandemics through biodiversity conservation and smart wildlife trade regulation |url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/preventing-pandemics-through-biodiversity-conservation-and-smart-wildlife-trade-regulation/ |access-date=3 February 2023 |work=Brookings Institution |date=25 January 2021}}

Some traditional medicines (i.e. traditional African medicine, TCM) still use animal-based substances. Since these can trigger zoonosis,[https://www.ifpri.org/blog/africas-growing-risk-diseases-spread-animals-people Africa's growing risk of diseases that spread from animals to people ] a possible prevention could be changes to handbooks for practitioners of such traditional medicines (i.e. exclusion of animal-based substances). Senior adviser and veterinary epidemiologist at the National Food Institute at the Technical University of Denmark Ellis-Iversen states that in agricultural animal health "outbreaks of exotic disease in well-regulated countries rarely get big because we identify and control them right away". New York City's Bronx Zoo's head veterinarian Paul Calle states that usually emerging infectious diseases from animals are the result from wildlife consumption and distribution on a commercial scale rather than a lone person hunting to feed their family.{{additional citation needed|date=June 2020}}

UN biodiversity chief, bipartisan lawmakers, experts and scientists have called for a global ban of wetmarkets and wildlife trade.{{cite news |title=Experts call for global ban on live animal markets, wildlife trade amidst coronavirus outbreak |url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-feb-17-2020-1.5466207/experts-call-for-global-ban-on-live-animal-markets-wildlife-trade-amidst-coronavirus-outbreak-1.5466219 |access-date=5 June 2020 |work=CBC}}{{cite news | vauthors = Greenfield P |title=Ban wildlife markets to avert pandemics, says UN biodiversity chief |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/06/ban-live-animal-markets-pandemics-un-biodiversity-chief-age-of-extinction |access-date=5 June 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=6 April 2020}}{{cite news | vauthors = Wise J |title=Bipartisan lawmakers call for global 'wet markets' ban amid coronavirus crisis |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/491948-bipartisan-lawmakers-call-for-global-ban-of-wet-markets-due-to-coronavirus |access-date=5 June 2020 |work=The Hill |date=9 April 2020 |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Raven PH | title = Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 117 | issue = 24 | pages = 13596–13602 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32482862 | pmc = 7306750 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1922686117 | quote = "The horrific coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic that we are experiencing, of which we still do not fully understand the likely economic, political, and social global impacts, is linked to wildlife trade. It is imperative that wildlife trade for human consumption is considered a gigantic threat to both human health and wildlife conservation. Therefore, it has to be completely banned, and the ban strictly enforced, especially in China, Vietnam, Indonesia, and other countries in Asia" | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020PNAS..11713596C }} On January 26 China banned the trade of wild animals until the end of the coronavirus epidemic at the time.{{cite news | vauthors = Denyer S |title=China bans wild animal trade until coronavirus epidemic is eliminated |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/china-bans-wild-animal-trade-until-coronavirus-epidemic-eliminated/2020/01/26/0e05a964-4017-11ea-971f-4ce4f94494b4_story.html |access-date=25 March 2020 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en}} On February 24 China announced a permanent ban on wildlife trade and consumption with some exceptions.{{cite news | vauthors = Gorman J |title=China's Ban on Wildlife Trade a Big Step, but Has Loopholes, Conservationists Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/27/science/coronavirus-pangolin-wildlife-ban-china.html |access-date=25 March 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=27 February 2020}} In early 2022 it was reported that the E.U. "is pushing for a global deal aimed at preventing new pandemics that could include a ban [a gradual shutdown] on wildlife markets".{{cite news | vauthors = Guarascio F |title=Exclusive: EU wants pandemic treaty to ban wildlife markets, reward virus detection - source |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/exclusive-eu-wants-pandemic-treaty-ban-wildlife-markets-reward-virus-detection-2022-02-09/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=Reuters |date=9 February 2022 |language=en}}

{{See also|List of global issues}}

The Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) a network of countries, international organizations, NGOs and companies that aim to improve the world's ability to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious diseases. Sixty-seven countries have signed onto the GHSA framework.{{cite web |title=CDC Global Health - CDC and the Global Health Security Agenda |url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/security/index.htm |website=www.cdc.gov |access-date=1 April 2020 |language=en-us |date=19 February 2020}}{{cite web |title=Global Health Security Agenda |url=https://ghsagenda.org/ |website=Global Health Security Agenda |access-date=1 April 2020 |language=en}} Funding for the GHSA has been reduced since the launch in 2014, both in the US and globally.{{cite web | vauthors = Jenkins B |title=Now is the time to revisit the Global Health Security Agenda |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/27/now-is-the-time-to-revisit-the-global-health-security-agenda/ |website=Brookings |access-date=1 April 2020 |date=27 March 2020}} The 194 WHO member states agreed in December 2021 to begin negotiations on the International Treaty on Pandemic Prevention, Preparedness and Response.{{Cite web|date=1 December 2021|title=World Health Assembly agrees to launch process to develop historic global accord on pandemic prevention, preparedness and response|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/01-12-2021-world-health-assembly-agrees-to-launch-process-to-develop-historic-global-accord-on-pandemic-prevention-preparedness-and-response|access-date=2021-12-02|website=World Health Organization|language=en}}{{Cite news| vauthors = Cumming-Bruce N |date=2021-12-01|title=W.H.O. members agree to begin talks on a global pandemic treaty.|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/01/world/who-pandemic-treaty.html|access-date=2021-12-02|issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite news| vauthors = Nebehay S |date=2021-11-28|title=WHO reaches draft consensus on future pandemic treaty|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/who-reaches-draft-consensus-future-pandemic-treaty-2021-11-28/|access-date=2021-12-02}} On the 2021 Global Health Summit, the G20 communicated to commit to promote a set of principles in the Rome Declaration.{{cite web |title=Rome Declaration |url=https://global-health-summit.europa.eu/rome-declaration_en |website=global-health-summit.europa.eu |access-date=6 June 2022 |language=en}} The new financial intermediary fund (FIF) for pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response (PPR) was officially established by in September 2022, hosted by the World Bank with technical leadership from WHO.{{cite web |title=New fund for pandemic prevention, preparedness and response formally established |url=https://www.who.int/news/item/09-09-2022-new-fund-for-pandemic-prevention--preparedness-and-response-formally-established |website=www.who.int |access-date=3 February 2023 |language=en}}

In a 2018 lecture in Boston Bill Gates called for a global effort to build a comprehensive pandemic preparedness and response system.{{cite web | vauthors = Gates B |title=The next epidemic is coming. Here's how we can make sure we're ready. |url=https://www.gatesnotes.com/Health/Shattuck-Lecture |website=gatesnotes.com |access-date=1 April 2020}} During the COVID-19 pandemic he called upon world leaders to "take what has been learned from this tragedy and invest in systems to prevent future outbreaks".{{cite news | vauthors = Kempe F |title=Op-ed: U.S. should enlist tech companies to build global quick response system to prevent future pandemic |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/16/op-ed-us-should-enlist-tech-companies-to-prevent-future-pandemic.html |access-date=7 June 2020 |work=CNBC |date=16 May 2020 |language=en}} In a 2015 TED Talk he warned that "if anything kills over 10 million people in the next few decades, it's most likely to be a highly infectious virus rather than a war".{{cite web |title=Bill Gates warned of a deadly pandemic for years — and said we wouldn't be ready to handle it |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/coronavirus-bill-gates-epidemic-warning-readiness/ |work=CBS |date=19 March 2020 |access-date=5 June 2020}} Numerous prominent, authoritative, expert or otherwise influential figures have similarly warned about elevated, underprepared or contemporary risks of pandemics and the need for efforts on an "international scale" long before 2015 and since at least 1988.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lederberg J | title = Medical science, infectious disease, and the unity of humankind | journal = JAMA | volume = 260 | issue = 5 | pages = 684–685 | date = August 1988 | pmid = 3392795 | doi = 10.1001/jama.1988.03410050104039 }}{{cite web | vauthors = Henig RM |title=Experts warned of a pandemic decades ago. Why weren't we ready? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/experts-warned-pandemic-decades-ago-why-not-ready-for-coronavirus/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410045456/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/experts-warned-pandemic-decades-ago-why-not-ready-for-coronavirus/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 10, 2020 |publisher=National Geographic |access-date=6 October 2020 |language=en |date=8 April 2020}} Later warnings include a 2015 study which concluded that "a potential risk of SARS-CoV re-emergence from viruses currently circulating in bat populations".{{cite journal | vauthors = Menachery VD, Yount BL, Debbink K, Agnihothram S, Gralinski LE, Plante JA, Graham RL, Scobey T, Ge XY, Donaldson EF, Randell SH, Lanzavecchia A, Marasco WA, Shi ZL, Baric RS | display-authors = 6 | title = A SARS-like cluster of circulating bat coronaviruses shows potential for human emergence | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 21 | issue = 12 | pages = 1508–1513 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26552008 | pmc = 4797993 | doi = 10.1038/nm.3985 }} Unlike for climate change, which is by now "widely agreed to be among the world's most important problems", there are no large social movements dedicated to solving pandemic prevention.

Some have provided suggestions for organizational or coordinative preparedness for pandemic prevention including a mechanism by which many major economic powers pay into a global insurance fund which "could compensate a nation for economic losses if it acts quickly to close areas to trade and travel in order to stop a dangerous outbreak at its source"{{cite web |title=How an alliance of democracies can prevent future pandemics |url=https://www.salon.com/2020/04/26/how-an-alliance-of-democracies-can-prevent-future-pandemics/ |website=Salon |access-date=5 June 2020 |language=en |date=26 April 2020}}{{additional citation needed|date=October 2020}} or, similarly, sovereign or regional-level epidemic-insurance policies. International collaboration including cooperative research and information-sharing has also been considered vital.

As an example of domestic coordination, U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein called for the creation of a new interagency government entity, the Center for Combating Infectious Disease which would combine analytical and operational functions "to oversee all aspects of preventing, detecting, monitoring, and responding to major outbreaks such as coronavirus" and get provided with data and expertise by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.{{cite news |title=Feinstein: The U.S. wasn't ready for coronavirus. We must learn from that |url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2020-03-27/dianne-feinstein-coronavirus-national-security |access-date=8 June 2020 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=27 March 2020}} The U.S. has also set up a "Global Zoonotic Disease Task Force" who would help "ensure an integrated approach to preventing, detecting, preparing for, and responding to zoonotic spillover".{{cite web | vauthors = Coons CA |title=S.1737 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Global Pandemic Prevention and Biosecurity Act |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/1737 |website=www.congress.gov |access-date=6 June 2022 |date=20 May 2021}} However, "global preparedness is greater than the sum of national preparedness" and lacks concerted, collective and coordinated action.{{cite web |title=The world was woefully unprepared for a pandemic. Let's be ready for the next one {{!}} Elhadj As Sy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/26/the-world-was-woefully-unprepared-for-a-pandemic-lets-be-ready-for-the-next-one |website=The Guardian |access-date=6 June 2022 |language=en |date=26 October 2021}}

John Davenport advises to abandon widespread libertarian ideology which, according to him, "denies the importance of public goods or refuses to recognize their scope". According to the CDC, investing in global health security and improving the organization's ability to prevent, detect, and respond to diseases could protect the health of American citizens as well as avert catastrophic costs.{{cite web |title=Why It Matters: The Pandemic Threat {{!}} Division of Global Health Protection {{!}} Global Health {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/healthprotection/fieldupdates/winter-2017/why-it-matters.html |website=www.cdc.gov |access-date=5 June 2020 |language=en-us |date=4 May 2020}} Dennis Carroll argues for a "marriage" between scientific discovery and political decision-making and policy formulation. Strengthened global governance – using facts, data, and science – with an emphasis on transparency and accountability and independent monitoring are important.

A study found there to be a need "for a renewed framework for global collective action that ensures conformity with international regulations and promotes effective prevention and response to pandemic infectious diseases" and recommended "greater authority for a global governing body, an improved ability to respond to pandemics, an objective evaluation system for national core public health capacities, more effective enforcement mechanisms, independent and sustainable funding, representativeness, and investment from multiple sectors, among others".{{cite journal | vauthors = Duff JH, Liu A, Saavedra J, Batycki JN, Morancy K, Stocking B, Gostin LO, Galea S, Bertozzi S, Zuniga JM, Alberto-Banatin C, Dansua AS, Del Rio C, Kulzhanov M, Lee K, Scaglia G, Shahpar C, Ullmann AJ, Hoffman SJ, Weinstein M, Szapocznik J | display-authors = 6 | title = A global public health convention for the 21st century | journal = The Lancet. Public Health | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | pages = e428–e433 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 33964227 | pmc = 8099565 | doi = 10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00070-0 | s2cid = 233744547 }} Researchers found "a leader-level global council" to be required "to identify gaps in preparedness and response, mobilize finances, hold public and private stakeholders accountable, and provide leadership at the first hint of a threat", including "faster detection and reporting of outbreaks and threats" by a more independent and better financed World Health Organization.{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu J, Clark H, Kazatchkine M | title = Leaders can choose to prevent pandemics | journal = Nature | volume = 610 | issue = 7933 | pages = S37 | date = October 2022 | pmid = 36289380 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-022-03355-7 | bibcode = 2022Natur.610S..37L | doi-access = free }}

Proposed novel organizations also include an entity or entities tasked with "reducing the risk of catastrophic events due to accidents or deliberate abuse of bioscience and biotechnology". {{see above|above}}

{{Further|Artificial induction of immunity}}

{{See also|#CRISPR-based immune subsystems|Herd immunity|DRACO}}

Outbreaks could be contained or delayed – to enable other containment-measures – or prevented by artificial induction of immunity and/or biocides in combination with other measures that include prediction or early detection of infectious human diseases.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Broad-spectrum antimicrobials, rapid antibody or drug development, development platforms, and quick drug repurposing and medication provisioning may also be potential ways to prevent outbreak from becoming pandemics.{{additional citation needed|date=February 2022}} In FY2016, DARPA initiated the Pandemic Prevention Platform (P3) program aimed at the "rapid discovery, testing, and manufacture of antibody treatments to fight any emerging disease threat".{{cite web |title=Defense Advanced Research Projects – Pandemic Prevention Platform |url=https://www.darpa.mil/program/pandemic-prevention-platform |access-date=21 February 2022}}{{cite book | vauthors = Franconi R, Illiano E, Paolini F, Massa S, Venuti A, Demurtas OC |title=Defence Against Bioterrorism |chapter=Rapid and Low-Cost Tools Derived from Plants to Face Emerging/Re-emerging Infectious Diseases and Bioterrorism Agents |series=NATO Science for Peace and Security Series A: Chemistry and Biology |date=2018 |pages=123–139 |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1263-5_10 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-024-1262-8 |s2cid=169765240 |language=en}} The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant escaped the majority of existing SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies, including of sera from vaccinated and convalescent individuals.{{cite journal |author=Yunlong Cao |display-authors=etal |title=Omicron escapes the majority of existing SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies |journal=Nature |date=23 December 2021 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-03796-6|s2cid=245455422|doi-access=free }}{{Cite medRxiv | vauthors = Wilhelm A, Widera M, Grikscheit K, Toptan T, Schenk B, Pallas C, Metzler M, Kohmer N, Hoehl S, Helfritz FA, Wolf T, Goetsch U, Ciesek S | display-authors = 6|title=Reduced Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant by Vaccine Sera and Monoclonal Antibodies |date=8 December 2021 |medrxiv=10.1101/2021.12.07.21267432v4}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu L, Iketani S, Guo Y, Chan JF, Wang M, Liu L, Luo Y, Chu H, Huang Y, Nair MS, Yu J, Chik KK, Yuen TT, Yoon C, To KK, Chen H, Yin MT, Sobieszczyk ME, Huang Y, Wang HH, Sheng Z, Yuen KY, Ho DD | display-authors = 6 | title = Striking antibody evasion manifested by the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Nature | volume = 602 | issue = 7898 | pages = 676–681 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35016198 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-03826-3 | s2cid = 245462866 | doi-access = free }}{{Cite medRxiv | vauthors = Roessler A, Riepler L, Bante D, von Laer D, Kimpel J |title=SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 variant (Omicron) evades neutralization by sera from vaccinated and convalescent individuals |date=11 December 2021 |medrxiv=10.1101/2021.12.08.21267491v1}}

{{Further|Vaccine|Universal coronavirus vaccine}}

Development and provision of new vaccines usually takes years. The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations, which was launched in 2017, works on reducing the time of vaccine-development.{{cite web | vauthors = Tindera M |title=Bill Gates Calls For, And Funds, Steps To Prevent A Global Pandemic |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michelatindera/2018/05/01/bill-gates-calls-for-and-funds-steps-to-prevent-a-global-pandemic/ |website=Forbes |access-date=1 April 2020 |language=en}} The Global Health Innovative Technology Fund (GHIT) is a public-private partnership fund which involves a national government, a UN agency, a consortium of pharmaceutical and diagnostics companies, and international philanthropic foundations to accelerate the creation of new vaccines, drugs and diagnostic tools for global health.{{cite journal | vauthors = Slingsby BT, Kurokawa K | title = The Global Health Innovative Technology (GHIT) Fund: financing medical innovations for neglected populations | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = e184–e185 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 25104343 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70055-X | doi-access = free }}"[https://www.forbes.com/sites/medidata/2015/04/30/investing-in-drugs-that-wont-make-money/ Investing In Drugs That Won't Make Money]", Forbes, April 30, 2015, accessed on 9/28/2015 It is unclear whether vaccines can play a role in pandemic prevention alongside pandemic mitigation. Nathan Wolfe proposes that pathogen detection and prediction may allow establishing viral libraries before novel epidemics emerge – substantially decreasing the time to develop a new vaccine.{{cite magazine |title=COVID-19 Won't Be the Last Pandemic. Here's What We Can Do to Protect Ourselves |url=https://time.com/5820607/nathan-wolfe-coronavirus-future-pandemic/ |magazine=Time |access-date=5 June 2020 |language=en}} Public health surveillance expert and professor at Harvard University, John Brownstein says that "vaccines are still our main weapon".{{cite news | vauthors = Guynup S |title=Preparing for the Next Pandemic |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/custom-media/jnj-champions-of-science/preparing-for-the-next-pandemic/ |access-date=8 June 2020 |work=Scientific American |language=en}} Besides more rapid vaccine development and development that starts at the earliest possible time, it may also be possible to develop more broader vaccines. Misinformation and misconceptions about vaccines, including about their side-effects and (relative) risks, may be a problem.

{{See also|Antimicrobial resistance#Policies|Antibiotic use in livestock|#Food markets and wild animal trade}}

A review suggests that feeding the future human population would require increases in crop and animal production, albeit it is unclear which diets (e.g. future levels of meat production) they project. This would increase contact rates between humans and both wild and domestic animals and the use of antibiotics and thereby increase pandemic risks.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rohr JR, Barrett CB, Civitello DJ, Craft ME, Delius B, DeLeo GA, Hudson PJ, Jouanard N, Nguyen KH, Ostfeld RS, Remais JV, Riveau G, Sokolow SH, Tilman D | display-authors = 6 | title = Emerging human infectious diseases and the links to global food production | journal = Nature Sustainability | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = 445–456 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 32219187 | pmc = 7091874 | doi = 10.1038/s41893-019-0293-3 | bibcode = 2019NatSu...2..445R }} It also suggests that "since 1940, agricultural drivers were associated with >25% of all — and >50% of zoonotic — infectious diseases that emerged in humans".

{{Excerpt|Meat#Infectious diseases}} Moreover, selection for specific genes has made the animals genetically highly similar which could enable pathogens to spread more intensely among the livestock.{{cite web | vauthors = Samuel S |title=The meat we eat is a pandemic risk, too |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2020/4/22/21228158/coronavirus-pandemic-risk-factory-farming-meat |website=Vox |access-date=6 June 2022 |language=en |date=22 April 2020}}

A report by the FAIRR global investor network found that more than 70% of the biggest meat, fish and dairy producers were in danger of fostering future zoonotic pandemics due to lax safety standards, closely confined animals and the overuse of antibiotics. Some have recommended food system-change, behaviour change, different lifestyle choices and altered consumer spending including moving away from factory farming and towards more plant-based diets.{{cite news |title=Jane Goodall: humanity is finished if it fails to adapt after Covid-19 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jun/03/jane-goodall-humanity-is-finished-if-it-fails-to-adapt-after-covid-19 |access-date=7 June 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=3 June 2020 |language=en}}{{cite web |title=Spillover Warning: How We Can Prevent the Next Pandemic |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/spillover-warning-how-we-can-prevent-the-next-pandemic-david-quammen |website=Yale E360 |access-date=8 June 2020}}{{cite magazine |title=We Need to Rethink Our Food System to Prevent the Next Pandemic |url=https://time.com/5819801/rethink-industrialized-farming-next-pandemic/ |access-date=7 June 2020 |magazine=Time |language=en}}

Measures could include reducing meat production (except for potential cultured meat), de-intensifying livestock farming, reducing the use of antimicrobials, improving health and health-monitoring of livestock, increasing livestock biodiversity, further understanding of the genetic and functional basis of host adaptation,{{cite journal | vauthors = Mourkas E, Taylor AJ, Méric G, Bayliss SC, Pascoe B, Mageiros L, Calland JK, Hitchings MD, Ridley A, Vidal A, Forbes KJ, Strachan NJ, Parker CT, Parkhill J, Jolley KA, Cody AJ, Maiden MC, Kelly DJ, Sheppard SK | display-authors = 6 | title = Agricultural intensification and the evolution of host specialism in the enteric pathogen Campylobacter jejuni | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 117 | issue = 20 | pages = 11018–11028 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32366649 | pmc = 7245135 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1917168117 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020PNAS..11711018M }} improving occupational hygiene and safety of farming and food processing/food{{cite journal | vauthors = Aiyar A, Pingali P | title = Pandemics and food systems - towards a proactive food safety approach to disease prevention & management | journal = Food Security | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 749–756 | date = 1 August 2020 | pmid = 32837645 | pmc = 7351553 | doi = 10.1007/s12571-020-01074-3 }} (see also: HACCP and COVID-19 software (including contact tracing)).

Experts warned that depleting the numbers of species by culling to forestall human infections reduces genetic diversity and thereby puts future generations of the animals as well as people at risk while others contend that it's still the best, practical way to contain a virus of livestock.{{cite journal | vauthors = Waltz E | title = Pandemic prevention schemes threaten diversity, experts warn | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 598 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16760992 | doi = 10.1038/nm0606-598a | s2cid = 1145076 | doi-access = free }} There are also other problems with culling and there are alternatives to it, such as animal vaccination.{{cite journal | vauthors = Butler D | title = Vaccination will work better than culling, say bird flu experts | journal = Nature | volume = 434 | issue = 7035 | pages = 810 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15829925 | doi = 10.1038/4344810a | s2cid = 4347170 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2005Natur.434..810B }}{{additional citation needed|date=February 2022}} There are also problems with the forms of culling-implementation such as livestock producers and subsistence farmers who are unable to access compensation being motivated to conceal diseased animals rather than report them.{{cite web | vauthors = Blackburn CC, Natsios AS, Parker Jr GW, Katz R, Osterholm MT, Laine GA, Fair J |title=Global leadership at the crossroads: Are we prepared for the next pandemic? |url=https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/169477 |publisher=Scowcroft Institute of International Affairs (The Bush School) |date=May 2018}}

{{See also|Preventive healthcare}}

Pandemic prevention seeks to prevent pandemics while mitigation of pandemics seeks to reduce their severity and negative impacts. Some have called for a shift from a treatment-oriented society to a prevention-oriented one.{{cite journal | vauthors = Manika D, Golden L |title=Self-efficacy, Threat, Knowledge, and Information Receptivity: Exploring Pandemic Prevention Behaviors to Enhance Societal Welfare |journal=Academy of Health Care Management Journal |date=2011 |url=https://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/249545 |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en}} Authors of a 2010 study write that contemporary "global disease control focuses almost exclusively on responding to pandemics after they have already spread globally" and argue that the "wait-and-respond approach is not sufficient and that the development of systems to prevent novel pandemics before they are established should be considered imperative to human health".{{cite journal | vauthors = Pike BL, Saylors KE, Fair JN, Lebreton M, Tamoufe U, Djoko CF, Rimoin AW, Wolfe ND | display-authors = 6 | title = The origin and prevention of pandemics | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 50 | issue = 12 | pages = 1636–1640 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20450416 | pmc = 2874076 | doi = 10.1086/652860 | doi-access = free }} Peter Daszak comments on the COVID-19 pandemic, saying "[t]he problem isn't that prevention was impossible, [i]t was very possible. But we didn't do it. Governments thought it was too expensive. Pharmaceutical companies operate for profit". The WHO reportedly had mostly neither the funding nor the power to enforce the large-scale global collaboration necessary to combat it.{{cite web | vauthors = Kahn J |title=How Scientists Could Stop the Next Pandemic Before It Starts |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/21/magazine/pandemic-vaccine.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=8 June 2020 |date=21 April 2020}} Nathan Wolfe criticizes that "our current global public health strategies are reminiscent of cardiology in the 1950s when doctors focused solely on responding to heart attacks and ignored the whole idea of prevention". Nevertheless, measures that improve pandemic mitigation capabilities and preparedness for mitigation are important – for example the development of novel far-ultraviolet light could make sterilization "easy, routine and effective".{{cite news |title=The potential of far-ultraviolet light for the next pandemic |url=https://physicsworld.com/a/the-potential-of-far-ultraviolet-light-for-the-next-pandemic/ |access-date=3 February 2023 |work=Physics World |date=19 May 2020}}{{cite news | vauthors = Anthony A |title=William MacAskill: 'There are 80 trillion people yet to come. They need us to start protecting them' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/21/william-macaskill-what-we-owe-the-future-philosopher-interview |access-date=3 February 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=21 August 2022}}

{{Commons category|Pandemic prevention}}

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• Antimicrobial resistance#Prevention
• Border control
• {{annotated link|Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic}}
• {{annotated link|Globalization and disease}}
• {{annotated link|Disease X}}
• {{annotated link|Global catastrophic risk}}
• Global health
• Hazards of synthetic biology
• Health policy#Global health policy
• Infection control
• Molecular nanotechnology#Risks
• Pandemic treaty
• Priority-setting in global health
• Global Health Security Initiative
• Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security
• WHO Global Preparedness Monitoring Board

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{{reflist}}

Category:Pandemics

Category:Infection-control measures

Category:Emergency management

Category:Global issues

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