Persea

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants in the laurel family Lauraceae}}

{{Automatic taxobox

|fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Eocene|Present|refs={{cite journal|author1=Vento, B.|author2=Prámparo, Mercedes B.|year=2018|title=Angiosperm association from the Río Turbio Formation (Eocene–?Oligocene) Santa Cruz, Argentina: revision of Hünicken's (1955) fossil leaves collection|journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology|volume=42|issue=1|pages=125–153|doi=10.1080/03115518.2017.1408854|bibcode=2018Alch...42..125V |hdl=11336/87290 |issn=0311-5518|hdl-access=free}}}}

|image = Viñátigo hojas.JPG

|image_caption = Persea indica foliage and fruit

|image2 = Green avocado foliage (Persea americana).jpg

|image2_caption = Avocado (Persea americana) foliage

|taxon = Persea

|authority = Mill.{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?9138 |title=Genus: Persea Mill. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2007-10-05 |access-date=2011-02-05}}

|subdivision_ranks = Species

|subdivision = See text. Complete list

|type_species =Persea americana

|synonyms =

Apollonias {{small|Nees}}
Farnesia {{small|Heist. ex Fabr.}}
Mutisiopersea {{small|Kosterm.}}
Nyrophylla {{small|Neck.}}

|synonyms_ref = {{cite web |title=Persea Mill. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325623-2 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=20 May 2025}}

}}

Persea is a genus of about 111 species of evergreen trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae.André Joseph Guillaume Henri Kostermans. 1993 The best-known member of the genus is the avocado, P. americana, widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit.

Overview

They are medium-size trees, {{convert|15|–|30|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} tall at maturity. The leaves are simple, lanceolate to broad lanceolate, varying with species from {{convert|5|–|30|cm|in|2|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|–|12|cm|in|2|abbr=on}} broad, and arranged spirally or alternately on the stems. The flowers are in short panicles, with six small greenish-yellow perianth segments {{convert|3|–|6|mm|in|2|abbr=on}} long, nine stamens and an ovary with a single embryo. The fruit is an oval or pear-shaped berry,{{cite book|author=Frederick B. Essig|title=Plant Life: A Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvhzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|date=3 March 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-026658-5|pages=162–}} with a fleshy outer covering surrounding the single seed; size is very variable among the species, from {{convert|1|-|1.5|cm|in|2|abbr=in}} in e.g. P. indica, up to {{convert|10|–|20|cm|in|2|abbr=in}} in some cultivars of P. americana.

Distribution and ecology

File:Persea americana flowers 3.JPG

The species of Persea have a disjunct distribution, with about 109 Neotropical species, ranging from Argentina and Chile in South America to Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean; with two species, P. indica and P. barbujana, native to Madeira and the Canary Islands off northwest Africa. None of the species are very tolerant of severe winter cold, with the hardiest, P. lingue, surviving temperatures down to about {{convert|-12|°C|°F|1}}; they also require continuously moist soil, and do not tolerate drought. A number of these species are found in forests that face threats of destruction or deforestation, including P. lingue in central Chile.

The family Lauraceae was part of the land flora of Gondwana, and many genera had migrated to South America via Antarctica over ocean landbridges by the time of the Paleocene. From South America they spread over most of the continent. When the North American and South American tectonic plates joined in the late Neogene, volcanic mountain building created island chains which later formed the Mesoamerican landbridge. Pliocene elevation created new habitats for speciation. While some genera died out in increasingly xerophytic mainland Africa, starting with the freezing of Antarctica about 20 million years ago and the formation of the Benguela current, others, which also reached South America and Mesoamerica, such as Beilschmiedia and Nectandra are still surviving today in Africa in a number of species. The genus, however, died out in Africa, except for P. indica and P. barbujana, which survive in the fog-shrouded mountains of the Canary Islands and Madeira.

Fossil evidence indicates that the genus originated in West Africa during the Paleocene, and spread to Asia, to South America, and to Europe and thence to North America. It is thought that the gradual drying of Africa, west Asia, and the Mediterranean from the Oligocene to the Pleistocene, and the glaciation of Europe during the Pleistocene, caused the extinction of the genus across these regions, resulting in the present distribution.

Since this habitat is constantly threatened by encroaching agriculture, the laurel forest animal or vegetal species have already become rare in many of its former habitats and are threatened by further habitat loss.

In Mesoamerica, Persea proliferated into many new species, and the berries of some of them constitute a valuable food supply for quetzals, trogoniform birds that live in the montane rainforests of Mesoamerica. In particular, the resplendent quetzal's favorite fruits are berries of wild relatives of the avocado. Their differing maturing times in the cloudforest determine the migratory movements of the quetzals to differing elevation levels in the forests. With a gape width of {{convert|21|mm|in|2|abbr=on}}, the quetzal swallows the small berry (aguacatillo) whole, which he catches while flying through the lower canopy of the tree, and then regurgitates the seed within {{convert|100|m|0|sp=us}} from the tree. Wheelright in 1983 observed that parent quetzals take far less time intervals to deliver fruits to the young brood than insects or lizards, reflecting the ease of procuring fruits, as opposed to capturing animal prey. Since the young are fed exclusively berries in the first 2 weeks after hatching, these berries must be of high nutritional value. Usually only the total percentage of water, sugar, nitrogen, crude fats and carbohydrates are reported by ornithologists.{{cite periodical|publisher=California Avocado Society|year=1999|work=Yearbook|volume=83|pages=163-171|title=Phytochemistry of Nectandra umbrosa Berries, Cloudforest Food of the Resplendent Quetzal |author=Peter Scora|location=Moreno Valley, CA|author2=Rainer W. Scora|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_83_1999/CAS_1999_PG_163-171.pdf}}

Persea species are also used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including giant leopard moth, Coleophora octagonella (which feeds exclusively on P. carolinensis) and Hypercompe indecisa.

Classification

The genus Persea includes two subgenera, Persea and Eriodaphne.Carmen R. Rodríguez Pleguezuelo, José R. Francia Martínez, Iván F. García Tejero, Baltasar Gálvez Ruíz, Dionisio Franco Tarifa, Víctor H. Durán Zuazo, Chapter 14 - Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) Trends in Water-Saving Strategies and Production Potential in a Mediterranean Climate, the Study Case of SE Spain: A Review, Editor(s): Iván Francisco García Tejero, Víctor Hugo Durán Zuazo, Water Scarcity and Sustainable Agriculture in Semiarid Environment, Academic Press, 2018, Pages 317-346, ISBN 9780128131640, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813164-0.00014-4.

Graft-incompatibility and morphological and phylogenetic differences between subgenus Persea and subgenus Eriodaphne suggests that these too may be better treated as distinct genera.Rojas, E., Terrazas, T. & López-Mata, L. Persea (avocados) Phylogenetic Analysis Based on Morphological Characters: Hypothesis of Species Relationships. Genet Resour Crop Evol 54, 249–258 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-005-3808-x Kostermans (1993) founded the genus Mutisiopersea for these. Some authors place Persea barbujana from the Canary Islands in a separate genus Apollonias, but phylogenetic studies place it within subgenus Eriodaphne.Li, L., Li, J., Rohwer, J. G., van der Werff, H., Wang, Z. H., & Li, H. W. (2011). Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Persea group (Lauraceae) and its biogeographic implications on the evolution of tropical and subtropical amphi-pacific disjunctions. American Journal of Botany, 98(9), 1520-1536. doi: 10.3732/ajb.1100006 The genus Tamala is included in Persea by many authors, and some authors treat the Asian genus Machilus as a subgenus of Persea. Another closely related genus, Beilschmiedia, is also sometimes included in Persea.

In a phylogenetic analysis of the "Persea group", which also includes Alseodaphne, Dehaasia, Machilus, Nothaphoebe, and Phoebe, Persea was found to be mostly monophyletic. The species Persea nudigemma was found to be more closely related to Phoebe, while Persea sphaerocarpa was found to be nested within a group of Alseodaphne species.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Lang |last2=Li |first2=Jie |last3=Rohwer |first3=Jens G. |last4=van der Werff |first4=Henk |last5=Wang |first5=Zhi-Hua |last6=Li |first6=Hsi-Wen |date=September 2011 |title=Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Persea group (Lauraceae) and its biogeographic implications on the evolution of tropical and subtropical Amphi-Pacific disjunctions |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.3732/ajb.1100006 |journal=American Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=98 |issue=9 |pages=1520–1536 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1100006|pmid=21860056 |url-access=subscription }}

The avocado fruit, [[Persea americana|thumb]]

;Subgenus Persea — Central America. Two species.

Persea americana Mill. – Avocado
Persea americana var. drymifolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) S.F.Blake
Persea americana var. floccosa (Mez) Scora
Persea americana var. guatemalensis (L.O.Williams) Scora
Persea americana var. nubigena (L.O.Williams) L.E.Kopp
Persea americana var. steyermarkii (C.K.Allen) Scora
Persea schiedeana Nees – Coyo

;Subgenus Eriodaphne (Mutisiopersea) — The Americas and Macaronesia. About 109 species, including:

Persea alpigena {{small|(Sw.) Spreng.}}
Persea brevipetiolata van der Werff – from Mexico
Persea caerulea (Ruiz & Pav.) Mez
Persea cinerascens {{small|S.F.Blake}}
Persea donnell-smithii Mez
Persea indica (L.) Spreng. – Viñátigo
Persea lingue (Ruiz & Pav.) Nees – Lingue
Persea longipes (Schltdl.) Meisn.
Persea palustris (Raf.) Sarg. – Swampbay

=Formerly placed here=

Cinnamodendron cinnamomifolium (Kunth) Kosterm. (as P. cinnamomifolia Kunth or P. mexicana (Meisn.) Hemsl.)
Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco (as P. azorica Seub.){{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?9138 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001027145933/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?9138 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2000-10-27 |title=GRIN Species Records of Persea |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=2011-02-05 }}
Tamala borbonia {{small|(L.) Raf.}} (as Persea borbonia {{small|(L.) Spreng.}})
Tamala humilis {{small|(Nash) Small}} (as Persea humilis {{small|(Nash) House}})
Tamala palustris {{small|Raf.}} (as Persea palustris {{small|(Raf.) Sarg.}})

=Phylogeny=

Based on

{{clade|{{clade

|1={{clade

|label1=clade I

|1={{clade

|1=Mac. robusta |barbegin1=red

|2=Mac. sp. W14071 |bar2=red

|3=Mac. sp. W14068 |bar3=red }}

|2=Pho. minutiflora |bar2=red }}

|2=Mac. japonica |bar2=red

|3=Mac. decursinervis |bar3=red }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Mac. grijsii |bar1=red

|2=Mac. platycarpa |bar2=red }}

|2=Mac. yunnanensis |bar2=red }} }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Mac. kwangtungensis |bar1=red

|2=Mac. oculodracontis |bar2=red

|3=Mac. duthiei |bar3=red

|4=Mac. gamblei |bar4=red }}

|2={{clade

|1=Mac. oreophila |bar1=red

|2=Mac. leptophylla |bar2=red }} }}

|2=Pho. faberi |bar2=red }}

|3={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Mac. salicoides |bar1=red

|2=Mac. pomifera |bar2=red }}

|2={{clade

|1=Mac. salicina |bar1=red

|2=Mac. thunbergii |bar2=red }}

|3=Mac. breviflora |bar3=red }}

|4={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Mac. pingii |bar1=red

|2=Mac. shweliensis |bar2=red }}

|2={{clade

|1=Mac gongshanensis |bar1=red

|2=Mac. phoenicis |bar2=red }}

|3=Mac. monticola |barend3=red }} }}

|2=Deh. caesia }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Deh. hainanensis |barbegin1=orange

|2=Als. sp. W17084 |bar2=orange }}

|2=Deh. sp. L20070187 |bar2=orange }}

|2=Als. semecarpifolia |bar2=orange }}

|2=Als. huanglianshanensis |bar2=orange }}

|2={{clade

|1=Als. gigaphylla |bar1=orange

|2=Not. umbelliflora |bar2=orange }} }}

|2={{clade

|1=Deh. sp. A34 |bar1=orange

|2=Deh. incrassata |barend2=orange }} }} }}

|label2=clade II

|2={{clade

|label1=Persea clade I

|1={{clade

|1=Per. aurata |barbegin1=green

|2=Per. splendens |bar2=green }}

|2={{clade

|1=Per. major |bar1=green

|2=Per. weberbaueri |bar2=green }} }}

|2={{clade

|1=Per. sp. V25232 |bar1=green

|2=Per. sp. W19517 |bar2=green }} }}

|2=Per. alba |bar2=green }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Per. sp. W14875 |bar1=green

|2=Per. sp. B21834 |bar2=green

|3=Per. lingue |bar3=green }}

|2=Per. caerulea |bar2=green }} }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Per. borbonia |bar1=green

|2=Per. haenkeana |bar2=green }}

|2=Per. palustris |bar2=green }}

|2=Per. indica |bar2=green }} }}

|2=Per. areolatocostae |bar2=green }}

|label2=Persea clade II

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Per. americana |bar1=green

|2=Per. styermarkii |bar2=green }}

|2=Apo. barbujana |barend2=green }} }} }}

|label2=clade III

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|label1=Phoebe clade I

|1={{clade

|1=Pho. formosana |barbegin1=blue

|2=Pho. chekiangensis |bar2=blue }}

|2=Pho. nanmu |bar2=blue }}

|2=Pho. neurantha |bar2=blue }}

|2=Pho. lanceolata |bar2=blue }}

|2={{clade

|1=Pho. sp. L20070260 |bar1=blue

|2=Pho. zhennan |bar2=blue }} }}

|2=Pho. macrocarpa |bar2=blue

|3=Pho. angustifolia |bar3=blue }}

|label2=Phoebe clade II

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Pho. cuneata |bar1=blue

|2=Pho. elliptica |bar2=blue }}

|2=Pho. sp. A49 |bar2=blue }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Pho. puwenensis |bar1=blue

|2=Pho. hungmaoensis |bar2=blue }}

|2=Pho. megacalyx |barend2=blue }} }} }}

|2=Per. nudigemma }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Als. rugosa |barbegin1=purple

|2=Als. hainanensis |bar2=purple }}

|2=Als. sp. W14264 |bar2=purple }}

|2={{clade

|1=Per. sphaerocarpa |bar1=purple

|2=Per. sp. W21874 |bar2=purple }} }}

|3={{clade

|1=Als. petiolaris |bar1=purple

|2=Als. andersonii |barend2=purple }} }} }}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Neo. sericea |barbegin1=black

|2=Neo. howii |bar2=black }}

|2=Neo. cambodiana |bar2=black }}

|2={{clade

|1=Act. cupularis |bar1=black

|2=Act. trichocarpa |bar2=black }} }}

|2=Lit. verticillata |bar2=black }}

|2={{clade

|1=Lin. megaphylla |bar1=black

|2=Lit. auriculata |bar2=black

|3=Lin. erythrocarpa |barend3=black }} }} }}|style=font-size:85%;line-height:70%|grouplabel1={{clade labels |width=10em;

|label1=Machias clade |top1=15% |color1=red

|label2=Alseodaphne-Dehaasia clade |top2=35% |color2=orange

|label3=Persea clade |top3=52% |color3=green

|label4=Phoebe clade |top4=70% |color4=blue

|label5=Alseodaphne-Persea group |top5=85% |color5=purple

|label6=Outgroups |top6=95% |color6=black

}}}}

Etymology

Philip Miller derived Persea from the Greek name {{lang|grc|Περσέα}}. It was applied by Theophrastus and Hippocrates to an uncertain Egyptian tree, possibly Cordia myxa or a Mimusops species.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaN-hLL-3qEC |title=CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names |volume=3 M-Q |first=Umberto |last=Quattrocchi |publisher=CRC Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8493-2677-6 |page=2015}}

References

Bibliography

André Joseph Guillaume Henri Kostermans. 1993. Mutisiopersea Kostermans, a new genus in Lauraceae. Rheedea 3: 132–135.
C. Michael Hogan. 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121017013207/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=82831 Chilean Wine Palm: Jubaea chilensis, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg]
Lucille E. Kopp. 1966. "A taxonomic revision of the genus Persea in the Western Hemisphere (Persea-Lauracese)" Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 14(1): pp. 1–117

External links

[http://www.avocadosource.com Avocado source] Extensive information on the Avocado and the genus generally, particularly the subgenera Persea and Eriodaphne
[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=124627 Flora of North America: Persea]
[http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=3&start_taxon_id=119262 Flora of China: Machilus] Full list of species in Machilus in China

Category:Lauraceae genera

Category:Taxa named by Philip Miller