Photovoltaic power station#Fixed arrays

File:SolarPowerPlantSerpa.jpg built in Portugal in 2006]]

The first 1 MW_p solar park was built by Arco Solar at Lugo near Hesperia, California, at the end of 1982,{{Cite journal|last1=Arnett|first1=J.C.|title=Design, installation and performance of the ARCO Solar one-megawatt power plant|pages=314|bibcode=1984pvse.conf..314A|journal=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, Athens, Greece|publisher=EC Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference|last2=Schaffer|first2=L. A.|last3=Rumberg|first3=J. P.|last4=Tolbert|first4=R. E. L.|date=1984|display-authors=etal}} followed in 1984 by a 5.2 MW_p installation in Carrizo Plain.{{cite journal|last=Wenger |first=H.J.|title=Decline of the Carrisa Plains PV power plant|journal=Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1991., Conference Record of the Twenty Second IEEE|publisher=IEEE|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1109/PVSC.1991.169280|s2cid=120166422}} Both have since been decommissioned (although a new plant, Topaz Solar Farm, was commissioned in Carrizo Plain in 2015).{{Cite web |date=2015-03-05 |title=Topaz Solar Farm, California |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/85403/topaz-solar-farm-california |access-date=2022-10-11 |website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov |language=en}} The next stage followed the 2004 revisions{{cite web|title=The Renewable Energy Sources Act|url=http://www.bmu.de/files/english/pdf/application/pdf/eeg_en.pdf|work=Bundesgesetzblatt 2004 I No. 40|publisher=Bundesumweltministerium(BMU)|date=21 July 2004|access-date=13 April 2013}}{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} to the feed-in tariffs in Germany, when a substantial volume of solar parks were constructed.{{cite web |title=Top 10 Solar PV power plants |date=4 August 2023 |url=https://solarlab.ph/top-10-solar-pv-power-plants/ |access-date=Aug 9, 2023 |publisher=SolarLab}}

Several hundred installations over 1 MW_p have since been installed in Germany, of which more than 50 are over 10 MW_p.{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – Germany|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?Germany?u-uN-DE|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} With its introduction of feed-in tariffs in 2008, Spain briefly became the largest market with some 60 solar parks over 10 MW,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – Spain|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?Spain?u-uW-ES|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} but these incentives have since been withdrawn.{{cite web|title=An Early Focus on Solar|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2012/02/pictures/120228-spain-solar-e|publisher=National Geographic|access-date=22 March 2018}}{{dead link|date=November 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} Retrieved 5 March 2015 The USA,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – USA|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?United_States?0?n-nU-US|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} China,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – China|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?China?0?a-aN-CN?4?36?104|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} India,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – India|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?India?0?a-aI-IN|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} France,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – France|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?France?0?u-uW-FR|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} Canada,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – Canada|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?Canada?0?n-nN-CA|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} Australia,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – Australia|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?Australia?0?z-zA-AU|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} and Italy,{{cite web|title=Solar parks map – Italy|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/map/country/index.html?Italy?0?u-uW-IT|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} among others, have also become major markets as shown on the list of photovoltaic power stations.

The largest sites under construction have capacities of hundreds of MW_p and some more than 1 GW_p.{{cite web |title=Topaz Solar Farm |url=http://topaz.firstsolar.com/Projects/Topaz-Solar-Farm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305014210/http://topaz.firstsolar.com/Projects/Topaz-Solar-Farm |archive-date=5 March 2013 |access-date=2 March 2013 |publisher=First Solar}}{{cite news|last=Olson|first=Syanne|title=Dubai readies for 1,000MW Solar Park|url=http://www.pv-tech.org/news/dubai_readies_for_1000mw_solar_park_first_10mw_phase_expected_by_2013|access-date=21 February 2012|newspaper=PV-Tech|date=10 January 2012}}{{cite web|title=MX Group Spa signs a 1.75 Billion Euros agreement for the construction in Serbia of the largest solar park in the world|url=http://www.mxgroup.it/public/userfiles/serbia_uk.pdf|access-date=6 March 2012}}

File:Photovoltaic-power-plants-distribution-in-the-southeast-Germany-landscape-2019 on-Sentinel-2 by-Solargis.png

The land area required for a desired power output varies depending on the location, the efficiency of the solar panels,{{cite web|last=Joshi|first=Amruta|title=Estimating per unit area energy output from solar PV modules|url=http://www.ncpre.iitb.ac.in/page.php?pageid=51 |publisher=National Centre for Photovoltaic Research and Education|access-date=5 March 2013}} the slope of the site,{{cite web|title=Screening Sites for Solar PV Potential|url=http://www.epa.gov/oswercpa/docs/solar_decision_tree.pdf |work=Solar Decision Tree|publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=5 March 2013}} and the type of mounting used. Fixed tilt solar arrays using typical panels of about 15% efficiency{{cite web|title=An overview of PV panels|url= https://solarjuice.com/articles/pvs/ |publisher=SolarJuice|access-date=5 March 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150430040849/https://solarjuice.com/articles/pvs/ |archive-date=30 April 2015}} on horizontal sites, need about {{convert|1|ha|acre}}/MW in the tropics and this figure rises to over {{convert|2|ha|acre}} in northern Europe.

Because of the longer shadow the array casts when tilted at a steeper angle,{{cite web|title=Calculating Inter-Row Spacing|url= http://energytrust.org/trade-ally/updates-and-events/InsiderNewsletter/insider-pdfs/100304_solarprofessional_article.pdf |work=Technical Questions & Answers|publisher=Solar Pro Magazine|access-date=5 March 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121021050053/http://energytrust.org/trade-ally/updates-and-events/InsiderNewsletter/insider-pdfs/100304_solarprofessional_article.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2012|url-status=dead}} this area is typically about 10% higher for an adjustable tilt array or a single axis tracker, and 20% higher for a 2-axis tracker,{{cite book|last=Wolfe|first=Philip |title=Solar Photovoltaic Projects in the Mainstream Power Market|date=2012|publisher=Routledge |location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-415-52048-5|page=240|url= http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415520485/}} though these figures will vary depending on the latitude and topography.{{cite web|title=Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface|url=http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/properties-of-sunlight/solar-radiation-on-tilted-s |publisher=PVEducation.org|access-date=22 April 2013}}

The best locations for solar parks in terms of land use are held to be brown field sites, or where there is no other valuable land use.{{cite web|title=Solar parks: maximising environmental benefits|url=http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/file/102004 |publisher=Natural England|access-date=30 August 2012}} Even in cultivated areas, a significant proportion of the site of a solar farm can also be devoted to other productive uses, such as crop growing{{cite web|title=Person County Solar Park Makes Best Use of Solar Power and Sheep|url=http://www.solarenergy.net/News/8310901-person-county-solar-park-makes-best-use-of-solar-power-and-shee |publisher=solarenergy|access-date=22 April 2013}}{{cite web|title=Person County Solar Park One|url=http://carolinasolarenergy.com/ |publisher=Carolina Solar Energy|access-date=22 April 2013}} or biodiversity.{{cite web|title=Solar Parks – Opportunities for Biodiversity|url=http://www.unendlich-viel-energie.de/en/details/article/523/solar-parks-opportunities-for-biodiversit |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130701032316/http://www.unendlich-viel-energie.de/en/details/article/523/solar-parks-opportunities-for-biodiversit |url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2013|publisher=German Renewable Energies Agency|access-date=22 April 2013}} The change in albedo affects local temperature. One study claims a temperature rise due to the heat island effect,{{cite journal |last1=Barron-Gafford |first1=Greg A. |last2=Minor |first2=Rebecca L. |last3=Allen |first3=Nathan A. |last4=Cronin |first4=Alex D. |last5=Brooks |first5=Adria E. |last6=Pavao-Zuckerman |first6=Mitchell A. |title=The Photovoltaic Heat Island Effect: Larger solar power plants increase local temperatures |journal=Scientific Reports |date=December 2016 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=35070 |doi=10.1038/srep35070|pmid=27733772 |pmc=5062079 |bibcode=2016NatSR...635070B |s2cid=4587161 |doi-access=free }} and another study claims that surroundings in arid ecosystems become cooler.{{cite journal |last1=Guoqing |first1=Li |last2=Hernandez |first2=Rebecca R |last3=Blackburn |first3=George Alan |last4=Davies |first4=Gemma |last5=Hunt |first5=Merryn |last6=Whyatt |first6=James Duncan |last7=Armstrong |first7=Alona |title=Ground-mounted photovoltaic solar parks promote land surface cool islands in arid ecosystems |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition |date=August 2021 |volume=1 |pages=100008 |doi=10.1016/j.rset.2021.100008|s2cid=239061813 |doi-access=free }}

Agrivoltaics is using the same area of land for both solar photovoltaic power and agriculture. A recent study found that the value of solar generated electricity coupled to shade-tolerant crop production created an over 30% increase in economic value from farms deploying agrivoltaic systems instead of conventional agriculture.Harshavardhan Dinesh, Joshua M. Pearce, [https://www.academia.edu/18406368/The_potential_of_agrivoltaic_systems The potential of agrivoltaic systems], Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54, 299–308 (2016). A 2023 study published in Sustainability highlighted Canada’s significant potential for agrivoltaics, a dual-use land strategy that integrates solar energy production with agriculture. According to the study, installing agrivoltaic systems on just 1% of Canada’s agricultural land could generate between 25% and 33% of the country’s electricity needs, depending on the photovoltaic technology used (vertical bifacial vs. single-axis tracking). The authors emphasize that agrivoltaics presents a promising approach to help Canada meet its climate targets while preserving farmland and supporting rural economies. Policy incentives, technical research, and pilot projects are recommended to scale implementation across provinces.{{Cite journal |last1=Jamil |first1=Uzair |last2=Bonnington |first2=Abigail |last3=Pearce |first3=Joshua M. |date=2023-02-10 |title=The Agrivoltaic Potential of Canada |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=3228 |doi=10.3390/su15043228 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Sust...15.3228J |issn=2071-1050}}

File:Faria 000102 153913 493502 4578 (35502216424).jpg on a full landfill in Rehoboth, MA]]

A Solar landfill is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm.{{cite web | url=https://time.com/6183376/landfills-becoming-solar-farms/ | title=U.S. Landfills Are Getting a Second Life as Solar Farms | date=2 June 2022 }}

In some cases, several different solar power stations with separate owners and contractors are developed on adjacent sites.{{cite web |last1=Wolfe |first1=Philip |title=The world's largest solar power stations |url=https://www.wiki-solar.org/library/papers/1Opener.pdf |website=Wiki-Solar |access-date=11 May 2020}}{{cite web|title=Addendum to conditional use permit|url=http://www.co.kern.ca.us/planning/pdfs/eirs/recurrent_desert/re_tehachapi_pc_sr_111011.pdf|publisher=Kern County Planning and Community development Department|access-date=22 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203055302/http://www.co.kern.ca.us/planning/pdfs/eirs/recurrent_desert/re_tehachapi_pc_sr_111011.pdf|archive-date=3 February 2016|url-status=dead}} This can offer the advantage of the projects sharing the cost and risks of project infrastructure such as grid connections and planning approval.{{cite web |last1=Wolfe |first1=Philip |title=The world's largest solar parks |url=https://www.wiki-solar.org/library/papers/2SolarParks_v2.pdf |website=Wiki-Solar |access-date=11 May 2020}}{{cite web|title=Smart Grid transmission scheme for Evacuation of Solar Power|url=http://rtf.main.jp/wp-content/uploads/Technical-Brief-Smart-GRID-PDPU1.pdf|work=Workshop on smart grid development|publisher=Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University|access-date=5 March 2013}} Solar farms can also be co-located with wind farms.{{cite web|title=E.ON's Solar PV Portfolio|url=http://www.eon.com/en/business-areas/power-generation/solar/photovoltaics/projects.html|publisher=E.On|access-date=22 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307030518/http://www.eon.com/en/business-areas/power-generation/solar/photovoltaics/projects.html|archive-date=7 March 2013|url-status=dead}}

Sometimes 'solar park' is used to describe a set of individual solar power stations, which share sites or infrastructure,{{cite web|title=Solar parks: maximising environmental benefits|url=http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/file/102004|publisher=Natural England|access-date=22 April 2013}}{{cite web|title=First solar park set for Upington, Northern Cape|url=http://www.tradeinvestsa.co.za/business-opportunities/1217742.htm|publisher=Frontier Market Intelligence|access-date=22 April 2013}} and 'cluster' is used where several plants are located nearby without any shared resources.{{cite web |last1=Wolfe |first1=Philip |title=Large clusters of solar power stations |url=https://www.wiki-solar.org/library/papers/4Clusters.pdf |website=Wiki-Solar |access-date=11 May 2020}} Some examples of solar parks are the Charanka Solar Park, where there are 17 different generation projects; Neuhardenberg,{{cite web|title=Solarpark Neuhardenberg – site plan|url=http://wiki-solar.org/map/sites/index.html?Solarpark_Neuhardenberg?0?u-uE?14?52.61?14.24 |publisher= Wiki-Solar |access-date=22 March 2018}} with eleven plants, and the Golmud solar park with total reported capacity over 500{{nbsp}}MW.{{cite news |title= Qinghai leads in photovoltaic power |url= http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-03/02/content_14744509.htm |access-date= 21 February 2013 |newspaper= China Daily |date= 2 March 2012}}{{cite web |title= Golmud Desert Solar Park – satellite view |url= http://wiki-solar.org/map/sites/index.html?Golmud_Desert_Cluster?0?a-aN?12?36.37?95.18|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=22 March 2018}} An extreme example would be calling all of the solar farms in the Gujarat state of India a single solar park, the Gujarat Solar Park.

To avoid land use altogether, in 2022, a 5 MW floating solar park was installed in the Alqueva Dam reservoir, Portugal, enabling solar power and hydroelectric energy to be combined. Separately, a German engineering firm committed to integrating an offshore floating solar farm with an offshore wind farm to use ocean space more efficiently. The projects involve "hybridization", in which different renewable energy technologies are combined in one site.{{cite news |last1=Frangoul |first1=Anmar |title=A pilot project in the North Sea will develop floating solar panels that glide over waves 'like a carpet' |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/22/europes-energy-giants-explore-potential-of-floating-solar-.html |agency=CNBC |date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722171620/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/22/europes-energy-giants-explore-potential-of-floating-solar-.html |archive-date=22 July 2022 |url-status=live }}

The first successful test in January 2024 of a solar farm in space—collecting solar power from a photovoltaic cell and beaming energy down to Earth—constituted an early feasibility demonstration completed. Such setups are not limited by cloud cover or the Sun’s cycle.{{cite news |last1=Cuthbertson |first1=Anthony |title=First ever space-to-Earth solar power mission succeeds |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/space/space-solar-power-electricity-microwaves-b2480671.html |newspaper=The Independent |date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119042313/https://www.independent.co.uk/space/space-solar-power-electricity-microwaves-b2480671.html |archive-date=19 January 2024 |url-status=live }}

Most solar parks are ground mounted PV systems, also known as free-field solar power plants.

{{cite web

|title=Free-field solar power plants a solution that allows power to be generated faster and more cost-effectively than offshore wind

|date=20 April 2011|url=http://openpr.com/news/171766/FREE-FIELD-SOLAR-POWER-PLANTS-A-SOLUTION-THAT-ALLOWS-POWER-TO-BE-GENERATED-FASTER-AND-MORE-COST-EFFECTIVELY-THAN-OFFSHORE-WIND.html|publisher=OpenPR

|access-date=5 March 2013

}}

They can either be fixed tilt or use a single axis or dual axis solar tracker.

{{cite web

|title=Optimum Tilt of Solar Panels

|url=http://www.solarpaneltilt.com/

|publisher=MACS Lab

|access-date=19 October 2014

}}

While tracking improves the overall performance, it also increases the system's installation and maintenance cost.

{{cite web

|title = Tracked vs Fixed: PV system cost and AC power production comparison

|url = http://www.wattsun.com/pdf/AC%20EnergyComparison-Madison-WI.pdf

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101122154007/http://www.wattsun.com/pdf/AC%20EnergyComparison-Madison-WI.pdf

|url-status = dead

|archive-date = 22 November 2010

|publisher = WattSun

|access-date = 30 August 2012

}}

{{cite web

|title=To Track or Not To Track, Part II

|url=http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/report-snapshot-to-track-or-not-to-track-part-ii

|work=Report Snapshot|publisher=Greentech Solar|access-date=5 March 2013

}} A solar inverter converts the array's power output from DC to AC, and connection to the utility grid is made through a high voltage, three phase step up transformer of typically 10 kV and above.

{{cite web

|title = 3-phase transformer

|url = http://singapore.conergy.com/PortalData/1/Resources/master/pdf/Conergy_IPG_C_Transf_TD_ENG_2011-06-01_web.pdf

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220117055608/http://singapore.conergy.com/PortalData/1/Resources/master/pdf/Conergy_IPG_C_Transf_TD_ENG_2011-06-01_web.pdf

|url-status = dead

|archive-date = 17 January 2022

|publisher = Conergy

|access-date = 5 March 2013

}}

{{cite web|title=Popua Solar Farm |url=https://www.meridianenergy.co.nz/who-we-are/our-power-stations/solarfarm/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616205509/https://www.meridianenergy.co.nz/who-we-are/our-power-stations/solarfarm/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 June 2019 |publisher=Meridian Energy |access-date=22 April 2013 }}

The solar arrays are the subsystems which convert incoming light into electrical energy.{{cite web|title=Solar cells and photovoltaic arrays|url=http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/solar-power/photo-voltaics/|work=Photovoltaics|publisher=Alternative Energy News|access-date=5 March 2013}} They comprise a multitude of solar panels, mounted on support structures and interconnected to deliver a power output to electronic power conditioning subsystems.{{cite web|last=Kymakis|first=Emmanuel|display-authors=etal|title=Performance analysis of a grid connected photovoltaic park on the island of Crete|url=http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~cronin/Solar/References/Shade%20effects/sdarticle%20(16).pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417044730/http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~cronin/Solar/References/Shade%20effects/sdarticle%20(16).pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 April 2012|publisher=Elsevier|access-date=30 December 2012}} The majority are free-field systems using ground-mounted structures, usually of one of the following types:

Many projects use mounting structures where the solar panels are mounted at a fixed inclination calculated to provide the optimum annual output profile. The panels are normally oriented towards the Equator, at a tilt angle slightly less than the latitude of the site.{{cite web|title=Mounting solar panels|url=http://www.24volt.co.uk/info/SolarPanels/MountingSolarPanels|publisher=24 volt|access-date=5 March 2013}} In some cases, depending on local climatic, topographical or electricity pricing regimes, different tilt angles can be used, or the arrays might be offset from the normal east–west axis to favour morning or evening output.{{cite web|title=Best Practice Guide for Photovoltaics (PV)|url=http://www.seai.ie/Publications/Renewables_Publications/Solar_Energy/Best_Practice_Guide_for_PV.pdf|publisher=Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland|access-date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324014509/http://www.seai.ie/Publications/Renewables_Publications/Solar_Energy/Best_Practice_Guide_for_PV.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2012|url-status=dead}}

A variant on this design is the use of arrays, whose tilt angle can be adjusted twice or four times annually to optimise seasonal output. They also require more land area to reduce internal shading at the steeper winter tilt angle. Because the increased output is typically only a few percent, it seldom justifies the increased cost and complexity of this design.

{{Main|Solar tracker}}

File:Parc fotovoltaic de Bellpuig I.JPG uses pole-mounted 2-axis trackers]]

To maximise the intensity of incoming direct radiation, solar panels should be orientated normal to the sun's rays.{{cite web|title=PV Energy Conversion Efficiency|url=http://www.eyesolarlux.com/Solar-simulation-energy.htm|work=Solar Energy|publisher=Solarlux|access-date=5 March 2013}} To achieve this, arrays can be designed using two-axis trackers, capable of tracking the sun in its daily movement across the sky, and as its elevation changes throughout the year.{{cite web|last=Mousazadeh|first=Hossain|display-authors=etal|title=A review of principle and sun-tracking methods for maximizing|url=http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/22199541/1797755549/name/A%252Breview%252Bof%252Bprinciple%252Band%252Bsun-tracking%252Bmethods%252Bfor%252Bmaximizing.pdf|work=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (2009) 1800–1818|publisher=Elsevier|access-date=30 December 2012}}

These arrays need to be spaced out to reduce inter-shading as the sun moves and the array orientations change, so need more land area.{{cite web|last=Appleyard|first=David|title=Solar Trackers: Facing the Sun|date=June 2009|url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/06/solar-trackers-facing-the-sun|publisher=Renewable Energy World|access-date=5 March 2013}} They also require more complex mechanisms to maintain the array surface at the required angle. The increased output can be of the order of 30%{{cite web|last=Suri|first=Marcel|display-authors=etal|title=Solar Electricity Production from Fixed-inclined and Sun-tracking c-Si Photovoltaic Modules in|url=http://geomodelsolar.eu/_docs/papers/2012/Suri-et-al--SASEC2012--PV-potential-in-South-Africa.pdf|work=Proceedings of 1st Southern African Solar Energy Conference (SASEC 2012), 21–23 May 2012, Stellenbosch, South Africa|publisher=GeoModel Solar, Bratislava, Slovakia|access-date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308042239/http://geomodelsolar.eu/_docs/papers/2012/Suri-et-al--SASEC2012--PV-potential-in-South-Africa.pdf|archive-date=8 March 2014|url-status=dead}} in locations with high levels of direct radiation, but the increase is lower in temperate climates or those with more significant diffuse radiation, due to overcast conditions. So dual axis trackers are most commonly used in subtropical regions, and were first deployed at utility scale at the Lugo plant.

A third approach achieves some of the output benefits of tracking, with a lesser penalty in terms of land area, capital and operating cost. This involves tracking the sun in one dimension – in its daily journey across the sky – but not adjusting for the seasons.{{cite web|last=Shingleton|first=J|title=One-Axis Trackers – Improved Reliability, Durability, Performance, and Cost Reduction|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/42769.pdf|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|access-date=30 December 2012}} The angle of the axis is normally horizontal, though some, such as the solar park at Nellis Air Force Base, which has a 20° tilt,{{cite web|title=Nellis Air Force Base Solar Power System|url=http://www.nellis.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-080117-043.pdf|publisher=US Air Force|access-date=14 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124054750/http://www.nellis.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-080117-043.pdf|archive-date=24 January 2013}} incline the axis towards the equator in a north–south orientation – effectively a hybrid between tracking and fixed tilt.{{cite web|title=T20 Tracker|url=http://www.slocounty.ca.gov/Assets/PL/SunPower+-+High+Plains+Solar+Ranch/Initial+Application+Submittal/18+Appendix+F+-+Product+Data+Sheet+-+T20+Tracker.pdf|work=Data sheet|publisher=SunPower Corporation|access-date=14 April 2013}}

Single axis tracking systems are aligned along axes roughly north–south.{{cite journal|last=Li|first=Zhimin|display-authors=etal|title=Optical performance of inclined south-north single-axis tracked solar panels|journal=Energy|date=June 2010|volume=10|issue=6|pages=2511–2516|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2010.02.050|bibcode=2010Ene....35.2511L }} Some use linkages between rows so that the same actuator can adjust the angle of several rows at once.

Solar panels produce direct current (DC) electricity, so solar parks need conversion equipment to convert this to alternating current (AC), which is the form transmitted by the electricity grid. This conversion is done by inverters. To maximise their efficiency, solar power plants also vary the electrical load, either within the inverters or as separate units. These devices keep each solar array string close to its peak power point.{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=invert-your-thinking-squeezing-more-2009-08-26|title=Invert your thinking: Squeezing more power out of your solar panels|publisher=scientificamerican.com|access-date=9 June 2011}}

There are two primary alternatives for configuring this conversion equipment; centralized and string inverters,{{cite web|url=http://www.solarnovus.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=634|title=Understanding Inverter Strategies|publisher=Solar Novus Today|access-date=13 April 2013}} although in some cases individual, or micro-inverters are used.{{cite web|url=http://www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solar-interviews/solar-interviews/photovoltaic-micro-inverters-advantages-and-challenges-for-rooftop-pv-systems.html|title=Photovoltaic micro-inverters|publisher=SolarServer|access-date=13 April 2013}} Single inverters allows optimizing the output of each panel, and multiple inverters increases the reliability by limiting the loss of output when an inverter fails.

File:Juwi PV Field.jpg{{cite web|title=Waldpolenz Solar Park|url=http://www.juwi.com/solar_energy/references/details/waldpolenz_solar_park/de.html|publisher=Juwi|access-date=13 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213429/http://www.juwi.com/solar_energy/references/details/waldpolenz_solar_park/de.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}} is divided into blocks, each with a centralised inverter]]

These units have relatively high capacity, typically of the order between 1 MW up to 7 MW for newer units (2020),

{{cite web

|last=Lee|first=Leesa

|title=Inverter technology drives lower solar costs

|date=2 March 2010

|url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2010/03/inverter-technology

|publisher=Renewable Energy World

|access-date=30 December 2012

}}

so they condition the output of a substantial block of solar arrays, up to perhaps {{convert|2|ha}} in area.{{cite web|url=https://ewh.ieee.org/cmte/substations/scm0/Raleigh%20Meeting/Conference%20PDFs/Technical%20tours/PE_Solar_Farm_Fact_Sheet.pdf|title=Solar Farm Fact Sheet|publisher=IEEE|access-date=13 April 2012}} Solar parks using centralized inverters are often configured in discrete rectangular blocks, with the related inverter in one corner, or the centre of the block.{{cite web|url=http://sandringham.invenergyllc.com/3%20-%20Sandringham%20Design%20and%20Operations%20Report.pdf|title=Sandringham Solar Farm|publisher=Invenergy|access-date=13 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203055302/http://sandringham.invenergyllc.com/3%20-%20Sandringham%20Design%20and%20Operations%20Report.pdf|archive-date=3 February 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.stancounty.com/Planning/pl/agenda/2011/09-15-11/DEIR.pdf|title=McHenry Solar Farm|publisher=ESA|access-date=13 April 2013}}{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{cite web|url=http://woodville.invenergyllc.com/3/Woodville%20Attachment%204%20-%20Revised%20Acoustic%20Assessment%20Report-%20Woodville%20Oct%209,%202012.pdf|title=Woodville Solar Farm|publisher=Dillon Consulting Limited|access-date=13 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203055302/http://woodville.invenergyllc.com/3/Woodville%20Attachment%204%20-%20Revised%20Acoustic%20Assessment%20Report-%20Woodville%20Oct%209,%202012.pdf|archive-date=3 February 2016|url-status=dead}}

String inverters are substantially lower in capacity than central inverters, of the order of 10 kW up to 250 KW for newer models (2020),{{cite web|last=Appleyard|first=David|title=Making waves: Inverters continue to push efficiency|url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/01/making-waves__inverters|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130201052229/http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/01/making-waves__inverters|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 February 2013|publisher=Renewable Energy World|access-date=13 April 2013}} and condition the output of a single array string. This is normally a whole, or part of, a row of solar arrays within the overall plant. String inverters can enhance the efficiency of solar parks, where different parts of the array are experiencing different levels of insolation, for example where arranged at different orientations, or closely packed to minimise site area.{{cite web|title=Case study: German solar park chooses decentralized control|url=http://www.solarnovus.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4798:case-study-german-solar-park-chooses-decentralized-control&catid=77:case-studies-and-solar-solutions&Itemid=440|publisher=Solar Novus|access-date=13 April 2013}}

The system inverters typically provide power output at voltages of the order of 480 V_AC up to 800 V_AC.{{cite web|url=http://www.ge-energy.com/products_and_services/products/solar_power/ge_mw_brilliance_solar_inverter.jsp|title=1 MW Brilliance Solar Inverter|publisher=General Electric Company|access-date=13 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415064321/http://www.ge-energy.com/products_and_services/products/solar_power/ge_mw_brilliance_solar_inverter.jsp|archive-date=15 April 2013|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|title=Planning aspects of solar parks|url=http://www.ownergy.co.uk/library/gosple/D2PLAN1.pdf|publisher=Ownergy Plc|access-date=13 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514014247/http://www.ownergy.co.uk/library/gosple/D2PLAN1.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2014|url-status=dead}} Electricity grids operate at much higher voltages of the order of tens or hundreds of thousands of volts,{{cite web|last=Larsson|first=Mats|title=Coordinated Voltage Control|url=http://www.iea.lth.se/publications/Theses/LTH-IEA-1025.pdf|publisher=International Energy Agency|access-date=13 April 2013}} so transformers are incorporated to deliver the required output to the grid. Due to the long lead time, the Long Island Solar Farm chose to keep a spare transformer onsite, as transformer failure would have kept the solar farm offline for a long period.{{cite web|title=Long Island Solar Farm Goes Live!|url=http://www.blueoakenergy.com/blog/long-island-solar-farm-goes|publisher=Blue Oak Energy|access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013 Transformers typically have a life of 25 to 75 years, and normally do not require replacement during the life of a photovoltaic power station.{{cite web|title=Analysis of Transformer Failures|url=http://www.bplglobal.net/eng/knowledge-center/download.aspx?|publisher=BPL Global|access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013

{{main|Photovoltaic system performance}}

File:Photovoltaic power station, Glynn Co, GA, US.jpg ]]

The performance of a solar park depends on the climatic conditions, the equipment used and the system configuration. The primary energy input is the global light irradiance in the plane of the solar arrays, and this in turn is a combination of the direct and the diffuse radiation.{{cite journal

|last=Myers|first=D R|title=Solar Radiation Modeling and Measurements for Renewable Energy Applications: Data and Model Quality|journal=Proceedings of International Expert Conference on Mathematical Modeling of Solar Radiation and Daylight|date=Sep 2003|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy03osti/33620.pdf|access-date=30 December 2012}} In some regions soiling, the accumulation of dust or organic material on the solar panels that blocks incident light, is a significant loss factor.{{

cite journal |last1=Ilse |first1=Klemens |last2=Micheli |first2=Leonardo |last3=Figgis |first3=Benjamin W. |last4=Lange |first4=Katja |last5=Dassler |first5=David |last6=Hanifi |first6=Hamed |last7=Wolfertstetter |first7=Fabian |last8=Naumann |first8=Volker |last9=Hagendorf |first9=Christian |last10=Gottschalg |first10=Ralph |last11=Bagdahn |first11=Jörg |date=2019 |title=Techno-Economic Assessment of Soiling Losses and Mitigation Strategies for Solar Power Generation |journal=Joule |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=2303–2321 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2019.08.019 | name-list-style=vanc|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Joule...3.2303I |hdl=11573/1625631 |hdl-access=free }}

A key determinant of the output of the system is the conversion efficiency of the solar panels, which depends in particular on the type of solar cell used.{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Martin|last2=Emery|first2=Keith|last3=Hishikawa|first3=Yoshihiro|last4=Warta|first4=Wilhelm|name-list-style=amp|title=Solar Cell Efficiency Tables|journal=Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications|date=2009|volume=17|pages=85–94|doi=10.1002/pip.880|s2cid=96129300 |url=http://www.scec.sh.cn/scec_file/20100129_110700_953_863.pdf|access-date=30 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611205431/http://www.scec.sh.cn/scec_file/20100129_110700_953_863.pdf|archive-date=11 June 2012}}

There will be losses between the DC output of the solar panels and the AC power delivered to the grid, due to a wide range of factors such as light absorption losses, mismatch, cable voltage drop, conversion efficiencies, and other parasitic losses.{{cite journal|last1=Picault|first1=D|first2=B.|last2=Raison|title=Forecasting photovoltaic array power production subject to mismatch losses|journal=Solar Energy|date=2010|volume=84|issue=7|pages=1301–1309|url=http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~cronin/Solar/References/PV%20system%20modeling/Forecasting%20PV%20power%20production.pdf|access-date=5 March 2013|doi=10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.009|last3=Bacha|first3=S.|last4=de la Casa|first4=J.|last5=Aguilera|first5=J.|bibcode=2010SoEn...84.1301P|archive-date=27 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327152104/http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~cronin/Solar/References/PV%20system%20modeling/Forecasting%20PV%20power%20production.pdf|url-status=dead}} A parameter called the 'performance ratio'{{cite web|last=Marion|first=B ()|title=Performance Parameters for Grid-Connected PV Systems|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37358.pdf|publisher=NREL|access-date=30 August 2012|display-authors=etal}} has been developed to evaluate the total value of these losses. The performance ratio gives a measure of the output AC power delivered as a proportion of the total DC power which the solar panels should be able to deliver under the ambient climatic conditions. In modern solar parks the performance ratio should typically be in excess of 80%.{{cite web|title=The Power of PV – Case Studies on Solar Parks in Eastern|url=http://www.renexpo-bucharest.com/fileadmin/Tagungsunterlagen/PV%20Forum/04.%20CSUN.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408150212/http://www.renexpo-bucharest.com/fileadmin/Tagungsunterlagen/PV%20Forum/04.%20CSUN.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 April 2022|work=Proceeding Renexpo|publisher=CSun|access-date=5 March 2013}}{{cite web|title=Avenal in ascendance: Taking a closer look at the world's largest silicon thin-film PV power plant|url=http://www.pv-tech.org/chip_shots_blog/avenal_in_ascendance_taking_a_closer_look_at_the_worlds_largest_silic|publisher=PV-Tech|access-date=22 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222004326/http://www.pv-tech.org/chip_shots_blog/avenal_in_ascendance_taking_a_closer_look_at_the_worlds_largest_silic|archive-date=22 February 2015}}

Early photovoltaic systems output decreased as much as 10%/year, but as of 2010 the median degradation rate was 0.5%/year, with panels made after 2000 having a significantly lower degradation rate, so that a system would lose only 12% of its output performance in 25 years. A system using panels which degrade 4%/year will lose 64% of its output during the same period.{{cite web|title=Outdoor PV Degradation Comparison|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/477|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013 Many panel makers offer a performance guarantee, typically 90% in ten years and 80% over 25 years. The output of all panels is typically warranted at plus or minus 3% during the first year of operation.{{cite web|title=New Industry Leading Warrantee|url=http://www.recgroup.com/en/products/modules/rec-module-war|publisher=REC Group|access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013

File:Westmill Solar Cooperative 1.jpg{{cite web|title=Westmill Solar Park|url=http://www.westmillsolar.coop/home.asp|publisher=Westmill Solar Co-operative Ltd|access-date=30 December 2012}} is the world's largest community-owned solar power station{{cite web|last=Grover|first=Sami|title=World's Largest Community-Owned Solar Project Launches in England|url=http://www.treehugger.com/renewable-energy/worlds-largest-community-owned-solar-project-launches-england.html|publisher=Treehugger|access-date=30 December 2012}}]]

Solar power plants are developed to deliver merchant electricity into the grid as an alternative to other renewable, fossil or nuclear generating stations.{{cite web|title=Alternative Energy|url=http://www.altenergy.org/|publisher=Alternative Energy|access-date=7 March 2013}}

The plant owner is an electricity generator. Most solar power plants today are owned by independent power producers (IPP's),{{cite web|title=independent power producer (IPP), non-utility generator (NUG)|url=https://energyvortex.com/energydictionary/EnergyVortex.htm#independent_power_producer_(ipp)__non_utility_generator_(nug).html|work=Dictionary|publisher=Energy Vortex|access-date=30 December 2012}} though some are held by investor- or community-owned utilities.{{cite web|title=Investor-owned utility|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Investor-owned+utility|publisher=The Free Dictionary|access-date=30 December 2012}}

Some of these power producers develop their own portfolio of power plants,{{cite web|title=Owners and IPPs|url=http://wiki-solar.org/company/owner/index.html|work=Deployment of utility-scale solar parks by company|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=5 March 2015}} but most solar parks are initially designed and constructed by specialist project developers.{{cite web|last=Wang|first=Ucilia|title=The Crowded Field of Solar Project Development|date=27 August 2012|url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/08/the-crowded-field-of-solar-project-development|publisher=Renewable Energy World|access-date=30 December 2012}} Typically the developer will plan the project, obtain planning and connection consents, and arrange financing for the capital required.{{cite web|title=Leadership across the Entire Value Chain|url=http://www.firstsolar.com/About-First-Solar|publisher=First Solar|access-date=7 March 2013}} The actual construction work is normally contracted to one or more engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) contractors.{{cite news|last=Englander|first=Daniel|title=Solar's New Important Players|url=http://seekingalpha.com/article/138253-solar-s-new-important-players-chevron-lockheed-martin|access-date=30 December 2012|newspaper=Seeking Alpha|date=18 May 2009}}{{Unreliable source?|date=November 2021}}

Major milestones in the development of a new photovoltaic power plant are planning consent,{{cite news|title=Solar farm on 20 acres of Kauai land gets county planning commission approval|url=http://www.solar-hawaii.org/2011/07/15/solar-farm-on-20-acres-of-kauai-land-gets-county-planning-commission-approval/|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Solar Hawaii|date=15 July 2011}} grid connection approval,{{cite web|title=Aylesford – Certificate for grid connection|url=http://www.agrenewables.com/aylesford-certificate-for-grid-connection/|work=Aylesford Solar Park|publisher=AG Renewables|access-date=7 March 2013}} financial close,{{cite web|title=SunEdison Closes R2.6 Billion (US$314 Million) in Funding for 58 MW (AC) in South Africa Solar Projects|url=http://www.sunedison.com/wps/portal/memc/aboutus/newsroom/pressreleases/!ut/p/b1/jZPbjqJAFEW_pT_AUEUBwqNc5F4UV4UXInaJiAg2iMjXj93pl0mnnTlvJ1k7J9l7HyZjtkx22Y1VuRuq9rI7f-6ZkCOoARZx0NDFBABTMiIQrxXALsETSP8CbPETUGOoWxjpiP0_PfhlVuClXgbMhtlGqcgXvXvXtM3o1rHpmYkSlCOGPb3rHHFCu5ADqvgiSfBDOYfjSG0i4jHXswjRm7rlG1NXUHpRrs2i0prBbQZ07Kf6IK8tejCnteBfdXkV7UttSCMvBvydktKRnDytnZvsjrzpqpyGJLYD7wfgASKK6oGT9cGZr3sMz1MZB_Jhjx3WxhGhpkyrJRV8STnPi_jC1leRLI0PNWBDJFkyPA2LyyE0Kz54eFb-jt2pqVO864JGSIBAeqAPdB2Rx3TbiKIj_cjgh0n_yMBisvLcFs-4kyjl5aI0J_XpZXoN9LYbLKWBiRSGQOcjiypykrZSFXBGge_3niUXycrhSJerPJO2Z3Y-nTbNoBrE9T15QI_0ot3s7T3Dcw3pAH3qKvXD7vKEJZV0VffBeS5NytVoveDtD4M99mYzhYsk5NaB3zYStotOtrw4O5Yz1Y48brRJZeX-2C_S9N5NGT9cl3OPJO6I8jox-_V-l3ag7GrnYExy8aHCNNqGaK7UC-jdsSaPbp9Pxj1NGiAUcyT6y5ZfPHuUfdkEIbFdW4dA1-QlMF0jNIkYQ6Chb4Dzbdb49NFzAw2YhOcTSwXPqvPfwKtf-AJelf1lVA5gsNE2lEmf2PK3Q56NmIjZAi4PT4_OnOs5OM2Bh7UW4sidwRyjaDY2OK4f-N2DoYodUG7sjeDXelfXXZjtBG8v2FWrrIioukX7xnRNHI8OPz5LSY7t6u0Pe1dW_g!!/dl4/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/|publisher=SunEdison|access-date=7 March 2013}} construction,{{cite news|title=juwi starts build on its first solar park in South Africa|url=http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/view/30821/juwi-starts-build-on-its-first-solar-park-in-south-africa/|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Renewable Energy Focus|date=19 February 2013}} connection and commissioning.{{cite news|title=Saudi Arabia's Largest Solar Park Commissioned|url=http://islamicvoice.com/islamicvoice/saudi-arabias-largest-solar-park-commissioned/|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Islamic Voice|date=15 February 2013}} At each stage in the process, the developer will be able to update estimates of the anticipated performance and costs of the plant and the financial returns it should be able to deliver.{{cite web|title=Large scale solar parks|url=http://www.knowyourplanet.com/projects/large-scale-solar-parks/solar-parks|publisher=Know Your Planet|access-date=7 March 2013}}

File:202307 Survey - comfortable with solar wind nuclear in my community.svg

Photovoltaic power stations occupy at least one hectare for each megawatt of rated output,{{cite web|title=Statistics about some selected markets for utility-scale solar parks|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/analysis/index.html|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=30 December 2012}} so require a substantial land area; which is subject to planning approval. The chances of obtaining consent, and the related time, cost and conditions, vary by jurisdiction and location. Many planning approvals will also apply conditions on the treatment of the site after the station has been decommissioned in the future. A professional health, safety and environment assessment is usually undertaken during the design of a PV power station in order to ensure the facility is designed and planned in accordance with all HSE regulations.

The availability, locality and capacity of the connection to the grid is a major consideration in planning a new solar park, and can be a significant contributor to the cost.{{cite web|title=Τα "κομμάτια του πάζλ" μιας επένδυσης σε Φ/Β|url=http://www.renelux.com/Greek/odigos.html|work=Greek Photovoltaics Guide|publisher=Renelux|access-date=30 December 2012}}

Most stations are sited within a few kilometres of a suitable grid connection point. This network needs to be capable of absorbing the output of the solar park when operating at its maximum capacity. The project developer will normally have to absorb the cost of providing power lines to this point and making the connection; in addition often to any costs associated with upgrading the grid, so it can accommodate the output from the plant.{{cite web|title=Connecting your new home, building or development to Ausgrid's electricity network|url=http://www.ausgrid.com.au/Common/Our-network/Network-connections.aspx|publisher=Ausgrid|access-date=30 December 2012}} Therefore, solar power stations are sometimes built at sites of former coal-fired power stations to reuse existing infrastructure.{{Cite web|title=The Switch to Solar at Coal Power Plants and Mines is On|url=https://www.dpfacilities.com/in-the-news/the-switch-to-solar-at-coal-power-plants-and-mines-is-on/|access-date=2021-11-17|website=dpfacilities.com|language=en}}

Once the solar park has been commissioned, the owner usually enters into a contract with a suitable counterparty to undertake operation and maintenance (O&M).{{cite web|last=McHale|first=Maureen|title=Not All O&M Agreements Are Alike|url=http://www.interpv.net/tech/tech_view.asp?idx=822&part_code=020110051&page=2|publisher=InterPV|access-date=30 December 2012}} In many cases this may be fulfilled by the original EPC contractor.{{cite web|title=Project Overview|url=http://www.firstsolar.com/en/ProjectsOld/Projects-Under-Development/Agua-Caliente-Solar-Project/Overview|work=Agua Caliente Solar Project|publisher=First Solar|access-date=7 March 2013}}

Solar plants' reliable solid-state systems require minimal maintenance, compared to rotating machinery.{{cite web|title=Advantages of Solar Energy|date=20 January 2013|url=http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/Advantages_SolarEnergy.php|publisher=Conserve Energy Future|access-date=7 March 2013}} A major aspect of the O&M contract will be continuous monitoring of the performance of the plant and all of its primary subsystems,{{cite web|title=Addressing Solar Photovoltaic Operations and Maintenance Challenges|url=http://www.smartgridnews.com/artman/uploads/1/1021496AddressingPVOaMChallenges7-2010_1_.pdf|work=A Survey of Current Knowledge and Practices|publisher=Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)|access-date=30 December 2012}} which is normally undertaken remotely.{{cite web|title=IT for Renewable energy sources management|url=http://library.tee.gr/digital/m2521/m2521_grammatikakis.pdf|publisher=inAccess Networks|access-date=7 March 2013}} This enables performance to be compared with the anticipated output under the climatic conditions actually experienced. It also provides data to enable the scheduling of both rectification and preventive maintenance.{{cite web|title=Solar Park Maintenance|url=http://www.beba-energy.co.uk/commercial-solar-park-maintenance|publisher=BeBa Energy|access-date=7 March 2013}} A small number of large solar farms use a separate inverter{{cite web|url=http://enphase.com/eblog/2012/featured-array-brewster-community-solar-garden%C2%AE-facility/|title=Featured Array: Brewster Community Solar Garden® Facility|access-date=3 May 2013}}{{cite web|url=http://enphase.com/eblog/2013/featured-array-strain-ranches/|title=Featured Array: Strain Ranches|access-date=3 May 2013}} or maximizer{{cite press release|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20120731005409/en/Talmage-Solar-Engineering-Unveils-Largest-Smart-Array|title=Talmage Solar Engineering, Inc. Unveils Largest Smart Array in North America|date=31 July 2012 |access-date=3 May 2013}} for each solar panel, which provide individual performance data that can be monitored. For other solar farms, thermal imaging is used to identify non-performing panels for replacement.{{cite web|url=http://www.pv-power-plants.com/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/PVPP2012_low_02.pdf|title=PV Power Plants 2012|page=35|access-date=3 May 2013}}

A solar park's income derives from the sales of electricity to the grid, and so its output is metered in real-time with readings of its energy output provided, typically on a half-hourly basis, for balancing and settlement within the electricity market.{{cite web|title=Introduction to the Balancing and Settlement Code|url=http://www.elexon.co.uk/about/what-we-do/introduction-to-the-bsc/|publisher=Elexon|access-date=30 December 2012}}

Income is affected by the reliability of equipment within the plant and also by the availability of the grid network to which it is exporting.{{cite web|last=Mitavachan|first=H.|display-authors=etal|title=A case study of a 3-MW scale grid-connected solar photovoltaic power plant at Kolar, Karnataka|work=Renewable Energy Systems|publisher=Indian Institute of Science|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/174353088/A-case-study-of-3-MW-scale-grid-connected-solar-photovoltaic-power-plant-at-Kolar-Karnataka}}{{Unreliable source?|date=November 2021}} Some connection contracts allow the transmission system operator to curtail the output of a solar park, for example at times of low demand or high availability of other generators.{{cite web|title=Electricity network delivery and access|url=https://www.gov.uk/electricity-network-delivery-and-access|publisher=UK Department of Energy and Climate Change|access-date=7 March 2013}} Some countries make statutory provision for priority access to the grid{{cite web|title=Renewable electricity|url=http://www.erec.org/policy/sectoral-policy/electricity.html|publisher=European Renewable Energy Council|access-date=31 July 2012}} for renewable generators, such as that under the European Renewable Energy Directive.{{cite web|title=Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC| date=23 April 2009 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32009L0028:EN:NOT|publisher=European Commission|access-date=7 March 2013}}

In recent years, PV technology has improved its electricity generating efficiency, reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time (EPBT). It has reached grid parity in most parts of the world and become a mainstream power source.

{{cite web

|title = 2014 Outlook: Let the Second Gold Rush Begin

|url = https://www.deutschebank.nl/nl/docs/Solar_-_2014_Outlook_Let_the_Second_Gold_Rush_Begin.pdf?dbiquery=null%3Avishal+shah

|publisher = Deutsche Bank Markets Research

|date = 2014-01-06

|access-date = 2014-11-22

|archive-date = 29 November 2014

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129041750/https://www.deutschebank.nl/nl/docs/Solar_-_2014_Outlook_Let_the_Second_Gold_Rush_Begin.pdf?dbiquery=null%3Avishal+shah

|url-status = live

}}

{{cite web

|url=http://reneweconomy.com.au/2014/citigroup-outlook-global-solar-getting-brighter-51347

|title=Citigroup: Outlook for global solar is getting brighter

|author=Giles Parkinson

|publisher=RenewEconomy

|date=2014-08-13

|access-date=2014-08-18

}}

{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Photovoltaic Technology: A Path to Grid Parity and Mainstream Adoption |url=https://chipdealer.cn/2024/03/05/the-evolution-of-photovoltaic-technology/ |access-date= |date=5 March 2024 }}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

As solar power costs reached grid parity, PV systems were able to offer power competitively in the energy market. The subsidies and incentives, which were needed to stimulate the early market as detailed below, were progressively replaced by auctions{{cite journal |last1=International Renewable Energy Agency |title=Renewable energy auctions and trends beyond price |date=June 2019 |pages=32 |url=https://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2019/Jun/IRENA_Auctions_beyond_price_2019_findings.pdf |access-date=8 January 2021}} and competitive tendering leading to further price reductions.

The improving competitiveness of utility-scale solar became more visible as countries and energy utilities introduced auctions{{cite journal |last1=World Bank |title=Performance of Renewable Energy Auctions |date=October 2014 |pages=39 |url=http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/842071468020372456/pdf/WPS7062.pdf |access-date=8 January 2021}} for new generating capacity. Some auctions are reserved for solar projects,{{cite news |last1=Dezem |first1=Vanessa |title=Brazil Solar Power Auction May Spur $1 Billion in Investment |url=https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/2014/10/31/brazil-solar-power-auction-may-spur-1-billion-in-investment/#gref |access-date=8 January 2021 |agency=Bloomberg |publisher=Renewable Energy World |date=31 October 2014}} while others are open to a wider range of sources.{{cite news |last1=Gorey |first1=Colm |title=160 wind turbines and 1,750 hectares of solar approved in first State auction |url=https://www.siliconrepublic.com/machines/ress-auction-ireland-renewables |access-date=8 January 2021 |publisher=Silicon Republic |date=11 September 2020}}

The prices revealed by these auctions and tenders have led to highly competitive prices in many regions. Amongst the prices quoted are:

{{main|Grid parity}}

Solar generating stations have become progressively cheaper in recent years, and this trend is expected to continue.{{cite news|author=Aaron|title=Solar panels to keep getting cheaper|url=http://www.evoenergy.co.uk/blog/12483/solar-panels-to-keep-getting-cheaper/|access-date=13 January 2015|newspaper=Evo Energy|date=23 November 2012}} Meanwhile, traditional electricity generation is becoming progressively more expensive.{{cite news|last=Jago|first=Simon|title=Prices going one way|url=http://www.energylivenews.com/2013/03/06/steve-armitage-of-gazprom-energy-talks-bills-and-efficiency/|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Energy Live News|date=6 March 2013}} These trends led to a crossover point when the levelised cost of energy from solar parks, historically more expensive, matched or beat the cost of traditional electricity generation.{{cite web|last=Burkart|first=Karl|title=5 breakthroughs that will make solar power cheaper than coal|url=http://www.mnn.com/green-tech/research-innovations/blogs/5-breakthroughs-that-will-make-solar-power-cheaper-than-coal|publisher=Mother Nature Network|access-date=7 March 2013}} This point depends on locations and other factors, and is commonly referred to as grid parity.{{cite web|last=Spross|first=Jeff|title=Solar Report Stunner: Unsubsidized 'Grid Parity Has Been Reached In India', Italy–With More Countries Coming in 2014|work=ThinkProgress |url=http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/03/03/1664481/solar-report-stunner-unsubsidized-grid-parity-has-been-reached-in-india-italy-with-more-countries-coming-in-2014/?mob|publisher=Climate Progress|access-date=22 April 2013}}

For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the electricity transmission network, the levelised cost of solar energy will need to match the wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid parity' or 'busbar parity'.{{cite report |url=http://www.un-energy.org/stories/2498-re-considering-the-economics-of-photovoltaic-power |title=Re-considering the economics of photovoltaic power |author=Morgan Baziliana |display-authors=etal |work=UN-Energy |publisher=United Nations |date=17 May 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516014242/http://www.un-energy.org/stories/2498-re-considering-the-economics-of-photovoltaic-power |archive-date=16 May 2016 |url-status=dead }}

Prices for installed PV systems show regional variations, more than solar cells and panels, which tend to be global commodities. The IEA explains these discrepancies due to differences in "soft costs", which include customer acquisition, permitting, inspection and interconnection, installation labor and financing costs.

{{cite web

|title=Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy

|url=http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/TechnologyRoadmapSolarPhotovoltaicEnergy_2014edition.pdf

|publisher=IEA

|access-date=7 October 2014

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001012612/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/TechnologyRoadmapSolarPhotovoltaicEnergy_2014edition.pdf

|archive-date=1 October 2014|date=2014

|url-status= live

}}

{{main|Financial incentives for photovoltaics}}

In the years before grid parity had been reached in many parts of the world, solar generating stations needed some form of financial incentive to compete for the supply of electricity.{{cite web|last=Wolfe|first=Philip|title=Priorities for low carbon transition|url=http://politicsofclimatechange.wordpress.com/priorities-for-low-carbon-transition/philip-wolfe/|work=The politics of Climate Change|publisher=The Policy Network|access-date=7 March 2013|date=19 May 2009}}{{Unreliable source?|date=November 2021}} Many countries used such incentives to support the deployment of solar power stations.{{cite web|title=Taxes and Incentives for renewable energy|url=http://www.kpmg.com/Global/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/taxes-incentives-renewable-energy-2012.pdf|publisher=KPMG|access-date=7 March 2013}}

{{main|Feed-in tariff}}

Feed-in tariffs are designated prices which must be paid by utility companies for each kilowatt hour of renewable electricity produced by qualifying generators and fed into the grid.{{cite web|title=Policymaker's Guide to Feed-in Tariff Policy Design|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/448|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|access-date=22 April 2013}} Couture, T., Cory, K., Kreycik, C., Williams, E., (2010). National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Dept. of Energy These tariffs normally represent a premium on wholesale electricity prices and offer a guaranteed revenue stream to help the power producer finance the project.{{cite web|title=What are Feed-in Tariffs|url=http://www.fitariffs.co.uk/FITs/|publisher=Feed-in Tariffs Limited|access-date=7 March 2013}}

{{main|Renewable portfolio standard}}

These standards are obligations on utility companies to source a proportion of their electricity from renewable generators.{{cite web|title=Race to the Top: The Expanding Role of U.S. State Renewable Portfolio Standards|url=http://www.c2es.org/docUploads/RPSReportFin|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=22 April 2013}} In most cases, they do not prescribe which technology should be used and the utility is free to select the most appropriate renewable sources.{{cite web|title=Investment in electricity generation – the role of costs, incentives and risks|url=http://seg.fsu.edu/Library/Investment%20in%20Electricity%20Generation_%20The%20Role%20of%20Costs,%20Incentives,%20and%20Risks.pdf|publisher=UK Energy Research Centre|access-date=7 March 2013}}

There are some exceptions where solar technologies are allocated a proportion of the RPS in what is sometimes referred to as a 'solar set aside'.{{cite web|title=Solar Carve-Outs in Renewables Portfolio Standards|url=http://www.dsireusa.org/solar/solarpolicyguide/?id=21|publisher=Dsire Solar|access-date=30 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021172843/http://www.dsireusa.org/solar/solarpolicyguide/?id=21|archive-date=21 October 2012}}

{{main|Loan guarantee}}

Some countries and states adopt less targeted financial incentives, available for a wide range of infrastructure investment, such as the US Department of Energy loan guarantee scheme,{{cite web|title=Innovative Technology Loan Guarantee Program|url=http://www.doe.gov/sites/prod/files/edg/recovery/documents/Innovative__Technology_Loan_Guarantee_Program.pdf|publisher=US DOE Loan Guarantee Program Office (LGPO)|access-date=21 February 2012}} which stimulated a number of investments in the solar power plant in 2010 and 2011.{{cite web|title=Independent Review: DOE's Loan Guarantee Program Has Worked, Can Be Better|url=http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/does-loan-guarantee-program-has-worked-can-be-better-independent-review|publisher=GreenTech Media|access-date=7 March 2013}}

Another form of indirect incentive which has been used to stimulate investment in solar power plant was tax credits available to investors. In some cases the credits were linked to the energy produced by the installations, such as the Production Tax Credits.{{cite web|title=Production Tax Credit for Renewable Energy|url=http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/smart-energy-solutions/increase-renewables/production-tax-credit-for.html|publisher=Union of Concerned Scientists|access-date=30 August 2012}} In other cases the credits were related to the capital investment such as the Investment Tax Credits{{cite web|title=Business Energy Investment Tax Credit (ITC)|url=http://www.doe.gov/savings/business-energy-investment-tax-credit-itc|publisher=US Department of Energy|access-date=21 February 2012}}

In addition to free market commercial incentives, some countries and regions have specific programs to support the deployment of solar energy installations.

The European Union's Renewables Directive{{cite web|work=Renewables Directive|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:140:0016:0062:EN:PDF|title=Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council|publisher=European Commission}} sets targets for increasing levels of deployment of renewable energy in all member states. Each has been required to develop a National Renewable Energy Action Plan showing how these targets would be met, and many of these have specific support measures for solar energy deployment.{{cite web|last=Ragwitz|first=Mario|display-authors=etal|title=Assessment of National Renewable Energy Action Plans|url=http://www.repap2020.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/Roadmaps/D115-Assessment_of_NREAPs__REPAP_report_-_final_edition_.pdf|work=REPAP 2020|publisher=Fraunhofer Institut|access-date=7 March 2013}} The directive also allows states to develop projects outside their national boundaries, and this may lead to bilateral programs such as the Helios project.{{cite news|last=Williams|first=Andrew|title=Project Helios: A brighter future for Greece?|url=http://www.solarnovus.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3790:project-helios-a-brighter-future-for-greece&catid=38:application-tech-features&Itemid=246|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Solar Novus Today|date=3 November 2011}}

The Clean Development Mechanism{{cite web|title=Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)|url=http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php|publisher=UNFCCC|access-date=30 December 2012}} of the UNFCCC is an international programme under which solar generating stations in certain qualifying countries can be supported.{{cite web|title=CDM projects grouped in types|url=http://www.cdmpipeline.org/cdm-projects-type.htm#2|publisher=UNEP Risø Centre|access-date=7 March 2013}}

Additionally many other countries have specific solar energy development programmes. Some examples are India's JNNSM,{{cite web|last=Ministry of New and Renewable Energy|title=The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission|url=http://www.mnre.gov.in/solar-mission/jnnsm/introduction-2/|work=Scheme documents|publisher=Government of India|access-date=30 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131105523/http://www.mnre.gov.in/solar-mission/jnnsm/introduction-2/|archive-date=31 January 2018|url-status=dead}} the Flagship Program in Australia,{{cite news|last=Department for Resources, Energy and Tourism|title=Solar Flagships Program Open for Business|url=http://minister.ret.gov.au/mediacentre/mediareleases/pages/solarflagshipsprogramopenforbusiness.aspx|access-date=30 December 2012|newspaper=Government of Australia|date=11 December 2009}} and similar projects in South Africa{{cite news|title=South Africa: Renewable Energy Programme to Bring R47 Billion in Investment|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201210291349.html|access-date=30 December 2012|newspaper=allAfrica.com|date=29 October 2012}} and Israel.{{cite web|title=Solar Energy|url=http://energy.gov.il/English/Subjects/RenewableEnergy/Pages/GxmsMniRenewableEnergySolarEnergy.aspx|publisher=Ministry of Energy and Water Resources|access-date=30 December 2012}}

The financial performance of the solar power plant is a function of its income and its costs.

The electrical output of a solar park will be related to the solar radiation, the capacity of the plant and its performance ratio. The income derived from this electrical output will come primarily from the sale of the electricity,{{cite web|title=Investment in Solar Parks|url=http://www.solar-partner.com/en/investment-in-solar-parks.html|publisher=Solar Partner|access-date=7 March 2013}} and any incentive payments such as those under Feed-in Tariffs or other support mechanisms.{{cite web|title=Community ownership|url=http://www.westmillsolar.coop/faq.asp|work=FAQs|publisher=Westmill Solar Cooperative|access-date=7 March 2013}}

Electricity prices may vary at different times of day, giving a higher price at times of high demand.{{cite web|title=What are time-of-use rates and how do they work?|url=http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/energysavingsrebates/timevaryingpricing/timeofusepricing/|publisher=Pacific Gas and Electric|access-date=7 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202100847/http://www.pge.com/mybusiness/energysavingsrebates/timevaryingpricing/timeofusepricing/|archive-date=2 February 2014|url-status=dead}} This may influence the design of the plant to increase its output at such times.{{cite web|title=Optimum Orientation of Solar Panels for Time-of-Use Rates|url=http://www.macslab.com/optsolarpg|publisher=Macs Lab|access-date=22 April 2013}}

The dominant costs of solar power plants are the capital cost, and therefore any associated financing and depreciation.{{cite web|title=The Optimum Financing Structure|url=http://www.greenrhinoenergy.com/finance/renewable/which_structure.php|publisher=Green Rhino Energy|access-date=7 March 2013}} Though operating costs are typically relatively low, especially as no fuel is required, most operators will want to ensure that adequate operation and maintenance cover is available to maximise the availability of the plant and thereby optimise the income to cost ratio.{{cite news|last=Belfiore|first=Francesco|title=Optimizing PV Plant O&M Requires Focus on the Project Lifecycle|url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/01/optimizing-pv-plant-o-m-requires-focus-on-the-project-lifecycle|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Renewable Energy World}}

{{main|Solar power by country|Growth of photovoltaics}}

The first places to reach grid parity were those with high traditional electricity prices and high levels of solar radiation.{{cite web|title=Statistics about selected locations for utility-scale solar parks|url=http://www.wiki-solar.org/analysis/index.html|publisher=Wiki-Solar|access-date=5 March 2015}} The worldwide distribution of solar parks is expected to change as different regions achieve grid parity.{{cite web|title=Solar Photovoltaics competing in the energy sector – On the road to competitiveness|url=http://www.epia.org/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&file=/uploads/tx_epiapublications/Competing_Full_Report.pdf&t=1365998776&hash=2610e73e375d255b587ac517aa2d9eb9d6789664|publisher=European Photovoltaic Industry Association|access-date=13 April 2013}} This transition also includes a shift from rooftop towards utility-scale plants, since the focus of new PV deployment has changed from Europe towards the Sunbelt markets where ground-mounted PV systems are favored.{{rp|43}}

Because of the economic background, large-scale systems are presently distributed where the support regimes have been the most consistent, or the most advantageous.{{cite web| title=Renewable Power, Policy, and the Cost of Capital |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/50488/070419%20RPPCC%20FIN |publisher=UNEP/BASE Sustainable Energy Finance Initiative |access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013 Total capacity of worldwide PV plants above 4 MW_AC was assessed by Wiki-Solar as c. 220 GW in c. 9,000 installations at the end of 2019 and represents about 35 percent of estimated global PV capacity of 633 GW, up from 25 percent in 2014.{{cite web|title=Utility-scale solar breaks all records in 2014 to reach 36 GW|url=http://wiki-solar.org/library/public/150305_Utility-solar_2014_figures_set%20multiple_records.pdf|website=wiki-solar.org|publisher=Wiki-Solar|ref=WS2014}}

{{cite web

|title = Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2014–2018

|url = http://www.epia.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/EPIA_Global_Market_Outlook_for_Photovoltaics_2014-2018_-_Medium_Res.pdf

|website = epia.org

|publisher = EPIA – European Photovoltaic Industry Association

|access-date = 12 June 2014

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140625154728/http://www.epia.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/EPIA_Global_Market_Outlook_for_Photovoltaics_2014-2018_-_Medium_Res.pdf

|archive-date = 25 June 2014

|url-status = dead

}}{{Update inline|date=November 2021}} Activities in the key markets are reviewed individually below.

{{main|Solar power in China}}

In 2013 China overtook Germany as the nation with the most utility-scale solar capacity.{{cite news|last=Hill|first=Joshua|title=Giant Solar Farm Capacity Doubling Inside 12 Months Breaking 12 GW|url=http://cleantechnica.com/2013/02/22/giant-solar-farms-capacity-doubling-inside-12-months-breaking-12-gw/|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Clean Technica|date=22 February 2013}} Much of this has been supported by the Clean Development Mechanism.{{cite web|title=Project search|url=http://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/projsearch.html|work=CDM: Project activities|publisher=UNFCCC|access-date=7 March 2013}}

The distribution of power plants around the country is quite broad, with the highest concentration in the Gobi desert and connected to the Northwest China Power Grid.{{cite web|title=Northwest China Grid Company Limited|url=http://www.nw.sgcc.com.cn/E-company/coma|publisher=Northwest China Grid Company Limited|access-date=22 April 2013}}

{{main|Solar power in Germany}}

The first multi-megawatt plant in Europe was the 4.2 MW community-owned project at Hemau, commissioned in 2003.{{cite web|title=In Hemau liefert der weltweit größte Solarpark umweltfreundlichen Strom aus der Sonne|url=http://www.hemau.de/index.asp?NAVIID=%7B21B64141-C02C-4194-8A02-7D54CA2AB16F%7D|publisher=Stadt Hemau|language =de|access-date=13 April 2013}} But it was the revisions to the German feed-in tariffs in 2004, which gave the strongest impetus to the establishment of utility-scale solar power plants.{{cite web|title=Best of Both Worlds: What if German installation costs were combined with the best solar resources?|url=https://financere.nrel.gov/finance/content/germany-solar-feed-in-tariff-FIT-insolation-resource-comp|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013 The first to be completed under this programme was the Leipziger Land solar park developed by Geosol.{{cite web|title=Leipziger Land project|url=http://www.geosol.de/sites/default/files/references/GERMANY%20REFERENCE%20Leipziger%20Land%20-%20EN.pdf|publisher=Geosol|access-date=13 April 2013}} Several dozen plants were built between 2004 and 2011, several of which were at the time the largest in the world. The EEG, the law which establishes Germany's feed-in tariffs, provides the legislative basis not just for the compensation levels, but other regulatory factors, such as priority access to the grid. The law was amended in 2010 to restrict the use of agricultural land,{{cite news|last=Olson|first=Syanne|title=IBC Solar completes grid connection for 13.8MW German solar park|url=http://www.pv-tech.org/news/ibc_solar_completes_grid_connection_for_13.8mw_german_solar_park|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=PV-Tech|date=14 January 2011}} since which time most solar parks have been built on so-called 'development land', such as former military sites. Partly for this reason, the geographic distribution of photovoltaic power plants in Germany is biased towards the former East Germany.{{cite news|title=Eastern Germany's sunny future |work=Michael Dumiak |url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/05/28/100049624/index.htm |publisher=Fortune magazine |date=22 May 2007|access-date=15 January 2018 }}{{cite web|title=German PV Funding Up in the Air Again|url=http://www.solarbuzz.com/resources/analyst-insights/german-pv-funding-air|publisher=SolarBuzz|access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013

File:2020-05-20, Sentinel-2A L1C, True color (1).jpg is the world's largest solar park located in India]]

{{main|Solar power in India}}

India has been rising up the leading nations for the installation of utility-scale solar capacity. The Charanka Solar Park in Gujarat was opened officially in April 2012{{cite news|title=Gujarat Solar Park Inauguration at Charanka, Gujarat|url=http://www.indiansolarsummit.com/gujarat-solar-park-inauguration-at-charanka-gujarat/|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=Indian Solar Summit|date=19 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625164731/http://www.indiansolarsummit.com/gujarat-solar-park-inauguration-at-charanka-gujarat/|archive-date=25 June 2012|url-status=dead}} and was at the time the largest group of solar power plants in the world.

Geographically the states with the largest installed capacity are Telangana, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh with over 2 GW of installed solar power capacity each.{{cite web|url=http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/grid-connected-solar-power-project-installed-capacity.pdf|title=State wise installed solar power capacity|publisher=Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India|date=31 October 2017|access-date=24 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712123717/http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/grid-connected-solar-power-project-installed-capacity.pdf|archive-date=12 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Rajasthan and Gujarat share the Thar Desert, along with Pakistan. In May 2018, the Pavagada Solar Park became functional and had a production capacity of 2GW. As of February 2020, it is the largest Solar Park in the world.{{Cite web

|url=https://onixrenewable.com/blog/Top-Solar-Park-Developers-in-India-2025-Leading-the-Nations-Clean-Energy-Future.php

|title=Top Solar Park Developers in India (2025): Leading the Nation’s Clean Energy Future

|website=Onix Renewable

|author=Chiman Maru

|date=17 April 2025

|access-date=28 April 2025

|language=en

}}{{Cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-pros-and-cons-of-the-worlds-biggest-solar-park|title=Full Page Reload|website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News|language=en|access-date=2020-02-24}}{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/worlds-largest-solar-park-launched-in-karnataka/articleshow/63130074.cms?from=mdr|title=World's largest solar park launched in Karnataka|date=2018-03-01|work=The Economic Times|access-date=2020-02-24}} In September 2018 Acme Solar announced that it had commissioned India's cheapest solar power plant, the 200 MW Rajasthan Bhadla solar power park.{{cite news|title=Acme Solar Commissions India's Cheapest Solar Power Plant|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2018/09/24/acme-solar-commissions-indias-cheapest-solar-power-plant/|access-date=29 September 2018}}

{{main|Solar power in Italy}}

Italy has a large number of photovoltaic power plants, the largest of which is the 84 MW Montalto di Castro project.{{cite web|title=Top 10 Solar PV Power Plants|url=http://www.interpv.net/market/market_view.asp?idx=570&part_c|publisher=InterPV|access-date=22 April 2013}} Retrieved 13 April 2013

By the end of 2017, it was reported that more than 732 MW of solar energy projects had been completed, which contributed to 7% of Jordan's electricity.{{cite web|url=https://www.pp-magazine.com/2018/04/27/103-mw-solar-plant-comes-online-in-jordan/|title=103 MW solar plant comes online in Jordan|access-date=28 April 2018|date=26 April 2018|work=PV magazine}} After having initially set the percentage of renewable energy Jordan aimed to generate by 2020 at 10%, the government announced in 2018 that it sought to beat that figure and aim for 20%.{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-23/jordan-eyes-power-storage-as-next-step-in-green-energy-drive|title=Jordan Eyes Power Storage as Next Step in Green Energy Drive|author=Brian Parkin|access-date=23 April 2018|date=23 April 2018|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.}}{{Update inline|date=November 2021}}

{{main|Solar power in Spain}}

The majority of the deployment of solar power stations in Spain to date occurred during the boom market of 2007–8.{{cite news|title=Solar Industry Learns Lessons in Spanish Sun|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/09/business/energy-environment/09solar.html?_r=0|access-date=7 March 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=8 March 2010|first=Elisabeth|last=Rosenthal}}{{Update inline|date=November 2021}}

The stations are well distributed around the country, with some concentration in Extremadura, Castile-La Mancha and Murcia.

{{main|Solar power in the United States}}

File:2022 Solar photovoltaic facilities locations - USGS.jpg

While historically, the US deployment of photovoltaic power stations had been largely concentrated in southwestern states, initiatives to increase renewable energy have seen projects being built across the US, with large concentrations installed on the east coast too.{{Cite web |title=Where solar is found - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/solar/where-solar-is-found.php |access-date=2025-02-04 |website=www.eia.gov}} The Renewable Portfolio Standards in California{{cite web|title=California Renewables Portfolio Standard (RPS)|url=http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUC/energy/Renewables/index.htm|publisher=California Public Utilities Commission|access-date=7 March 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307050124/http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUC/energy/Renewables/index.htm|archive-date=7 March 2013}} and surrounding states{{cite web|title=Nevada Energy Portfolio Standard|url=http://www.dsireusa.org/incentives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_Code=NV01R|work=Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency|publisher=US Department of Energy|access-date=7 March 2013}}{{cite web|title=Arizona Energy Portfolio Standard|url=http://www.dsireusa.org/incentives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_Code=AZ03R|work=Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency|publisher=US Department of Energy|access-date=7 March 2013}} provide a particular incentive. Residential solar projects have also significantly increased in popularity due to the introduction of state-implemented policies.{{Cite web |title=Where solar is found - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/solar/where-solar-is-found.php |access-date=2025-02-04 |website=www.eia.gov}}

{{main|List of photovoltaic power stations}}

The following solar parks were, at the time they became operational, the largest in the world or their continent, or are notable for the reasons given:

{{Portal|Energy|Renewable energy}}

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• Growth of photovoltaics
• List of solar thermal power stations
• List of photovoltaic power stations
• List of photovoltaics companies
• List of solar cell manufacturers
• Photovoltaics
• Photovoltaic system
• Solar energy
• Solar power by country
• Theory of solar cell

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{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Photovoltaic power stations}}

• [http://www.wiki-solar.org/index.html Interactive mapping of worldwide projects over 10MW]

{{Photovoltaics}}

Category:Solar energy

Category:Photovoltaics

Category:Infrastructure

Category:Power stations