Principality of Hungary

{{History of Hungary}}

The ethnonym of the Hungarian tribal alliance is uncertain. According to one view, following the description in the 13th century chronicle, Gesta Hungarorum, the federation was called "Hetumoger / Seven Magyars" ("VII principales persone qui Hetumoger dicuntur", "seven princely persons who are called Seven Magyars"Gyula Decsy, A. J. Bodrogligeti, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0XbwAAAAMAAJ&q=Hetumoger Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, Volume 63], Otto Harrassowitz, 1991, p. 99), though the word "Magyar" possibly comes from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, called Megyer. The tribal name "Megyer" became "Magyar" referring to the Hungarian people as a whole.György Balázs, Károly Szelényi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4NlnAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Magyars:+the+birth+of+a+European+nation The Magyars: the birth of a European nation], Corvina, 1989, p. 8Alan W. Ertl, [https://books.google.com/books?id=X9PGRaZt-zcC&dq=magyar+megyer+tribal+name&pg=PA358 Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Précis of Continental Integration], Universal-Publishers, 2008, p. 358 Written sources called Magyars as "Hungarians" prior to their invasion of the Carpathian Basin when they still lived on the steppes of Eastern Europe (in 837 "Ungri" mentioned by Georgius Monachus, in 862 "Ungri" by Annales Bertiniani, in 881 "Ungari" by the Annales ex Annalibus Iuvavensibus).

In contemporary Byzantine sources, written in Greek, the country was known as "Western Tourkia"Peter B. Golden, [https://books.google.com/books?id=K2ppAAAAMAAJ&q=%22western+Tourkia%22 Nomads and their neighbours in the Russian steppe: Turks, Khazars and Qipchaqs], Ashgate/Variorum, 2003.

"Tenth-century Byzantine sources, speaking in cultural more than ethnic terms, acknowledged a wide zone of diffusion by referring to the Khazar lands as 'Eastern Tourkia' and to Hungary as 'Western Tourkia.'" Carter Vaughn Findley, [http://www.fatih.edu/~ayasar/HIST388/The%20Turks%20in%20World%20History.pdf The Turks in the World History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205130351/http://www.fatih.edu/~ayasar/HIST388/The%20Turks%20in%20World%20History.pdf |date=5 February 2016 }}, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 51, citing Peter B. Golden, 'Imperial Ideology and the Sources of Political Unity Amongst the Pre-Činggisid Nomads of Western Eurasia,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 2 (1982), 37–76.Carter V. Findley, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9p7tAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Western+Tourkia%22 The Turks in world history], Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 51 in contrast to Eastern (Khazar) Tourkia. The Jewish Hasdai ibn Shaprut around 960 called the polity "the land of the Hungrin" (the land of the Hungarians) in a letter to Joseph of the Khazars.Raphael Patai, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LLuPS1yVDf8C&q=The+Jews+of+Hungary:+History,+Culture,+Psychology The Jews of Hungary: History, Culture, Psychology], Wayne State University Press, 1996, p. 29, {{ISBN|978-0814325612}}

{{Main|Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin|Hungarian prehistory}}

File:Arrival of the Hungarians (Árpád Feszty).jpg, Árpád Feszty's and his assistants' vast (1800 m²) cyclorama, painted to celebrate the 1000th anniversary of the Magyar invasion of Hungary, now displayed at the Ópusztaszer National Heritage Park in Hungary]]

File:Europe around 900.jpg

On the eve of the arrival of the Hungarians (Magyars), around 895, East Francia, the First Bulgarian Empire and Great Moravia{{Cite book| last = Kirschbaum | first = Stanislav J. | title = A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan; St. Martin's Press | year = 1995 | location = New York | pages =26 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3JV_ARmBtYgC&q=A+History+of+Slovakia:+The+Struggle+for+Survival | isbn = 978-0-312-10403-0 | access-date = 2009-10-09}} Cited: "Great Moravia was a vassal state of the Germanic Frankish Kingdom and paid an annual tribute to it." ruled the territory of the Carpathian Basin. The Hungarians had much knowledge about this region because they were frequently hired as mercenaries by the surrounding polities and had led their own campaigns in this area for decades.István Süli-Zakar, The Most Important Geopolitical and Histogeographical Questions of the Age of the Conquest and the Foundation of the Hungarian State, In: [http://human.geo.science.unideb.hu/Cikkek/Cikk.pdf New Results of Cross-border Co-operation, The Department of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning of the University of Debrecen & Institute for Euroregional Studies "Jean Monnet" European Centre of Excellence], 2011, p. 12, {{ISBN|978-963-89167-3-0}} This area had been sparsely populatedAlfried Wieczorek, Hans-Martin Hinz, Council of Europe. Art Exhibition, [https://books.google.com/books?id=B5XpAAAAMAAJ&q=principality+of+Hungary Europe's centre around AD 1000, Volume 1], Volume 1, Theiss, 2000, pp. 363-372Bryan Cartledge, Bryan Cartledge (Sir.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=cqYMAQAAMAAJ&q=sparsely+populated+carpathian+basin The will to survive: a history of Hungary], Timewell Press, 2006, p.6 since Charlemagne's destruction of the Avar state in 803, and the Magyars were able to move in peacefully and virtually unopposed during the 9th century. The first mention of them living in the region dates back to 862.{{Cite book |last=Szőke |first=M. Béla |url=http://real.mtak.hu/20927/1/Szokekotet_angol_u_085622.294918.pdf |title=The Carolingian Age in the Carpathians |publisher=Hungarian National Museum |year=2014 |isbn=978-615-5209-17-8 |editor-last=Gergely |editor-first=Katalin |location=Budapest |page=112 |translator-last=Pokoly |translator-first=Judit |editor-last2=Ritoók |editor-first2=Ágnes |translator-last2=Strong |translator-first2=Lara |translator-last3=Sullivan |translator-first3=Christopher}} The conquest proper started from 894, when armed conflicts opened with the Bulgarians and Moravians after the requests for help from Arnulf, Frankish king and Leo VI, Byzantine emperor.{{Cite book |last1=Engel |first1=Pál |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RKJDwAAQBAJ |title=The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 |last2=Ayton |first2=Andrew |date=2001-02-23 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-173-9 |language=en}} During the occupation, the Hungarians found sparse population and met no well-established states or effective control of any empire in the plain. They were able to take over the basin quickly,{{Cite book |last1=Barta |first1=István |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofhungary0000magy |title=A history of Hungary |last2=Berend |first2=T. Iván |last3=Hanák |first3=Péter |last4=Lackó |first4=Miklós |last5=Makkai |first5=László |last6=Nagy |first6=L. Zsuzsa |last7=Ránki |first7=György |publisher=Collet's |year=1975 |editor-last=Pamlényi |editor-first=Ervin |page=22|isbn=9780569077002 }}{{Cite book |last=Macartney |first=Carlile A. |url=https://archive.org/details/hungaryshorthist0000maca |title=Hungary: a short history |publisher=Chicago University Press |year=1962 |isbn=9780852240359 |page=5}} defeating the First Bulgarian Tsardom, disintegrating the Principality of Moravia, and firmly establishing their state{{Cite journal |last=Szabados |first=György |year=2019 |editor-last=Miljan |editor-first=Suzana |editor2-last=B. Halász |editor2-first=Éva |editor3-last=Simon |editor3-first=Alexandru |title=The origins and the transformation of the early Hungarian state |url=http://real.mtak.hu/106552/1/Szabados2019Leedskonftanulmany.pdf |journal=Reform and Renewal in Medieval East and Central Europe: Politics, Law and Society |location=Zagreb}} there by 900.{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Pál |title=Beilleszkedés Európába a kezdetektől 1440-ig |publisher=Háttér Lapkiadó és Könykiadó |year=1990 |isbn=963-7403-892 |editor-last=Glatz |editor-first=Ferenc |volume=Magyarok Európában I |location=Budapest |page=97 |editor-last2=Burucs |editor-first2=Kornélia}} The invasion was not aimed at plundering the acquired lands as attacks were led by gyula Árpád and kende Kurszán, the two highest-ranking leaders,{{Cite book |last=Kontler |first=László |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofhungary0000kont |title=A history of Hungary: millennium in Central Europe |publisher=Palgrave Macmilllan |year=2002 |page=42}} who left no mass graves behind them showing that the transition back to an Avar-like system was peaceful for the locals.{{Cite AV media |title=Regényes történelem |language=hu |year=2022 |people=Borbála Obrusánszky, Endre Neparáczki, Miklós Makoldi}} Archaeological findings indicate that they settled in the lands near the Sava and Nyitra by this time.

{{See also|Hungarian invasions of Europe}}

The principality as a warrior state, with a new-found military might, conducted vigorous raids ranging widely from Constantinople to central Spain. Three major Frankish imperial armies were defeated decisively by the Hungarians between 907 and 910.Peter Heather, [https://books.google.com/books?id=suwVDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Frankish+armies+between+907+and+910%22&pg=PA369 Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe], Pan Macmillan, 2012, p. 369, {{ISBN|9780199892266}}

The Hungarians succeeded in extending the de jure Bavarian-Hungarian border to the River Enns (until 955),Clifford Rogers, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&dq=river+enns++borders+hungarians&pg=RA1-PA292 The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 1], Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 292 and the principality was not attacked from this direction for 100 years after the Battle of Pressburg. The intermittent Hungarian campaigns lasted until 970, but two military defeats in 955 (Lechfeld) and 970 (Arcadiopolis) marked a shift in the evolution of the Hungarian principality.Oksana Buranbaeva [https://books.google.com/books?id=WK_130Hqbr4C&dq=%22hungarian+principality%22&pg=PA19] Culture and Customs of Hungary

The change from a ranked chiefdom society to a state society was one of the most important developments during this time.[https://books.google.com/books?id=CA1WAAAAYAAJ&q=chiefdom The New Hungarian quarterly, Volumes 31-32], Corvina Press, 1990, p. 140 Initially, the Magyars retained a semi-nomadic lifestyle, practising transhumance: they would migrate along a river between winter and summer pastures, finding water for their livestock.Lajos Gubcsi, [http://mek.oszk.hu/09100/09132/09132.pdf Hungary in the Carpathian Basin], MoD Zrínyi Media Ltd, 2011 According to Györffy's theory derived from placenames, Árpád's winter quarters -clearly after his occupation of Pannonia in 900- were possibly in 'Árpádváros' (Árpád's town), now a district of Pécs, and his summer quarters -as confirmed by Anonymus- were on Csepel Island. Later, his new summer quarters were in Csallóköz according to this theory, however the exact location of the early center of the state is disputed. According to Gyula Kristó the center was located between the Danube and Tisza rivers, but the archaeological findings imply a location in the region of the Upper Tisza.{{Cite book| last =Révész| first =László| author-link =˙| title =A honfoglaló magyarok Északkelet- Magyarországon| publisher =Új Holnap 41| date =March 1996| url =http://oldwww.uni-miskolc.hu/city/Olvaso/ujholnap/marcius/revesz.htm| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120425052913/http://oldwww.uni-miskolc.hu/city/Olvaso/ujholnap/marcius/revesz.htm| archive-date =25 April 2012}}

Constantine VII's {{Lang|la|De Administrando Imperio}}, written around 950 AD, tries to define precisely the whole land of the Hungarians, or Tourkia.Günter Prinzing, Maciej Salamon, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uZDgivj7_RAC&dq=constantine+turkia+five+rivers&pg=PA31 Byzanz und Ostmitteleuropa 950 - 1453: Beiträge einer table-ronde während des XIX. International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Copenhagen 1996], Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1999, pp. 27-33 Constantine described the previous inhabitants of Hungary (e.g., the Moravians), described early Hungarian settlements and neighbors, and located Hungarian rivers (Temes, Maros, Körös, Tisza, Tutisz). Constantine had much more knowledge about the eastern parts of Hungary; therefore, according to one theory, Tourkia did not mean the land of the whole federation, but a tribal settlement and the source of the description of Hungary could have been Gyula whose tribe populated the five rivers around 950. According to another hypothesis, mainly based on Constantine's description, the Hungarians started to really settle western Hungary (Transdanubia) only after 950, because the eastern part of the country was more suitable for a nomadic lifestyle.

File:The Hungarian campaign in the East Frankish duchies of 910.jpg

Due to changed economic circumstances, insufficient pasturage to support a nomadic society and the impossibility of moving on,Nóra Berend, [https://books.google.com/books?id=x6fhiKmemxwC&dq=Hungarian+society+Arpad&pg=PA19 At the gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims, and "pagans" in medieval Hungary, c. 1000-c. 1300], Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 19 the semi-nomadic Hungarian lifestyle began to change and the Magyars adopted a settled life and turned to agriculture, though the start of this change can be dated to the 8th century.Antal Bartha, [https://books.google.com/books?id=iX_RAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Hungarian+Principality%22 Hungarian society in the 9th and 10th centuries], Akadémiai Kiadó, 1975, pp- 53-84, {{ISBN|978-963-05-0308-2}} The society became more homogeneous: the local Slavic and other populations merged with the Hungarians. The Hungarian tribal leaders and their clans established fortified centers in the country and later their castles became centers of the counties.Dora Wiebenson, József Sisa, Pál Lövei, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CNKhTFoz0q0C&dq=%22Hungary+was+established+895&pg=PA11 The architecture of historic Hungary], MIT Press, 1998, p. 11, {{ISBN|978-0-262-23192-3}} The whole system of Hungarian villages developed in the 10th century.

Fajsz and Taksony, the Grand Princes of the Hungarians, began to reform the power structure.László Kósa, István Soós, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0rhnAAAAMAAJ&q=Hungarian+society+Taksony A companion to Hungarian studies], Akadémiai Kiadó, 1999, p. 113{{Cite book| last =Révész| first =László| title =Hunok, Avarok, Magyarok (Huns, Avars, Magyars)| publisher =Hitel folyóirat (Magazine of Hitel)| date =2010-12-20| url =http://www.hitelfolyoirat.hu/dl/pdf/20110202-11330.pdf| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120319062534/http://www.hitelfolyoirat.hu/dl/pdf/20110202-11330.pdf| archive-date =19 March 2012}} They invited Christian missionaries for the first time and built forts. Taksony abolished the old center of the Hungarian principality (possibly at Upper Tisza) and sought new ones at Székesfehérvár and Esztergom.{{Cite book | last = Révész | first = László | title = A Felső-Tisza-vidék honfoglalás kori temetői |language=hu |trans-title=Cemeteries from the time of the conquest of the Upper Tisza region | publisher = História | date = February 2008 | url = http://www.historia.hu/archivum/2008/tart0802.htm | archive-date = 2008-04-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080409231927/http://www.historia.hu:80/archivum/2008/tart0802.htm | url-status = dead }}{{verify inline|reason=URL given was originally the root of this website which was obviously wrong. This page mentions the book, but the information there doesn't seem very helpful – is the URL really needed?|date=August 2024}} Taksony also reintroduced the old style military service, changed the weaponry of the army, and implemented large-scale organized resettlements of the Hungarian population.

The consolidation of the Hungarian state began during the reign of Géza.Stanislav J. Kirschbaum [https://archive.org/details/historyofslovaki00stan/page/40 A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival] After the battle of Arcadiopolis, the Byzantine Empire was the main enemy of the Hungarians.József Attila Tudományegyetem., Bölcsészettudományi Kar (University of József Attila), Acta historica, Volumes 92–98, 1991, p. 3 The Byzantine expansion threatened the Hungarians, since the subjugated First Bulgarian Empire was allied with the Magyars at that time. The situation became more difficult for the principality when the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire made an alliance in 972. In 973, twelve illustrious Magyar envoys, whom Géza had probably appointed, participated in the Diet held by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor. Géza established close ties with the Bavarian court, inviting missionaries and marrying his son to Gisela, daughter of Duke Henry II. Géza of the Árpád dynasty, Grand Prince of the Hungarians, who ruled only part of the united territory, the nominal overlord of all seven Magyar tribes, intended to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe, rebuilding the state according to the Western political and social model. Géza's eldest son St Stephen (István, Stephen I of Hungary) became the first King of Hungary after defeating his uncle Koppány, who also claimed the throne. The unification of Hungary, the foundation of the Christian stateMiklós Molnár, [https://books.google.com/books?id=y0g4YEp7ZrsC&q=hungary+history A Concise History of Hungary] and its transformation into a European feudal monarchy was accomplished by Stephen.

{{Main|History of Christianity in Hungary}}

{{See also|Metropolitanate of Tourkia}}

File:Pannonhalma - Bencés apátság.jpg, founded by Prince Géza in 996]]

The new Hungarian state was located on the border with Christendom. Since the second half of the 10th century AD, Christianity was flourished in Hungary as the German Catholic missionaries arrived from East Francia. Between 945 and 963, the main office-holders of the Principality (the gyula and the horka) agreed to convert to Christianity.András Gerő, A magyar történelem vitatott személyiségei, Volume 3, Kossuth, 2004, p. 13, {{ISBN|978-963-09-4597-4}}Mark Whittow, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bFh-ASmKksYC&q=%22Magyar+rulers+were+baptised+in%22 The making of Byzantium, 600-1025], University of California Press, 1996, p. 294

In 973 Géza I and all his household were baptised, and a formal peace concluded with the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I; however he remained essentially pagan even after his baptism: Géza had been educated by his father Taksony as a pagan prince.Ferenc Glatz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FnXwAAAAMAAJ&q=pog%C3%A1ny+fejedelemnek Magyarok a Kárpát-medencében], Pallas Lap- és Könyvkiadó Vállalat, 1988, p. 21 The first Hungarian Benedictine monastery was founded in 996 by Prince Géza. During Géza's reign, the nation conclusively renounced its nomadic way of life and within a few decades of the Battle of Lechfeld became a Christian kingdom.

File:Europe 912 en.jpg

Until 907 (or 904), the Hungarian state was under joint rule (perhaps adopted from the Khazars). The kingship had been divided between the sacral king (some sources report the titles "prince"Kevin Alan Brook, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hEuIveNl9kcC&dq=Kende+sacral+prince&pg=PA253 The Jews of Khazaria], Rowman & Littlefield, 2009, p. 253 or "khan"Victor Spinei, [https://books.google.com/books?id=R24jAQAAIAAJ&q=Kende+sacral+prince The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century: Hungarians, Pechenegs and Uzes], Hakkert, 2006, p. 42), or Kende, and the military leader, or gyula. It is not known which of the two roles were assigned to Árpád and which to Kurszán.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} Possibly, after the Kende Kurszán's death, this division ceased and Árpád became the sole ruler of the principality. The Byzantine Constantine Porphyrogennetos called Árpád "ho megas Tourkias archon" (the great prince of Tourkia), and all of the 10th-century princes who ruled the country held this title.[https://books.google.com/books?id=94JmAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Hungarian+principality%22+10th Acta historica, Volumes 105-110], József Attila Tudom. Bölcs. Kar, 1998, p. 28 According to the Agnatic seniority the oldest members of the ruling clan inherited the principality. The Grand Princes of Hungary probably did not hold superior power, because during the military campaigns to the west and to the south the initially strongMichael David Harkavy, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0uNZU_Wr6LwC&q=strong%2C+centralized+state The new Webster's international encyclopedia: the new illustrated reference guide], Trident Press International, 1998, p. 70 princely power had decreased.Timothy Reuter, [https://books.google.com/books?id=u-SsbHs5zTAC&dq=taksony+947&pg=PA545 The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 900-c. 1024], Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 543-545, {{ISBN|978-0-521-36447-8}} Moreover, the records do not refer to Grand Princes in the first half of the 10th century, except in one case, where they mention Taksony as 'duke of Hungary' (Taxis-dux, dux Tocsun) in 947. The role of military leaders (Bulcsú, Lél) grew more significant. The princes of the Árpád dynasty bore Turkic names as did the majority of the Hungarian tribes.{{Cite book |last=Ligeti |first=Lajos |title=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1982 |volume=36 |pages=419 |language=en}}

• Kende (in Arabic sources) or megas archon (in Byzantine sources), rex (in Latin sources), the Grand Prince of Hungarians (after 907 CE)
• Gyla or djila (gyula) or magnus princeps (in western sources), the military leader (second rank), the Grand Prince of Hungarians
• Horca, Kharkhas, the judgeAndrás Róna-Tas, A honfoglaló magyar nép, Balassi Kiadó Budapest, 1997, {{ISBN|963-506-140-4}} (third rank)

{{See also|Demographics of Hungary}}

There are various estimates of the size of the country's population in the 10th century, ranging from 250,000 to 1.5 million in 900 AD. There is no archaeological evidence that the Hungarian nobles lived in castles in the 10th century.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=72}} Archaeology revealed only one fortified building dated to the late 9th century (the castle of Mosapurc).{{sfn|Wolf|Takács|2011|p=238}} Only excavations of 11th century buildings give certain evidence of castle building.{{sfn|Wolf|Takács|2011|p=238}} However, the result of the excavations in Borsod may imply that the prelates and nobles lived in stone houses as early as the 10th century.{{sfn|Wolf|2008|p=14}} Muslim geographers mentioned that Hungarians lived in tents.{{sfn|Balassa|1997|p=291}} Beside tents, the common people lived in pit-dwellings, though there is archaeological proof of the appearance of multi-roomed{{sfn|Wolf|Takács|2011|p=209}} and wood-and-stone house types.{{sfn|Wolf|2008|pp=13–14}}

Some historians believe that Prince Árpád's people were Turkic speakers and the Magyars had been in the Basin since 680s. Their main argument is that the newcomers' cemeteries are too small, indicating that the population was not big enough to make Magyar the dominant language in the Basin. However, it seems that Árpád led the Megyer tribe, and it would be tricky if the Megyer tribe would have spoken Bulgar Turkic.{{clarify|date=May 2020}} Of course, in principle anything may happen in a symbiosis.[http://www.rmki.kfki.hu/~lukacs/DETREHUN.htm Proto-Magyar Texts from the middle of 1st Middle of 1st Millenium? or Are they published or not? B. Lukács, President of Matter Evolution Subcommittee of the HAS. H-1525 Bp. 114. Pf. 49., Budapest, Hungary.]

• List of Hungarian rulers
• Magyar tribes
• Seven chieftains of the Magyars
• Hungarian mythology
• Hunor and Magor
• Turul
• Old Hungarian script

{{reflist}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite book | editor-last = Balassa | editor-first = Iván | title = Magyar Néprajz IV.|trans-title=Hungarian ethnography IV.| publisher = Akadémiai Kiadó | year = 1997 | location = Budapest | isbn = 963-05-7325-3}}
• {{cite book |last1=Berend |first1=Nora |last2=Urbańczyk |first2=Przemysław |last3=Wiszewski |first3=Przemysław |year=2013 |title=Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c. 900-c. 1300 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78156-5 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Wolf |first1=Mária |last2=Takács |first2=Miklós |editor-last=Müller |editor-first=Róbert |title= Régészeti Kézikönyv |trans-title=Handbook of archaeology |publisher=Magyar Régész Szövetség |year=2011 |pages=209–248|chapter=Sáncok, földvárak" ("Ramparts, earthworks") by Wolf; "A középkori falusias települések feltárása" ("Excavation of the medieval rural settlements") by Takács |isbn=978-963-08-0860-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Wolf |first=Mária |title=A borsodi földvár |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/12900/12962/12962.pdf|publisher=Művelődési Központ, Könyvtár és Múzeum, Edelény |year=2008 |isbn=978-963-87047-3-3 }}

{{Refend}}

• {{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://mki.gov.hu/assets/pdf/MKI_EN_006_kings_and_saints_B5_web.pdf |title=Kings and Saints – The Age of the Árpáds |publisher=Institute of Hungarian Research |year=2022 |isbn=978-615-6117-65-6 |location=Budapest, Székesfehérvár}}
• {{cite web | url=http://human.geo.science.unideb.hu/Cikkek/Cikk.pdf | title=New Results of Cross-Border Co-operation | publisher=The Department of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning of the University of Debrecen; et al. | date=December 2011 | access-date=2 June 2012 | author=Kozma, Gábor (Editor)|display-authors=etal}} {{ISBN|9789638916730}}

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