Proto-Indo-European particles
{{short description|Grammatical particles}}
{{More citations needed|article|date=October 2008}}
{{Contains special characters|PIE}}
The particles of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages.
Adverbs
=Adverbs used as adpositions=
Many particles could be used both as adverbs and postpositions. This is similar to modern languages; compare English He is above in the attic (adverb) and The bird is above the house (preposition). The postpositions became prepositions in the daughter languages except Anatolian, Indo-Iranian and Sabellic; some of the other branches such as Latin and Greek preserve postpositions vestigially.{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=133–4}}
Reflexes, or descendants of the PIE reconstructed forms in its daughter languages, include the following.
| class="wikitable" style="background-color:#f0f8f0"
! Particle !! Meaning !! Reflexes | ||
| {{PIE|*h₂epo / h₂po / apo}} | from | Ved. ápa "away, forth", Gk. apó, Lat. ab "from", Alb. pa "without", Eng. of, off,{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=134}} Hitt. āppa, āppan "behind" |
| {{PIE|*h₂ed}} | to, by, at | Lat. ad, Osc. adpúd, Umb. ař, Goth. at, ON at, Eng. æt/at, Gm. az/--, Ir. ad/, Welsh add-, at, Gaul. ad, Phryg. addaket, XMK addai[http://www.phil.muni.cz/linguistica/art/blazek/bla-001.pdf Blažek : Indo-European Prepositions and Related Words (2005)] |
| {{PIE|*h₂eti}} | from, back, again | Lat. at, OCS отъ, Ir. aith-, Welsh ad- "re-", Toch. A atas, Toch. B ate "away", Gk. atar "however" |
| {{PIE|*h₂en / *h₂enh₃ / *h₂neh₃}} | on, upon | Av. ana, Gk. ano, Lat. in (in some cases), ON á, Goth. ana, Eng. an/on, Gm. ?/an, Lith. ant{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
| {{PIE|*h₂enti}} | against, at the end, in front of, before | Gk. anti, Lat. ante, Hitt. hantezzi "first" |
| {{PIE|*h₂eu}} | off, away, too much, very | Ved. ava, Lat. aut, autem, Lith. nuo |
| {{PIE|*h₂n̥-bʰi / *h₂m̥-bʰi}} | around{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|p=239}} (→ both) | Ved. abhi, Av. aiwito, aibi, Pers. abiy/?, Gk. amphi, ON um, Eng. bi/by; ymbi/umbe (obsolete), Gm. umbi/um; ?/bei, Lat. ambi, ambo, Gaul. ambi, Ir. imb/um, Welsh am, Toch. āmpi/?, Alb. mbi, Lith. abu, OCS oba, Russ. ob "about", oba "both" |
| {{PIE|*bʰeǵʰ}} | without | OCS без, OPruss. bhe, Ved. bahis "from outwards" |
| {{PIE|*de, *do}} | to | Gk. -de, Eng. to, Gm. zu, Lith. da-, OCS do, PER tâ, Welsh i, Ir. do, Luw. anda, |
| {{PIE|*h₁eǵʰs}} | out | Lat. ex, Gk. ἐκ (ek)/ἐξ (eks), Gaul. ex-, Ir. ass/as; acht/; echtar, Russ. из (iz), Alb. jashtë, Oscan eh-, Umbrian ehe-, Lith. iš, Ltv. iz, OPruss. is, Welsh ech- |
| {{PIE|*h₁eǵʰs-tos}} | outside | Gk. ektos |
| {{PIE|*h₁eǵʰs-tro- / *h₁eǵʰs-ter}} | extra | Lat. extra, Welsh either "except, besides" |
| {{PIE|*h₁en}} | in | Gk. en, Lat. in, Eng. in/in, Gm. in/in, īn/ein-, Ir. i, Welsh yn, Arm. i, Alb. në, OPruss. en, OCS vŭ(n)-,
Luw. anda, Carian nt_a, Goth. in, ON í, Ir. in/i, Lith. į, Ltv. iekšā{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
| {{PIE|*h₁en-ter}} | within, inside | Ved. antár "between", Lat. inter "between, among", Gm. untar/unter "between, among" (see also {{PIE|*n̥dʰ-er}} below), Ir. eter/idir "between", Cornish ynter, Alb. ndër "between, in", Pers. ændær "inside", SCr. unutar "within" |
| {{PIE|*h₁eti}} | beyond, over (about quantity), besides | Lat. et, etiam, Gk. ἔτι, οὐκέτι, Ved. अति (ati), Av. aiti, OPruss. et-, at- , Eng. ed-, edgrow, Gaul. eti, t-ic |
| {{PIE|*h₁opi / h₁epi }} | near, at, upon, by | Ved. ápi "by, on", Gk. epí "on", Lat. ob "on", Arm. ew "and", |
| {{PIE|*h₁neu}} | without | Khot. anau "without" Osset. aenae Gk. aneu |
| *h1poi
|away, thither |Hitt. pe-{{Cite book |last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |title=The Hittite Inherited Lexicon Volume II |date=2007 |publisher=Online: Leiden University |location=Leiden |pages=764}} | ||
| {{PIE|*km̥-th₂ / *km̥-ti}} | by, along | Hitt. katta "with, down (+Gen)", Gaul. kanta "with", Gk. katá "down" Welsh gan |
| {{PIE|*kom}} | with | Lat. cum, Ir. co/?, Welsh cyf-, Goth. ga- |
| {{PIE|*medʰi}} | in the middle | Pers., miyan Av. madiiana, Khot. mayana-, Ved. madhyama Lat. medius OPruss. median Goth. miduma "the middle" OCS meždu, Welsh y mewn |
| {{PIE|*n̥dʰ-eri}} | under | Ved. adhás, Av. aδairi, Lat. īnfr-ā, Eng. under/under, Arm. ənd,
Pers. ?/zēr, ON und, Goth. undar, Gm. untar/unter, Arm. ĕndhup/ĕnthub{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
| {{PIE|*ni}} | down, under | Ved. ní, Eng. ne-ther, Arm. ni, OCS ni-zŭ |
| {{PIE|*nu}} | now | Hitt. nu, Luw. nanun, Ved. nū, OPers. nūra/?, Pers. æknun/konun/?, Gk. nun, Lat. nunc, ON nū, Goth. nu, Eng. nū/now, Gm. nu/nun, Toch. nuṃ/nano, Lith. nūn, Ltv. nu, OPruss. teinu, OCS нъінѣ (nyne), Alb. tani, Arb. naní{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} (but see the list of conjunctions below) |
| {{PIE|*h₃ebʰi, h₃bʰi}} | towards, into, at | OCS объ |
| {{PIE|*per(i)}} | around, through | Ved. pári "around, forth", Gk. perí "around", Lat. per "through", OPruss. per, Alb. për, Russ. pere- "through, over" |
| {{PIE|*per / *pero / *prō}} | before, forth, in front of, ahead of | Hitt. pēran "before", prā "toward", Ved. prā, Lat. per, prō, Eng. for/fore-, Gm. ?/vor, Welsh rhy, rhag, er, Lith. per, pro{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}, Alb. para, Pers. pær-/pæri-/par-, Russ. pered |
| {{PIE|*pos}} | after | Ved. pascat, Lat. post, Lith. paskuiBeekes |
| {{PIE|*r̥ / *rō / *rō-dʰi}} | for (enclitic), for the purpose of | Ved. r̥{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} OCS ради |
| {{PIE|*trh₂os}} | through | Ved. tiras, Lat. trāns, Eng. through, OIr. tar,Beekes Welsh tra |
| {{PIE|*uper}} | above | Ved. upári, Gk. hupér, Lat. s-uper, Eng. over, Ir. for/fara, Welsh gor-, gwar- Arm. (i) ver "up", Alb. sipër, Gm. über |
| {{PIE|*up / *upo}} | under, below | Ved. úpa "up to", Gk. hupó "below", Lat. s-ub, Ir. fo/faoi, Welsh go-, gwa-
Hitt. upzi, Av. upa, Pers. upa/?, Umb. sub, Osc. sup, ON upp, Goth. iup, Eng. upp/up, Gm. uf/auf, Welsh go, Gaul. voretus, Toch. ?/spe, Lith. po{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
Untranslated reflexes have the same meaning as the PIE word.
In the following languages, two reflexes separated by a slash mean:
- English: Old English / Modern English
- German: Old High German / New High German
- Irish: Old Irish / Modern Irish
- Persian: Old Persian / Modern Persian
- Tocharian: Tocharian A / Tocharian B
=Negating prefixes (privatives)=
Two privatives can be reconstructed, {{PIE|*ne}} and {{PIE|*mē}}, the latter only used for negative commands. The privative prefix {{PIE|*n̥-}} is likely the zero grade of {{PIE|*ne}}.
| class="wikitable" style="background-color:#f0f8f0" | ||
| Particle | Meaning | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| {{PIE|*ne}} | sentence negator | Ved. ná, Lat. nē/ne-, Eng. ne/no, Gm. ne/nein, Lith. nè, OCS ne,{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=133}}
Hitt. natta, Luw. ni-, Lyc. ni-, Lyd. ni-, Av. na, Pers. na/?, Gk. ne-, Osc. ne, Umb. an-, ON né, Goth. ni, Ir. ní/ní, Welsh ni, Arm. an-, Toch. an-/en-, Ltv. ne, OPruss. ne, Pol. nie, Russ. ne, net, Alb. nuk{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
| {{PIE|*n̥-}} | privative prefix | Hitt. am-, Ved. a(n)-, Gk. a(n)-, Lat. in-, Alb. e-, Eng. un-, Gm. un- |
| {{PIE|*meh₁}} | negator for commands | Ved. mā, Per ma-, Gk. mē (Doric mā) |
=Adverbs derived from adjectives=
Adverbs derived from adjectives (like English bold-ly, beautiful-ly) arguably cannot be classified as particles. In Proto-Indo-European, these are simply case forms of adjectives and thus better classified as nouns. An example is {{PIE|*meǵh₂}} "greatly", a nominative-accusative singular.{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=132–3}}
Conjunctions
The following conjunctions can be reconstructed:{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2004|pp=134–5}}
| class="wikitable" style="background-color:#f0f8f0" | ||
| Particle | Meaning | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| {{PIE|*kʷe}} | and, word or phrase connector† | Hitt. -ku, Ved. ca, Av. ca, Gk. te, Lat. -que, Celtib. kue, Per ke |
| {{PIE|*wē}} | or, word or phrase disjunctor† | Ved. vā, Gk. -(w)ē, Lat. -ve |
| {{PIE|*de}} | and, sentence connector | Gk. dé, Alb. dhe, Russ. da "and" |
| {{PIE|*nu}} | and, sentence connector | Hitt. nu, Ved. nú, Gk. nú, Toch. ?/nu, Ir. no-/?, OCS nŭ (but see the adverbs above) |
†Placed after the joined word, as in Latin {{lang|la|Senatus populus-que Romanus}} ("Senate and people of Rome"), {{lang|la|-que}} joining {{lang|la|senatus}} and {{lang|la|populus}}.
Interjections
There is only one PIE interjection that can be securely reconstructed; the second is uncertain.
| class="wikitable" style="background-color:#f0f8f0" | ||
| Particle | Meaning | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| {{PIE|*wai!}} | expression of woe or agony | Hitt. uwai, Lat. vae, Welsh gwae, Breton gwa, Eng. woe, ON. vei, Pers. vai, Kurd. wai, Ved. uvē, Gk. aī, aī aī (woe!, alas!), Lith. vajé, Ltv. ai, vai, Arm. vai |
| {{PIE|*ō! / *eh₃!}} (?) | oh! | Gk. ō, Lat. ō, Eng. oh!, Gm. oh!, Russ. o!,{{harvcoltxt|Schenk|1998|pp={{Page needed|date=September 2010}}}} Pers. e!, |
Notes
{{Reflist|2}}
References
- {{Citation|last=Dunkel|first=George E|title=Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme|publisher=Carl Winter Universitätsverlag|year=2014|isbn=978-3-8253-5926-3}}
- Kloekhorst, Alwin "The Hittite Inherited Lexicon Volume II" (Online: Leiden University, 2007)
- {{Citation|last=Fortson|first=Benjamin W. IV|title=Indo-European Language and Culture|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=1-4051-0316-7}}
{{Proto-Indo-European language}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Indo-European Particle}}