Raoul Island

Evidence from archaeological sites on the northern coast of Raoul Island indicate that Polynesians settled there in the 14th century.{{Cite book|title=Raoul & the Kermadecs: New Zealand's Northernmost Islands, a History|first=Steven|last=Gentry|isbn=978-1-927242-02-5|year=2013|chapter=2: Rangitahua – the Stopping-off Place|pages=37–51|publisher=Steele Roberts Aotearoa}} A 1980 publication also suggested a lower layer of deposits dated to the 10th century, but this was rejected by the paper's author in 1991 in favour of the later date. Finds at the sites included stone implements of the Polynesian type, obsidian flakes, shells and charcoal. Obsidian of the same type has been found at early Māori sites at Shag River / Waihemo and Tai Rua, Otago on the South Island of New Zealand. There are also similarities to the Raoul settlement at archaic sites at Houhora and Papatowai. Higham and Johnson (1997) concluded that Raoul was settled from New Zealand but that the Kermadecs were a stepping stone in an early and rapid Polynesian migration from Polynesia to New Zealand and back although the occupation of the islands was relatively brief.Higham, Thomas and Johnson, Leigh (Oct 1997) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40387079 The Prehistoric Chronology of Raoul Island, the Kermadec Group]. Archaeology in Oceania, 32 No. 3 pp. 207–213. Wiley/JSTOR.

File:Admiralty Chart No 568 Raoul or Sunday Island, Published 1863.jpg

The island was uninhabited when first sighted by Western sailors and was named after Joseph Raoul, quartermaster of the Recherche, when it was sighted on 16 March 1793. Captain William Raven of the whaleship Britannia sighted the island on 6 March 1796 and called it Sunday Island, a name which was subsequently in common usage. Captain Henry Mangles Denham of HMS Herald charted the island in 1854.{{cite book |last1=David |first1=Andrew |title=The Voyage of HMS Herald |date=1995 |publisher=Miegunyah Press |location=Carlton, Victoria |isbn=0-522-84390-5 |pages=67-77}}{{cite web|last1=Nathan|first1=Simon|title=Kermadec Islands – Raoul Island|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/kermadec-islands/page-4|publisher=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|access-date=19 September 2016}}

The last regular occupants, Tom Bell and his wife Frederica, spent thirty-six years on the island before the New Zealand government evacuated them in 1914.{{cite book|last1=Guilliatt|first1=Richard|title=The Wolf|date=2009|publisher=William Heinemann|location=Sydney, Australia|isbn=9781741666243|pages=78}} A landing party sent to investigate the island found out how hasty the evacuation of the Bells was – a 1914 calendar was still pinned to the kitchen wall and the family's furniture, cutlery, and child's toys had remained in place. The family arrived with six children and five more were born there.{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Elsie|date=1957|title=Crusoes of Sunday Island|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|chapter=ch. 9}}

From 27 May to 16 June 1917, the German raider Wolf, under the command of Korvettenkapitän Karl August Nerger, anchored in the protected bay to undertake engine overhaul and maintenance. During this period Wolf captured the New Zealand steamship Wairuna (3,950 tons) and the American sailing bark Winslow (570 tons), commandeering all cargo and coal from both ships.

The New Zealand government has permanently staffed Raoul Island since 1937 until the evacuation of staff at the beginning of 2020 due to uncertainties around the COVID-19 pandemic. It included a government meteorological and radio station and hostel for Department of Conservation (DOC) officers and volunteers.{{cite web|title=Island of dreams|first=Bruce|last=Gabites|url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/island-of-dreams/|website=New Zealand Geographic|access-date=28 May 2024|date=July–September 1993}} The station stands on the northern terraces of the island, about {{convert|50|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in elevation above the cliffs of Fleetwood Bluff.

The meteorological station (WMO ID 93997) was initially operated by New Zealand Post Office staff operating the radio station, but shortly after the end of World War 2, the New Zealand Meteorological Service took over the running of the station, with nine full-time staff. Each team undertook 12-month expeditions to the island to provide three hourly weather reports{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} and once daily radiosonde flights using hydrogen filled balloons at 10:30{{Nbsp}}am.{{Cite web |date=1 October 2010 |title=Raoul Island Diaries: It’s not all weeds here on Raoul |url=https://blog.doc.govt.nz/2010/10/01/its-not-all-weeds-here-on-raoul/ |access-date=2 February 2025 |website=Department of Conservation}} Weather reports were radioed back to New Zealand using HF radio to ZLW Wellington Radio.

In addition to its primary purpose as a meteorological station, staff at the station also maintained a seismic monitoring station, made once a week measurements of sea temperature at Fishing Rock and the lake levels and temperatures of Blue and Green Lakes.

In 1990 the surface weather observation programme was automated and the Department of Conservation took over responsibility for operational activities on the island.

Raoul Island Station remains the northernmost outpost of New Zealand.

On 17 March 2006 at 8:21{{nbsp}}a.m. NZDT, a 40-second long volcanic eruption occurred at the Green Lake. At the time, Mark Kearney, a DOC worker, was at the crater taking water temperature measurements. A {{convert|5|ha|acre|abbr=off|adj=on}} area around Green Lake was affected with ash, mud and boulders. Two DOC workers were forced to turn back after going to the crater to search for Kearney.

Following the eruption, DOC decided to evacuate the remaining five staff members. A Mil Mi-8 helicopter and Piper PA-31 Navajo aircraft took off from Taupō at 11{{nbsp}}a.m. that morning.{{cite news|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10373133|title=DoC evacuates as Raoul Island erupts, 'one missing'|work=The New Zealand Herald|date=17 March 2006}} They arrived at the island in the late afternoon and undertook a 45-minute search for Kearney, but no sign was seen. The evacuated staff members were brought back to Auckland that evening.

A Royal New Zealand Air Force P-3 Orion made an overflight on 21 March to provide further information on how safe it was to approach Green Lake. The volcanologists aboard decided the area was still unsafe, and that the crater lake had risen by about {{convert|8|m|ft|1}} compared to measurements taken on 17 March. There was no cloud or ash plume.{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3611628a11,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315203104/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3611628a11,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 March 2007|title=Raoul crater ruled unsafe|publisher=The Press|date=22 March 2006}}

A group of police, the five evacuated workers, three other DOC staff and scientific staff left Tauranga on 18 March for the three-day boat trip to Raoul aboard the RV Braveheart to recover Kearney's body.{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3609389a10,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930041721/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3609389a10,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 September 2007|title=Raoul five return to look for mate|work=The Dominion Post|date=20 March 2006}} They were able to undertake a limited search, but decided that it was extremely unlikely that Kearney survived given the amount of devastation in the area around Green Lake. The Braveheart began the journey back to the mainland on 25 March, with three of the DOC workers staying on the island to continue research.{{cite news|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/latest/200603251658/1424cc35|title=DOC searchers on Raoul Island to head home|publisher=Radio New Zealand |date=25 March 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204075742/http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/latest/200603251658/1424cc35|archive-date=4 February 2012}} The three were joined by the other four evacuated workers at the start of May 2006. Two of the three will return to the mainland after the handover.{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3655085a7693,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104174954/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3655085a7693,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 January 2007|title=Raoul survivors return to island|publisher=NZPA|date=25 March 2006}}

Five hours after the eruption, the Aura satellite passed over and found an estimated {{convert|200|t|LT ST|0|abbr=off}} of sulfur dioxide had been released.[http://data.geonet.org.nz/geonews/sab/2006/03/alert-bulletin-raoul-island-volcano-24.html Alert Bulletin, Raoul Island volcano] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060405221344/http://data.geonet.org.nz/geonews/sab/2006/03/alert-bulletin-raoul-island-volcano-24.html |date=5 April 2006 }}, 24 March 2006 This confirmed that there were magmatic gases in the eruption, and the presence of degassing magma within the volcano. By the end of April, the activity in the area had decreased significantly and the "Alert Level" was lowered to 1.[http://data.geonet.org.nz/geonews/sab/2006/04/alert-bulletin-raoul-island-volcano-26.html Alert Bulletin, Raoul Island volcano] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617213315/http://data.geonet.org.nz/geonews/sab/2006/04/alert-bulletin-raoul-island-volcano-26.html |date=17 June 2006 }}, 26 April 2006

HMNZS Te Mana left for Raoul on 24 August 2006 on a resupply mission. Also on board were Kearney's sister, Merryn McDermott; three representatives of the Ngāti Kurī iwi; and Chris Carter, the Minister of Conservation. During a service held on 28 August, the Ngāti Kurī representatives performed a tapu lifting ceremony.{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3777336a10,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930060613/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3777336a10,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 September 2007|title=A place of death, and reconnection|date=26 August 2006|access-date=26 August 2006|publisher=Dominion Post}} A plaque was erected to honour Kearney. Te Mana also allowed some volcanic monitoring to be undertaken using its SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopter. During a dawn flight, sample bottles were filled with crater lake water.{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3774998a11,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930040742/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3774998a11,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 September 2007|title=Frigate leaves for Raoul Island|date=24 August 2006|access-date=26 August 2006|publisher=Dominion Post}}

A report by the New Zealand Department of Labour into the death was released on 14 October 2006. It cleared the Department of Conservation and the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Ltd of any negligence related to the death of Kearney. The report stated that the eruption was unpredictable and there was no indication of imminent seismic activity.{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3827977a11,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022221923/http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0%2C2106%2C3827977a11%2C00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 October 2006|title=Family 'let down' by Raoul report|work=The Dominion Post|date=14 October 2006|access-date=21 October 2006}}

Located on an active margin between two tectonic plates, the Kermadec Islands also experience frequent earthquakes, the most recently significant of which occurred at 19:28:31 UTC on 4 March 2021.{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/kermadec-and-new-zealand-earthquakes|title=Kermadec and New Zealand Earthquakes | U.S. Geological Survey|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=13 February 2022}} The epicentre occurred south of Raoul and measured 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale, and as such is classified as a 'major' earthquake by the United States Geological Survey. Also of note on 31 January 2007 at 4:15:55 NZST a Magnitude 6.5 (Strong) earthquake shook the island. The epicentre was approximately {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} S of Raoul and {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the seabed. On 9 December 2007 at 8:28{{nbsp}}pm NZST a magnitude 7.6 earthquake shook the area, centred approximately {{convert|350|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of Raoul Island at a depth of {{convert|188|km|mi|abbr=on}}.{{Cite web|url=http://www.geonet.org.nz/earthquake/quakes/2833367g.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210032253/http://www.geonet.org.nz/earthquake/quakes/2833367g.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 December 2007|title=GeoNet – New Zealand Earthquake Report – Dec 9 2007 at 8:28 pm (NZDT)|date=10 December 2007}} On 30 September 2008 at 3:19:31 NZST a magnitude 7.0 earthquake centred {{convert|70|km|mi|abbr=on}} S of Raoul occurred, with an approximate depth of {{convert|35|km|mi|abbr=on}}.{{Cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsww/Quakes/us2008xna6.php|title=Earthquake|access-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206035644/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsww/Quakes/us2008xna6.php#details|archive-date=6 December 2008|url-status=dead}} More recently on 22 October 2011 at 05:57:17 NZST a Magnitude 7.4 earthquake originating at 28.941S 176.045W at a depth of 39 km occurred according to the United States Geological Survey.

7 July 2011 – 7:03{{nbsp}}am. A 7.6 Magnitude earthquake occurred at a depth of 24 km, 211 km east of Raoul Island. 7 July 2011 – 8:51{{nbsp}}am Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre scientist Barry Hirshorn told Newstalk ZB the quake generated a 1.9 metre tsunami at Raoul Island.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/latest-news-marine-surge-warning/IQKVIXDH4FPPVRFO2XOYKBXBMM/|title=LATEST NEWS: Marine Surge Warning|date=7 July 2011|access-date=5 February 2024|newspaper=The New Zealand Herald}}

22 October 2011 – 5:57{{nbsp}}pm. A 7.4 magnitude earthquake occurred at a depth of {{convert|45|km|0|abbr=off}}, {{convert|230|km|0|abbr=on}} east of Raoul Island.

The Ministry of Civil Defence had issued the advisory while it assessed the severity of the threat to New Zealand. The Ministry was warning people in coastal areas to stay off beaches and out of the water. People were advised to avoid sightseeing and remain on alert in case the earthquake had generated a tsunami, however by mid-morning warnings had lifted.{{cite web|title=Tsunami – Potential threat to New Zealand Cancellation Update 2|url=http://www.civildefence.govt.nz/|publisher=Ministry of Civil Defence|access-date=22 October 2011}}

{{anchor|2 January 2012 DOC Worker Missing}}

Department of Conservation volunteer Mihai Muncus-Nagy, a 33-year-old biologist from Romania, went missing on Raoul Island on 2 January 2012.{{cite news|last=Anderson|first=Charles|title=Lost biologist drawn to NZ|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/6226597/Lost-biologist-drawn-to-NZ|access-date=8 January 2012|publisher=Stuff |location=New Zealand|date=8 January 2012}} He had gone to Raoul at the end of October 2011. His vehicle and gear were found close to where he had been carrying out water temperature readings on the morning of 2 January 2012.

The remaining staff and volunteers searched the shore, but found no further sign of him. A helicopter was sent to Raoul by the Rescue Coordination Centre New Zealand (RCCNZ) from Taupō to carry out an aerial search. A DOC boat was also used in the search.

Muncus-Nagy was presumed drowned.{{cite news|title=Search for DOC man on Raoul Island called off|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/6214167/Search-for-DOC-man-on-Raoul-Island-called-off|access-date=8 January 2012|publisher=Stuff |location=New Zealand|date=4 January 2012}} Auckland District Court later found the Department of Conservation culpable in his death for failing to ensure his safety.{{cite news|title=DOC convicted over man's death|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10849269|access-date=12 February 2019|newspaper=The New Zealand Herald|date=22 November 2012}}

4 March 2021 – 08:28 local time. An 8.1 magnitude earthquake occurred at a depth of {{convert|26.5|km|mi|abbr=}}, {{convert|4|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of Raoul Island.{{Cite web|title=M 8.1 – Kermadec Islands, New Zealand|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us7000dflf/executive|access-date=4 March 2021|publisher=United States Geological Survey}} Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the island was uninhabited at the time.{{Cite web|date=4 March 2021|title=No one on Kermadec Islands during earthquakes and tsunami warning|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/nz-earthquake/124444279/no-one-on-kermadec-islands-during-earthquakes-and-tsunami-warning|access-date=4 March 2021|website=Stuff |language=en}} The earthquake led to a tsunami warning for much of New Zealand, and evacuation of some coastal regions of the North Island.{{Cite news|url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2021/03/earthquakes-traffic-mounts-as-residents-flee-for-higher-ground.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310010835/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2021/03/earthquakes-traffic-mounts-as-residents-flee-for-higher-ground.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 March 2021|title=Earthquakes: Traffic mounts as residents flee for higher ground|date=5 March 2021|access-date=11 March 2021|website=Newshub }}

File:Nugent Meyer Dayrell Islands.jpg

{{Wikinews|New Zealand Department of Conservation leaves Raoul Island, minus one | Remote New Zealand island evacuated as volcano erupts}}

The island is about {{cvt|1100|km|mi nmi}} northeast of Auckland and its location means it is a convenient earthquake and tsunami monitoring station for several Pacific nations.{{cite web|url=https://www.geonet.org.nz/news/1AjZgc7OPoZSWN6P8dVjBD|title=A look at Raoul Island volcano|date=26 November 2024|access-date=26 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127103347/https://www.geonet.org.nz/news/1AjZgc7OPoZSWN6P8dVjBD|archive-date=27 November 2024}} Two Holocene calderas are found at Raoul. The older caldera, which cuts the centre of Raoul Island, is about {{cvt|3.5|x|2.5|km|mi}} long and wide respectively. Denham caldera, formed during a major dacitic explosive eruption about 2200 years ago, truncated the western side of the island and is {{cvt|6.5|x|4|km|mi}} long and wide respectively.

The Denham caldera was named for the nearby Denham Bay, itself named by Royal Navy Captain Henry Mangles Denham in HMS Herald, who came to complete a (chart) survey of the island on 2 July 1854. His son Fleetwood James Denham (16yrs) died from a tropical fever, and was buried near the beach at the head of Denham Bay, where a number of the grass-grown graves of former settlers were. The brass plaque heading this grave has been preserved.

Three small lakes, Blue Lake ({{convert|1.17|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=or}},{{citation needed|date=June 2009}} about 40% overgrown), Green Lake ({{convert|160000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|disp=or}}) and Tui Lake ({{convert|5000|m2|sqft|abbr=on|disp=or}}, drinking water quality) are located in the northern caldera of Raoul Island. The floor of the caldera surrounding the lakes is called Pumice Flats.

Raoul Island has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) close to the border of tropical climate (Af). On 12 February 2022, the minimum temperature in the Raoul Island was 25.6 °C, this is the highest minimum temperature ever recorded in New Zealand.{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/extremetemps/status/1492664820604157952|title=Today 13 February the record heat wave in New Zealand is reaching its end after one last hot night: The minimum temperature in the remote Raoul Island -29S-(Kermadec group) was 25.6C, this is the highest minimum temperature ever recorded in New Zealand (prev. 25.4C Napier 19-2-55)|via=Twitter|access-date=13 February 2022}}

{{Weather box

| location = Raoul Island

| metric first = yes

| single line = yes

| Jan record high C = 31.0

| Feb record high C = 30.7

| Mar record high C = 29.5

| Apr record high C = 28.4

| May record high C = 25.7

| Jun record high C = 24.2

| Jul record high C = 23.5

| Aug record high C = 23.0

| Sep record high C = 23.1

| Oct record high C = 25.0

| Nov record high C = 26.7

| Dec record high C = 28.7

| year record high C = 31.0

| Jan high C = 25.0

| Feb high C = 25.7

| Mar high C = 24.9

| Apr high C = 23.6

| May high C = 21.7

| Jun high C = 20.1

| Jul high C = 19.1

| Aug high C = 19.0

| Sep high C = 19.6

| Oct high C = 20.5

| Nov high C = 22.0

| Dec high C = 23.6

| year high C = 22.1

| Jan mean C = 22.3

| Feb mean C = 23.1

| Mar mean C = 22.4

| Apr mean C = 20.9

| May mean C = 19.0

| Jun mean C = 17.4

| Jul mean C = 16.9

| Aug mean C = 17.0

| Sep mean C = 17.1

| Oct mean C = 17.7

| Nov mean C = 19.2

| Dec mean C = 20.9

| year mean C = 20.7

| Jan low C = 19.7

| Feb low C = 20.5

| Mar low C = 19.9

| Apr low C = 18.3

| May low C = 16.4

| Jun low C = 14.8

| Jul low C = 13.7

| Aug low C = 13.3

| Sep low C = 14.0

| Oct low C = 14.9

| Nov low C = 16.4

| Dec low C = 18.2

| year low C = 16.7

| Jan record low C = 13.6

| Feb record low C = 14.3

| Mar record low C = 13.4

| Apr record low C = 10.5

| May record low C = 10.4

| Jun record low C = 9.0

| Jul record low C = 8.1

| Aug record low C = 7.4

| Sep record low C = 8.5

| Oct record low C = 9.3

| Nov record low C = 10.4

| Dec record low C = 12.5

| year record low C = 7.4

| Jan precipitation mm = 128

| Feb precipitation mm = 153

| Mar precipitation mm = 162

| Apr precipitation mm = 102

| May precipitation mm = 129

| Jun precipitation mm = 171

| Jul precipitation mm = 150

| Aug precipitation mm = 132

| Sep precipitation mm = 110

| Oct precipitation mm = 86

| Nov precipitation mm = 94

| Dec precipitation mm = 141

| year precipitation mm = 1558

| precipitation colour = green

| Jan sun = 276.4

| Feb sun = 244.8

| Mar sun = 201.2

| Apr sun = 168.3

| May sun = 148.4

| Jun sun = 129.6

| Jul sun = 144.5

| Aug sun = 168.6

| Sep sun = 199.4

| Oct sun = 228.4

| Nov sun = 219.8

| Dec sun = 258.6

| year sun = 2388.0

| source 1 = NIWA National Climate Database{{cite web|url=http://cliflo.niwa.co.nz|title=NIWA National Climate Database|website=Cliflo.niwa.co.nz}}

| date = September 2010

| source 2 = Météo Climat (extremes){{cite web|url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=1992|title=Météo climat stats for Kermadec|publisher=Météo Climat|access-date=21 March 2017}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind=93994&ano=2022&mes=2&day=13&hora=0&min=0&ndays=30|title=93994: Raoul Island Kermadec Island (New Zealand)|author=|date=12 February 2022|website=ogimet.com|publisher=OGIMET|access-date=12 February 2022}}

| source =

}}

Raoul Island is a stratovolcano on the Tonga–Kermadec Ridge which is a back-arc volcanic chain associated with the 4 to 5 million year old Kermadec–Tonga subduction zone.{{cite gvp|vn=242030|vtab=eruptive|name=Raoul Island}} Its formative lavas have erupted over at least the last 1.5 million years and range from basaltic to rhyolitic in composition.{{cite journal|last1=Haase|first1=K.M.|last2=Lima|first2=S.|last3=Krumm|first3=S.|last4=Garbe-Schönberg|first4=D.|year=2014|title=The magmatic evolution of young island arc crust observed in gabbroic to tonalitic xenoliths from Raoul Island, Kermadec Island Arc|journal=Lithos|volume=210|pages=199–208|doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2014.10.005|doi-access=free|bibcode=2014Litho.210..199H}}{{rp|p=200}} There was a change from predominantly basaltic and andesitic volcanism to the more silicic dacite and rhyolitic volcanism about 3700 years ago.{{cite thesis|first=K.R.|last=Herbert|year=2013|title=Temporal distribution and frequency of explosive volcanism in the Kermadec Arc, SW Pacific: Insights from marine cores. Masters thesis|publisher=Victoria University|location=Wellington|url=https://openaccess.wgtn.ac.nz/ndownloader/files/36445362|pages=1–176}}{{rp|p=11}}

The Raoul volcano massif is over twice the area of the island extending off the seafloor {{cvt|28| by |20|km}} and has a total volume of {{cvt|214|km3}}.{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=I.E.|last2=Worthington|first2=T.J.|last3=Price|first3=R.C.|last4=Stewart|first4=R.B.|last5=Maas|first5=R.|year=2006|title=Petrogenesis of dacite in an oceanic subduction environment: Raoul Island, Kermadec arc|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=156|issue=3–4|pages=252–265|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.03.003|bibcode=2006JVGR..156..252S}}{{rp|loc=Raoul Volcano}} Denham caldera's long axis is parallel to the tectonic fabric of the Havre Trough that lies west of the volcanic arc. There is a large undersea caldera about {{cvt|15|km}} to the northeast of the island in the volcanic edifice.{{rp|p=24}}{{cite journal|last1=Rotella|first1=M.D.|last2=Wilson|first2=C.J.|last3=Barker|first3=S.J.|last4=Schipper|first4=C.I.|last5=Wright|first5=I.C.|last6=Wysoczanski|first6=R.J.|year=2015|title=Dynamics of deep submarine silicic explosive eruptions in the Kermadec arc, as reflected in pumice vesicularity textures|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=301|pages=314–332|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.05.021|bibcode=2015JVGR..301..314R |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/510991/1/Rotella%20et%20al%202015.pdf }}{{rp|loc=2.2. Raoul SW volcano, Fig 2b.}}

About {{cvt|20|km}} south of Raoul Island is a separate submarine volcanic edifice referred to as Raoul SW, and further on the volcanic Macauley Island.{{rp|pp=16–17}}

Historical eruptions at Raoul during the 19th and 20th centuries have sometimes occurred simultaneously from both of the island's calderas, and have consisted of small-to-moderate phreatic eruptions, some of which formed ephemeral islands in Denham caldera. A {{convert|240|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} high unnamed submarine cone, one of several located along a fissure on the lower NNE flank of Raoul volcano, has also erupted during historical time, and satellite vents at Raoul are concentrated along two parallel NNE-trending lineaments.

Immediate volcanic risk at Raoul is confined to any who are on the island at the time, or shipping in the vicinity.{{cite book|title=Natural disaster reduction in Asia and the Pacific Volume II|year=1994|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|chapter-url=https://repository.unescap.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12870/6717/ESCAP-1994-RP-Natural-disaster-reduction-v2.pdf?sequence=4#page=54|chapter=Volcanic Hazard, Risk and Risk Reduction in the South-West Pacific (New Zealand to Papua New Guinea)|first=J.H.|last=Latter|pages=47–82}}{{rp|p=60}} However larger eruptions could pose a serious danger to aircraft on commercial routes and generate tsunami. The eruption of about 250 BCE was about the same size as the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa.{{cite journal|last1=Worthington|first1=T.J.|last2=Gregory|first2=M.R.|last3=Bondarenko|first3=V.|year=1999|title=The Denham caldera on Raoul Volcano: dacitic volcanism in the Tonga–Kermadec arc|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=90|issue=1–2|pages=29–48|doi=10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00018-9|bibcode=1999JVGR...90...29W}}{{rp|p=29}}

{{see also|Kermadec Islands}}

The scientific categorisation of the flora and fauna of the island began in 1854 when {{HMS|Herald|1824|6}}, captained by Henry Mangles Denham, arrived to complete the charting of the island. He arrived on the 2nd and was occupied till 24 July, during which time he frequently had to move the ship on account of the rough weather experienced. William Grant Milne and John MacGillivray, naturalists on board the Herald, made a small collection of plants on Raoul. This was forwarded by Captain Denham to Sir W. Hooker, and was described by Sir Joseph Hooker in the Journal of the Linnean Society for 1857.

A scientific expedition was undertaken by a group of naturalists to the Kermadec Islands in 1908.{{cite news|title=The Kermadec Islands.|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=OW19081118.2.165|access-date=23 December 2015|agency=Otago Witness |issue=2853|publisher=Otago Witness |date=18 November 1908}} The expedition established its base at Denham Bay. During that expedition one of the naturalists, W. L. Wallace, discovered numerous new insect species including the beetle Saprosites raoulensis.{{cite journal|last1=Broun|first1=T.|title=On the Coleoptera of the Kermadec Islands.|journal=Transactions of the New Zealand Institute|date=1910|volume=42|issue=42|page=295|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3333074#page/341/mode/1up|access-date=23 December 2015}}

Raoul is part of the Kermadec Islands subtropical moist forests ecoregion and is largely covered with closed-canopy forest, predominantly of the evergreen Kermadec pōhutukawa (Metrosideros kermadecensis) and the Kermadec nikau palm (Rhopalostylis baueri, formerly described as Rhopalostylis cheesemanii). It is just far enough south that the occasional fertile coconut from Polynesia that washes up on shore and takes root will not survive in the longterm due to a lack of warmth.International Palm Society The island has no native land mammals and was formerly home to vast colonies of seabirds who nested in the forests. The islands may once have had a species of megapode (based on early settler records) and a subspecies of kererū.Tennyson, A. & Martinson, P. (2006) Extinct Birds of New Zealand Te Papa Press, Wellington {{ISBN|978-0-909010-21-8}} Currently, landbirds on the island include the Kermadec red-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cyanurus), the Australasian harrier, pūkeko, tūī and several introduced species.C. R. Veitch, C. M. Miskelly, G. A. Harper, G. A. Taylor, and A. J. D. Tennyson (2004) "Birds of the Kermadec Islands, South-west Pacific" Notornis 51(2): 61–90 The island forms part of the Kermadec Islands Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because it is an important site for nesting seabirds.BirdLife International. (2012). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Kermadec Islands. Downloaded from {{cite web|url=http://www.birdlife.org|title=BirdLife International – conserving the world's birds|access-date=3 July 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710124603/http://www.birdlife.org/|archive-date=10 July 2007}} on 3 February 2012.

Polynesian visitors introduced the Polynesian rat in the 14th century and Norway rats, cats and goats were introduced by European and American visitors in the 19th and 20th centuries. The rats and cats greatly reduced the seabird colonies, which mostly withdrew to offshore islets, and exterminated the red-crowned parakeet, the last confirmed record of resident parakeets for over a century being made in 1836. Although the goats did not eliminate the tree canopy as they did on other islands, they greatly reduced the understorey vegetation and were removed in 1986. The Department of Conservation eradicated rats and cats between 2002 and 2006, following which red-crowned parakeets soon returned naturally, presumably from the Herald Islets, {{convert|2|–|4|km|mi|abbr=on}} away. The parakeets had been absent from the island for 150 years and their natural return was a notable event in parrot conservation.{{cite journal|last=Ortiz-Catedral|first=Luis|year=2009|title=Recolonization of Raoul Island by Kermadec red-crowned parakeets Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cyanurus after eradication of invasive predators, Kermadec Islands archipelago, New Zealand|journal=Conservation Evidence|volume=6|pages=26–30|url=http://www.conservationevidence.com/Attachments/PDF1469.pdf|access-date=22 June 2009|display-authors=etal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719230221/http://www.conservationevidence.com/Attachments/PDF1469.pdf|archive-date=19 July 2011}}{{cite news|url=http://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/about-us/news/article.cfm?mnarticle=conservation-breakthrough-as-kakariki-re-colonise-remote-island-13-06-2009|title=Conservation breakthrough as kakariki re-colonise remote island|date=15 June 2009|publisher=Massey University|access-date=15 June 2009}} {{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

There are numerous invasive plant species on the island and a large scale weeding programme involving teams of DOC workers and volunteers has been under way for a number of years in an attempt to eradicate them. Myrtle Rust has been found on the island in 2017.{{Cite web|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2017/serious-fungal-plant-disease/|title=Serious fungal plant disease found|website=Doc.govt.nz}}

The island is part of the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve, New Zealand's largest marine reserve, which was created in 1990.

The two largest satellite islands are North Island and South Island of Meyer Islands.

• Islands and rocks in the northeast of Raoul Island
• Fishing Rock
• Egeria Rock
• Meyer Islands
• North Island
• South Island
• Napier
• Nugent Island (northernmost island of New Zealand)
• Herald Islets
• Dayrell Island
• Chanter Islands
• Chanter (North) Island
• South Island
• West Island
• Islands and rocks in the southwest of Raoul Island
• Milne Islands
• Dougall Rocks

{{Portal|Islands}}

• List of earthquakes in New Zealand
• List of extinct bird species since 1500
• List of islands of New Zealand
• List of volcanoes in New Zealand
• Lists of islands
• New Zealand outlying islands
• Uninhabited island

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

• Oliver, R., 'The Vegetation of the Kermadec Islands'. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Volume 42, 1909, p. 121. URL: [http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_49/rsnz_49_00_003860.html RSNZ], accessed 3 January 2007.
• [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-BesPoly-t1-body-d1-d4.html Polynesian stone implements]
• {{cite gvp|vn=242030|title=Raoul Island}}

{{Commons category}}

• [http://www.seafriends.org.nz/issues/res/kermadec/ A visit to Raoul in 2002 by Dr. Floor Anthoni]
• [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-MorCrus.html A history of the Bell family who lived on Raoul/Sunday Island from 1878 to 1914]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20121122140853/http://doc.govt.nz/conservation/marine-and-coastal/marine-protected-areas/marine-reserves-a-z/kermadec/ Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve (New Zealand Department of Conservation)]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090627234122/http://www.geonet.org.nz/volcano/activity/kermadec-islands/index.html Raoul Island volcano webcam and seismic information ]
• [http://ortho.linz.govt.nz/nz_offshore_islands/raoul_high_res.jpg LINZ] – highly detailed map

{{Kermadec Islands}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Stratovolcanoes of New Zealand

Category:Active volcanoes

Category:Islands of the Kermadec Islands

Category:VEI-6 volcanoes

Category:Calderas of New Zealand

Category:Submarine calderas

Category:Island restoration

Category:Uninhabited islands of New Zealand

Category:Important Bird Areas of the Kermadec Islands

Category:Volcanic islands of New Zealand

Category:Volcanoes of the New Zealand outlying islands

Category:Holocene calderas