Second Temple

{{Further information|Return to Zion}}File:105.The Rebuilding of the Temple Is Begun.jpg from the 1866 {{lang|fr|La Sainte Bible}})]]

The accession of Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible.{{cite book |title=The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra: An Historical Survey |last=Albright |first=William |author-link=William F. Albright |year=1963 |publisher=HarperCollins College Division |isbn=978-0-06-130102-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/biblicalperiodfr0000albr}} Some rudimentary ritual sacrifice had continued at the site of the first temple following its destruction.{{cite book |last=Zevit |first=Ziony |chapter=From Judaism to Biblical Religion and Back Again |title=The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship |publisher=New York University Press |year=2008 |page=166 |isbn=978-0-8147-3187-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inRKaf_To5sC&pg=PA166 |access-date=2022-10-17 |archive-date=2023-08-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830021826/https://books.google.com/books?id=inRKaf_To5sC&pg=PA166 |url-status= live}} According to the closing verses of the second book of Chronicles and the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great (Ezra 1:1–4, 2 Chronicles 36:22–23), construction started at the original site of the altar of Solomon's Temple. These events represent the final section in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible. The original core of the book of Nehemiah, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era.{{cite book |date=1997 |editor1-last=Cartledge |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Garnsey |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Gruen |editor3-first=Erich S. |title=Hellenistic Constructs: Essays In Culture, History, and Historiography |location=California |publisher=University of California Press |page=92 |isbn=978-0-520-20676-2}}

Based on the biblical account, after the return from Babylonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360,{{bibleverse|Ezra|2:65|HE}} having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem, were animated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple.{{Cite EBD |wstitle=Temple, the Second}}

On the invitation of Zerubbabel, the governor, who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 golden darics, besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm.Ezra 2 First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris that occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators.{{bibleverse|Haggai|2:3|HE}}, {{bibleverse|Zechariah|4:10|HE}}

The Samaritans wanted to help with this work but Zerubbabel and the elders declined such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple unaided. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews. According to Ezra 4:5, the Samaritans sought to "frustrate their purpose" and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended.

Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died,{{bibleverse|2|Chronicles|36:22–23|HE}} and was succeeded by his son Cambyses. On his death, the "false Smerdis", an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king (522 BCE). In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion,{{bibleverse|Ezra|5:6–6:15|HE}} under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people, although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to a foreign power.

The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the Second Temple would be greater than that of the first.{{bibleverse|Haggai|2:9|HE}} While the Temple may well have been consecrated in 516, construction and expansion may have continued as late as 500 BCE.{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |author-link=Lester L. Grabbe |date=2004 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud: A History of the Persian Province of Judah |location= |publisher=T&T Clark |volume=1 |series=Library of Second Temple Studies 47 |isbn=978-0-567-08998-4 |pages=282–285}}

Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 586 BCE, and are presumed lost. The Second Temple lacked various holy articles, including the Ark of the Covenant{{Jewish Encyclopedia |no-prescript=1|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=128&letter=T&search=second|title=Temple, The Second}} containing the Tablets of Stone, before which were placed the pot of manna and Aaron's rod, the Urim and Thummim (divination objects contained in the {{transliteration|he|Hoshen}}), the holy oil and the sacred fire. The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great.{{bibleverse|Ezra|1:7–11}}

No detailed description of the Temple's architecture is given in the Hebrew Bible, save that it was sixty cubits in both width and height, and was constructed with stone and lumber.{{bibleverse|Ezra|6:3–4|HE}} In the Second Temple, the Holy of Holies ({{transliteration|he|Kodesh Hakodashim}}) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second Temple included the Menorah (golden lamp) for the {{transliteration|he|Hekhal}}, the Table of Showbread and the golden altar of incense, with golden censers.

Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great, it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when the Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated Pharaoh Ptolemy V Epiphanes at the Battle of Paneion.

In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He also, according to Josephus, "compelled Jews to dissolve the laws of the country, to keep their infants un-circumcised, and to sacrifice swine's flesh upon the altar; against which they all opposed themselves, and the most approved among them were put to death."{{cite web |last=Josephus |first=Flavius |date=2012-06-29 |title=The Wars of the Jews |url=http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=1:section=31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120629063533/http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=1:section=31 |archive-date=2012-06-29 |access-date=2019-01-26 |page=i. 34}}

These anti-Jewish persecutions provoked the Maccabean Revolt, led by Judas Maccabeus and his brothers from the priestly Hasmonean family. After several years of guerrilla warfare, the Maccabees succeeded in driving out the Seleucid forces from Jerusalem. In 164 BCE, they recaptured the Temple Mount, removed the pagan altar, and undertook the purification and rededication of the Second Temple.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=582}} This event is the origin of the Jewish festival of Hanukkah, which begins on the 25th of Kislev.{{Jewish Encyclopedia|title=Ḥanukkah|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7233-hanukkah|first=Kohler|last=Kaufmann|inline=1}}{{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Ari L. |url=https://archive.org/details/beingjewishspiri00gold/page/141 |title=Being Jewish: The Spiritual and Cultural Practice of Judaism Today |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-684-82389-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/beingjewishspiri00gold/page/141 141]}} The earliest accounts of the holiday appear in the Books of the Maccabees, which both associate it with the 25th of Kislev—either as the date when sacrifices resumed following the cleansing of the Temple (according to 1 Maccabees),1 Maccabees, 4:36–59 or as the date of the cleansing itself (according to 2 Maccabees).2 Maccabees, 10:5–6{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=582}}

There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule. Salome Alexandra, the queen of the Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus II as the high priest of Judaea. Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was next in the succession, agreed to be content with being high priest. Antipater, the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually, Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III, king of the Nabateans, and returned with an army to take back the throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. The Roman general Pompey, who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War, sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this, which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey's forces. The Romans besieged and took the city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices.{{cite book |author=Lester L. Grabbe |author-link=Lester L. Grabbe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i89-9fdNUcAC&pg=PA20 |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus |publisher=A&C Black |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |pages=19–20, 26–29 |access-date=2015-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830021831/https://books.google.com/books?id=i89-9fdNUcAC&pg=PA20 |archive-date=2023-08-30 |url-status=live}}

File:19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005.jpg; east at the bottom]]

In c. 20/19 BCE,{{Efn|This dating is based on Josephus' account in Antiquities of the Jews (XV, 380), which states that construction began in Herod’s eighteenth regnal year. In The Jewish War (I, 401), he gives a different date—Herod's fifteenth year—but scholars, including Bahat, consider this less likely.{{sfn|Bahat|1999|p=58}}}}{{Sfn|Bahat|1999|p=38}} Herod, king of Judaea, began an ambitious renovation of the Second Temple. The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. Herod's Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE.Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem. Later, the sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax.{{bibleverse|Exodus|30:13}}

According to Josephus, the construction of the Temple itself took about a year and a half, while the porticoes and outer walls required a further eight years.Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XV, 420–421{{Sfn|Bahat|1999|p=38}} During the works, Herod was careful not to offend religious sensitivities:{{Sfn|Bahat|1999|pp=38–39}} ten thousand laborers and a thousand priests were specially trained for the construction, daily offerings continued uninterrupted,Antiquities of the Jews, XV, 382–7 and modesty partitions were erected to shield sacred rituals from view.Mishnah, Eduyot, 8:6{{Sfn|Bahat|1999|pp=38–39}} While the main structures were largely completed during Herod's reign, construction at the complex continued for decades, possibly until the 60s CE, as reflected in the New Testament's mention of 46 years of workGospel of John, 2:20 and Josephus' reference to additions under the procurator Lucceius Albinus (c. 62–64 CE).{{Sfn|Bahat|1999|pp=38–39}}

In the early 40s CE, a major crisis erupted when the Emperor Caligula ordered that a statue of himself be installed in the Temple—a move that would have deeply violated Jewish religious beliefs prohibiting idolatry.{{Sfn|Goodman|2006|p=48}} The Jewish population in Judaea and Galilee responded with mass protests and passive resistance, including a sit-in to block the Roman army from transporting the statue.{{Sfn|Goodman|2006|p=48}} Jewish leaders also mobilized diplomatically: Philo, in Rome as part of a delegation representing the Jews of Alexandria, appealed to Caligula, while Agrippa I, a Herodian prince and confidant of the emperor, attempted to dissuade him. The crisis was ultimately averted with Caligula's assassination in 41 CE.{{Sfn|Goodman|2006|p=48}}

{{See also|Missing years (Jewish calendar)|Traditional Jewish chronology}}

Traditional rabbinic literature states that the Second Temple stood for 420 years, and, based on the 2nd-century work {{transliteration|he|Seder Olam Rabbah}}, placed construction in 356 BCE (3824 AM), 164 years later than academic estimates, and destruction in 68 CE (3828 AM).Seder Olam Rabbah chapter 30; Tosefta (Zevahim 13:6); Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 18a); Babylonian Talmud (Megillah 11b–12a; Arakhin 12b; Baba Bathra 4a), Maimonides, Mishneh Torah (Hil. Shmita ve-yovel 10:3). Cf. Goldwurm, Hersh. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pZsPsOhxhSoC&q=%22year+of+the+destruction%22&pg=PA211 History of the Jewish people: the Second Temple era] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830021827/https://books.google.com/books?id=pZsPsOhxhSoC&q=%22year+of+the+destruction%22&pg=PA211 |date=2023-08-30 }}, Mesorah Publications, 1982. Appendix: Year of the Destruction, p. 213. {{ISBN|978-0-89906-454-3}}{{efn|Classical Jewish records (e.g. Maimonides' Responsa, etc.) put the Second Temple period from 352 BCE to 68 CE, a total of 420 years.}}

According to the Mishnah,Middot 3:6 the "Foundation Stone" stood where the Ark used to be, and the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur. The fifth order, or division, of the Mishnah, known as Kodashim, provides detailed descriptions and discussions of the religious laws connected with Temple service including the sacrifices, the Temple and its furnishings, as well as the priests who carried out the duties and ceremonies of its service. Tractates of the order deal with the sacrifices of animals, birds, and meal offerings, the laws of bringing a sacrifice, such as the sin offering and the guilt offering, and the laws of misappropriation of sacred property. In addition, the order contains a description of the Second Temple (tractate Middot), and a description and rules about the daily sacrifice service in the Temple (tractate Tamid).{{cite book |last=Birnbaum |first=Philip |title=A Book of Jewish Concepts |publisher=Hebrew Publishing Company |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-88482-876-1 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bookofjewishconc00birn/page/541 541–542] |chapter=Kodashim |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/bookofjewishconc00birn/page/541 |chapter-url-access=registration}}{{cite book |title=The Babylonian Talmud |publisher=The Soncino Press |others=Singer, M. H. (translator) |year=1948 |editor1-last=Epstein |editor1-first=Isidore |editor-link=Isidore Epstein |volume=5 |location=London |pages=xvii–xxi |chapter=Introduction to Seder Kodashim}}{{cite encyclopedia |last=Arzi |first=Abraham |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Judaica |volume=10 |pages=1126–1127 |title=Kodashim |year=1978 |edition=1st |publisher=Keter Publishing House Ltd. |location=Jerusalem}} According to the Babylonian Talmud,{{Cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.21b.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en |title=Yoma 21b:7 |website=www.sefaria.org |access-date=2019-08-05 |archive-date=2022-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107144122/https://www.sefaria.org/Yoma.21b.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en |url-status=live }} the Temple lacked the {{transliteration|he|Shekhinah}} (the dwelling or settling divine presence of God) and the {{transliteration|he|Ruach HaKodesh}} (holy spirit) present in the First Temple.

The Second Temple in Jerusalem was remarkable for its sheer size, surpassing typical temples in the Roman Empire.{{Sfn|Goodman|2006|p=49}}File:Fig66temple.png]]

The writings of Flavius Josephus and the information in tractate Middot of the Mishnah had for long been used for proposing possible designs for the Temple up to 70 CE. The discovery of the Temple Scroll as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the 20th century provided another possible source. Lawrence Schiffman states that after studying Josephus and the Temple Scroll, he found Josephus to be historically more reliable than the Temple Scroll.Lawrence Schiffman "Descriptions of the Jerusalem Temple in Josephus and the Temple Scroll" in Chapter 11 of "The Courtyards of the House of the Lord", Brill, 2008 {{ISBN|978-90-04-12255-0}}

The Temple itself once stood on the location now occupied by the Dome of the Rock, while its gates led to areas adjacent to what would later become the site of the Al-Aqsa Mosque.Leen and Kathleen Ritmeyer (1998). Secrets of Jerusalem's Temple Mount.

A golden vine adorned the gates of the Temple; it is described by both Josephus and the Mishnah. Its fame reached as far as Rome, where it was mentioned by the historian Tacitus.Tacitus, Histories, V, 5.5{{Sfn|Goodman|2006|p=49}}

Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount temenos. For example, the Temple Mount complex initially measured {{convert|7|ha}} in size, but Herod expanded it to {{convert|14.4|ha}} and so doubled its area.Petrech & Edelcopp, "Four stages in the evolution of the Temple Mount", Revue Biblique (2013), pp. 343–344 Herod's work on the Temple is generally dated from 20/19 BCE until 12/11 or 10 BCE. Writer Bieke Mahieu dates the work on the Temple enclosures from 25 BCE and that on the Temple building in 19 BCE, and situates the dedication of both in November 18 BCE.Mahieu, B., Between Rome and Jerusalem, OLA 208, Leuven: Peeters, 2012, pp. 147–165

Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herod's plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended{{by whom|date=October 2020}} to be {{convert|1600|ft}} wide by {{convert|900|ft}} broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to {{convert|16|ft}} thick, but had never been finished. To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone blocks were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring {{convert|44.6|x|11|x|16.5|ft}} and weighing approximately 567–628 tons.Dan Bahat: Touching the Stones of our Heritage, Israeli ministry of Religious Affairs, 2002{{unreliable source?|date=October 2022}}

The Court of the Gentiles was primarily a bazaar, with vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals, food. Currency was also exchanged, with Roman currency exchanged for Tyrian money, as also mentioned in the New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers, when Jerusalem was packed with Jewish pilgrims who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000.Sanders, E. P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. p. 249Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.

Above the Huldah Gates, on top the Temple walls, was the Royal Stoa, a large basilica praised by Josephus as "more worthy of mention than any other [structure] under the sun"; its main part was a lengthy Hall of Columns which includes 162 columns, structured in four rows.{{Cite journal |last=Mazar |first=Benjamin |date=1979 |title=The Royal Stoa in the Southern Part of the Temple Mount |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622363 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=46/47 |pages=381–387 |doi=10.2307/3622363 |issn=0065-6798 |jstor=3622363}}

The Royal Stoa is widely accepted to be part of Herod's work; however, recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas, as opposed to the 1st century BCE.{{cite web |title=Israel Antiquities Authority |url=http://www.antiquities.org.il/Article_eng.aspx?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1882&hist=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305094222/http://www.antiquities.org.il/Article_eng.aspx?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1882&hist=1 |archive-date=2021-03-05 |access-date=2017-01-09}}

The accounts of the temptation of Christ in the gospels of Matthew and Luke both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more 'pinnacles':

{{blockquote|Then he {{bracket|Satan}} brought Him to Jerusalem, set Him on the pinnacle of the temple, and said to Him, "If You are the Son of God, throw Yourself down from here."{{bibleverse|Luke|4:9|NKJV}}}}

The Greek word used is {{lang|grc|πτερύγιον}} ({{transliteration|he|pterugion}}), which literally means a tower, rampart, or pinnacle.{{cite book |title=Theological Dictionary of the New Testament: Volume III |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1976 |editor-last=Kittel |editor-first=Gerhard |editor-link=Gerhard Kittel |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |page=236 |translator-last=Bromiley |translator-first=Geoffrey W. |orig-year=1965 |translator-link=Geoffrey W. Bromiley}} According to Strong's Concordance, it can mean little wing, or by extension anything like a wing such as a battlement or parapet.Strong's Concordance 4419 The archaeologist Benjamin Mazar thought it referred to the southeast corner of the Temple overlooking the Kidron Valley.Mazar, Benjamin (1975). The Mountain of the Lord, Doubleday. p. 149.

File:הסטיו_המלכותי,_The_Royal_Stoa.jpgAccording to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named the Nicanor Gate.Josephus, War 5.5.2; 198; m. Mid. 1.4 According to Josephus, Herod the Great erected a golden eagle over the great gate of the Temple.Josephus, War 1.648–655; Ant 17.149–63. On this, see inter alia: Albert Baumgarten, 'Herod's Eagle', in Aren M. Maeir, Jodi Magness and Lawrence H. Schiffman (eds), 'Go Out and Study the Land' (Judges 18:2): Archaeological, Historical and Textual Studies in Honor of Hanan Eshel (JSJ Suppl. 148; Leiden: Brill, 2012), pp. 7–21; Jonathan Bourgel, "[https://www.academia.edu/45647596/Herod_s_golden_eagle_on_the_Temple_gate_a_reconsideration Herod's golden eagle on the Temple gate: a reconsideration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830021833/https://www.academia.edu/45647596/Herod_s_golden_eagle_on_the_Temple_gate_a_reconsideration|date=2023-08-30}}," Journal of Jewish Studies 72 (2021), pp. 23–44.

{{Interlanguage link|Joachim Bouflet|lt=Joachim Bouflet|fr}} states that "the teams of archaeologists Nahman Avigad in 1969–1980 in the Herodian city of Jerusalem, and Yigael Shiloh in 1978–1982, in the city of David" have proven that the roofs of the Second Temple had no dome. In this, they support Josephus' description of the Second Temple.{{Cite book |last=Bouflet |first=Joachim |title=Impostures mystiques |publisher=Éditions du Cerf |year=2023 |isbn=978-2-204-15520-5 |language=fr |trans-title=Mystical Frauds |chapter=Fraudes Mystiques Récentes – Maria Valtorta (1897–1961) – Anachronismes et incongruités}}

{{see also|Pilgrimage#Judaism}}

Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port of Jaffa,{{Citation needed|reason=Caesarea is a more likely port|date=December 2020}} where they would join a caravan for the three-day journey to the Holy City and secure lodgings in one of the many hotels or hostelries. Thereafter, they would exchange some of their money from the standard Greek and Roman currency to Jewish and Tyrian money, the latter two considered acceptable for religious use.Sanders, E. P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993.Ehrman, Bart D. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-06-117393-6}} Mishnah Bikkurim 3:3–4 provides a detailed account of how pilgrims were welcomed to Jerusalem during the festival of Shavuot:{{Sfn|Safrai|Stern|p=895|Flusser|van Unnik|1988}}

Those who lived near [Jerusalem] would bring fresh figs and grapes, while those who lived far away would bring dried figs and raisins. An ox would go in front of them, his horns bedecked with gold and with an olive-crown on its head. The flute would play before them [...] When they drew close to Jerusalem they would send messengers in advance, and they would adorn their bikkurim. The governors and chiefs and treasurers would go out to greet them, and according to the rank of the entrants they would go forth. All the skilled artisans of Jerusalem would stand up before them and greet them saying, "Our brothers, men of such and such a place, we welcome you in peace." [...] When they reached the Temple Mount even King Agrippas would take the basket and place it on his shoulder [...] When he got to the Temple Court, the Levites would sing the song: "I will extol You, O Lord, for You have raised me up, and You have not let my enemies rejoice over me" (Psalms 30:2).Mishnah, Bikkurim 3:3–4; translation by Joshua Kulp

Let them come together three times a year from the ends of the land that the Hebrews conquer, into the city in which they establish the Temple, in order that they may give thanks to God for the benefits that they have received and that they may appeal for benefits for the nature and coming together and taking a common meal, may they be dear to each other. For it is well that they not be ignorant of one another, being compatriots and sharing in the same practices. This will occur for them through such intermingling, instilling a memory of them through sight and association, for if they remain unmixed with one another they will be thought completely strangers to each other.Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, IV, 203–204

Countless multitudes from countless cities come, some over land, others by sea, from east and west and north and south at every feast. They take the temple for their port as a general haven and safe refuge from the bustle and great turmoil of life, and there they seek to find calm weather, and, released from the cares whose yoke has been heavy upon them from their earliest years, to enjoy a brief breathing space in scenes of genial cheerfulness.Philo of Alexandria, The Special Laws I, 70

On the 14th of Nisan, the eve of Passover, participants would bring a lamb or kid to the Temple for sacrifice. The slaughtering took place in the Temple courtyards, typically in the afternoon—between the ninth and eleventh hours (roughly 3–5 PM)—according to Josephus,The Jewish War, VI, 423 who also notes that groups of 10 to 20 people shared each animal.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=575}} The MishnahMishnah, Pesahim, V, 5–7 records that the sacrifices were performed in three organized batches, with priests assisting by collecting and pouring the blood at the base of the altar.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=575}} Once slaughtered, the animals were roasted—in clay ovens, according to the MishnahMishnah, Pesachim, 7:1–2—and eaten later that night, along with unleavened bread (matzah) and bitter herbs (maror), in accordance with Exodus 12.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=576}} Participants also recited the Hallel during the meal.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=576}}

Shavuot was observed on the fiftieth day following the waving of the 'omer (barley offering).{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=577}} Celebrated in the month of Sivan, it marked the beginning of the wheat harvest and served as the conclusion of the Passover season, earning it the alternative name 'Atseret ("conclusion") in some sources.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=577}} The central Temple ritual in Shavuot was the offering of the "two loaves" of wheat bread, along with prescribed animal sacrifices, as outlined in the Torah.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=577}} According to rabbinic tradition,Mishnah, Menahot, 10:6 while new grain (ḥadash) was permitted for general use after the omer offering, wheat for meal offerings in the Temple was permitted only from Shavuot onward.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=577}} Shavuot also functioned as the festival of first fruits (bikkurim), during which pilgrims brought offerings from the seven species to the Temple priesthood.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=577}} According to the Mishnah,Mishnah, Bikkurim, 1:3 these bikkurim could be brought from Shavuot until Sukkot.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=577}}

The pilgrimage festival of Sukkot, which began on the 15th of Tishrei and lasted seven days, was regarded as the preeminent Jewish festival during the Second Temple period.For example: Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, VIII, 100{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}} Its centrality is evident in the ancient sources, some referring to it simply as "the Festival".For example: Mishnah, Rosh HaShana, 1:2{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}}{{Sfn|Safrai|Stern|p=894|Flusser|van Unnik|1988}} Temple offerings during Sukkot involved a extraoridnarily high number of animals sacrificed daily as required by the Torah.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}}{{Sfn|Safrai|Stern|p=894|Flusser|van Unnik|1988}} Central to the celebration was the procession with the 'Four Species' (which derives from Leviticus 23)Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, III, 245—a palm branch (lulav), myrtle (hadas), willow (aravah), and citron (etrog)—which were carried, and according to the Mishnah,Mishnah, Sukkah, 3:9 shaken, during the recitation of Psalm 118.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}} Another key ritual was the willow ceremony, in which large willow branches were placed around the altar.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}} Participants would circle the altar once each day and seven times on the seventh day, reciting Psalm 118 and concluding with the beating of branches. According to the Mishnah, the willow ceremony overrode the Shabbat, though the Boethusians objecting to this ruling.Mishnah, Sukkah, 4:5–6{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}} The water libation ritual, symbolizing the onset of the rainy season, involved water drawn from the Pool of Siloam and poured by the priest at the altar each day.Mishnah, Sukkah, 4:9–10{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}} Each night, this ritual was preceded by the Simchat Beit HaShoevah, a night-long celebration held in the Temple courtyards, characterized by music, dancing, and the lighting of bonfires.Mishnah, Sukkah, 5:1–5{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=578}}{{Sfn|Safrai|Stern|p=895|Flusser|van Unnik|1988}} The Levites stood on the steps leading to the Nicanor Gate, chanting the "Songs of Ascent" from the Book of Psalms.{{Sfn|Safrai|Stern|p=895|Flusser|van Unnik|1988}}

Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement commanded in the Torah and observed on the tenth of Tishrei, was marked by a special Temple service performed by the high priest, as described in Leviticus 16 and later elaborated in Mishnah Yoma.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=580}} The high priest prepared for a week prior to the festival through isolation, purification, and instruction.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=580}} On the day itself, he put on white linen garments after the morning tamid sacrifice, offered a bull and a goat as sin offerings, and entered the Holy of Holies multiple times to sprinkle blood on the Mercy seat and pronounce the Divine Name.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=580}} He also carried out the scapegoat ritual, confessing Israel's sins over a second goat and sending it into the wilderness. After further immersions and changes of garments, the high priest concluded the day with additional sacrifices and the evening tamid.{{Sfn|Doering|2012|p=580}}

{{Further information|Archaeological remnants of the Jerusalem Temple}}File:WikiAir IL-13-06 037 - Temple Mount.JPGArchaeological understanding of the Second Temple is primarily derived from investigations of the outer walls of the Temple complex, as direct excavations on the Temple Mount itself have been limited due to the presence of later Islamic structures.{{Sfn|Bahat|1999|p=38}} Foundational research was conducted by Sir Charles Warren between 1867 and 1870; his work remains a principal source for the site's architectural layout.{{Sfn|Bahat|1999|p=38}}

File:Soreg inscription.jpg

In 1871, a hewn stone measuring {{cvt|60|×|90|cm}} and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription. The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended to those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the {{transliteration|he|soreg}} separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines:

{{poemquote|{{lang|grc|ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ

ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ

ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ

ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ

ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ

ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ

ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ}}

Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death."}}

Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul's Museum of Antiquities.{{Cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/ancient-temple-mount-warning-stone-is-closest-thing-we-have-to-the-temple/ |title=Ancient Temple Mount 'warning' stone is 'closest thing we have to the Temple' |first=Ilan Ben |last=Zion |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=2022-10-16 |archive-date=2023-08-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830022916/https://www.timesofisrael.com/ancient-temple-mount-warning-stone-is-closest-thing-we-have-to-the-temple/ |url-status=live }}

In 1935 a fragment of another similar Temple warning inscription was found.

The word "foreigner" has an ambiguous meaning. Some scholars believe it referred to all gentiles, regardless of ritual purity status or religion. Others argue that it referred to unconverted Gentiles since Herod wrote the inscription. Herod himself was a converted Idumean (or Edomite) and was unlikely to exclude himself or his descendants.{{Cite book |last=Thiessen |first=Matthew |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/5287/chapter/148016316?login=true#273599969 |title=Contesting Conversion: Genealogy, Circumcision, and Identity in Ancient Judaism and Christianity |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199914456 |pages=87–110}}

Another ancient inscription, partially preserved on a stone discovered below the southwest corner of the Herodian Mount, contains the words "to the place of trumpeting". The stone's shape suggests that it was part of a parapet, and it has been interpreted as belonging to a spot on the Mount described by Josephus, "where one of the priests to stand and to give notice, by sound of trumpet, in the afternoon of the approach, and on the following evening of the close, of every seventh day" closely resembling what the Talmud says.{{cite web |title='To the place of trumpeting …,' Hebrew inscription on a parapet from the Temple Mount |publisher=The Israel Museum |location=Jerusalem |url=https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/191539 |access-date=24 July 2020 |archive-date=30 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830023450/https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/191539 |url-status=live }}

After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions' Gate. Thus, the remaining part of the Temple Mount is not only the Western Wall. Currently, Robinson's Arch (named after American Edward Robinson) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. Visitors and pilgrims also entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side that led through colonnades to the top of the platform. The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance.{{Cite book |last=Mazar |first=Eilat |title=The Complete Guide to the Temple Mount Excavations |year=2002 |publisher=Shoham Academic Research and Publication |location=Jerusalem |isbn=978-965-90299-1-4 |pages=55–57}} Recent archaeological digs have found numerous {{lang|he|mikvehs}} (ritual baths) for the ritual purification of the worshipers, and a grand stairway leading to one of the now blocked entrances.

Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now called Solomon's Stables, which still exist. Their current renovation by the {{transliteration|ar|Waqf}} is extremely controversial.{{Cite news |url=https://www.jpost.com/national-news/debris-removed-from-temple-mount-sparks-controversy |title=Debris removed from Temple Mount sparks controversy |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com |access-date=2020-07-25 |archive-date=2022-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004115122/https://www.jpost.com/national-news/debris-removed-from-temple-mount-sparks-controversy |url-status=live }}

On September 25, 2007, Yuval Baruch, archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound that may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount. Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE.{{how|date=August 2021}} Archaeologist Ehud Netzer confirmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves.{{cite web |last=Gaffney |first=Sean |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-09-24-1382898922_x.htm |title=Herod's Temple quarry found |work=USA Today.com |date=2007-09-24 |access-date=2013-08-31 |archive-date=2010-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809211416/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-09-24-1382898922_x.htm |url-status=live }}

More recent findings from the Temple Mount Sifting Project include floor tiling from the Second Temple period.{{cite news |title=Second Temple Flooring restored |url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/MAGAZINE-second-temple-courtyard-flooring-restored-1.5437343 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516004938/https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/MAGAZINE-second-temple-courtyard-flooring-restored-1.5437343 |url-status=live }}

The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70.{{cite news |last1=Kershner |first1=Isabel |title=A Carved Stone Block Upends Assumptions About Ancient Judaism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/09/world/middleeast/magdala-stone-israel-judaism.html |access-date=9 December 2015 |work=The New York Times |date=8 December 2015 |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506162456/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/09/world/middleeast/magdala-stone-israel-judaism.html |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)}}

File:David Roberts - The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70.jpg). Looking southwest]]In 66 CE, the Jewish population of Judaea launched a rebellion against the Roman Empire. Four years later, on the Hebrew calendrical date of Tisha B'Av, either 4 August 70{{Cite web |title=Hebrew Calendar |url=http://www.cgsf.org/dbeattie/calendar/?roman=70 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224224205/http://www.cgsf.org/dbeattie/calendar/?roman=70 |archive-date=2018-12-24 |access-date=2018-11-14 |website=www.cgsf.org}} or 30 August 70,{{Cite book |last=Bunson |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrGEFpW80UC&pg=PA212 |title=A Dictionary of the Roman Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-510233-8 |page=212 |language=English |access-date=2022-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830022914/https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrGEFpW80UC&pg=PA212 |archive-date=2023-08-30 |url-status=live}} Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and Herod's Temple. Josephus, while an apologist for the Empire, claims the burning of the Temple was the impulsive act of a Roman soldier, despite Titus's orders to preserve it, whereas later Christian sources, traced to Tacitus, suggest that Titus himself authorized the destruction, a view currently favored by modern scholars, though the debate persists.{{Citation |last=Goldenberg |first=Robert |title=The destruction of the Jerusalem Temple: its meaning and its consequences |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=194–195 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/destruction-of-the-jerusalem-temple-its-meaning-and-its-consequences/A3D597AAE094CCFDCCE188FFD48CD16C |access-date=2024-09-16 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.009 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8}}

Historical accounts relate that not only the Jewish Temple was destroyed, but also the entire Lower city of Jerusalem.Josephus (The Jewish War [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D6%3Awhiston+chapter%3D6%3Awhiston+section%3D3 6.6.3.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830022915/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D6%3Awhiston+chapter%3D6%3Awhiston+section%3D3|date=2023-08-30}}). Quote: "...So he (Titus) gave orders to the soldiers both to burn and plunder the city; who did nothing indeed that day; but on the next day they set fire to the repository of the archives, to Acra, to the council-house, and to the place called Ophlas; at which time the fire proceeded as far as the palace of queen Helena, which was in the middle of Acra: the lanes also were burnt down, as were also those houses that were full of the dead bodies of such as were destroyed by famine." Even so, according to Josephus, Titus did not totally raze the towers (such as the Tower of Phasael, now erroneously called the Tower of David), keeping them as a memorial of the city's strength.Josephus (The Jewish War 7.1.1.), Quote: "Caesar gave orders that they should now demolish the entire city and temple, but should leave as many of the towers standing as were of the greatest eminence; that is, Phasael, and Hippicus, and Mariamme, and so much of the wall as enclosed the city on the west side. This wall was spared, in order to afford a camp for such as were to lie in garrison; as were the towers also spared, in order to demonstrate to posterity what kind of city it was, and how well fortified, which the Roman valour had subdued."{{cite journal |last=Ben Shahar |first=Meir |author-link= |date=2015 |title=When was the Second Temple Destroyed? Chronology and Ideology in Josephus and in Rabbinic Literature |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period |language=en |publisher=Brill |volume=46 |issue=4/5 |page=562 |doi=10.1163/15700631-12340439 |jstor=24667712}} The Midrash Rabba (Eikha Rabba 1:32) recounts a similar episode related to the destruction of the city, according to which Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai, during the Roman siege of Jerusalem, requested of Vespasian that he spare the westernmost gates of the city ({{Langx|he|פילי מערבאה}}) that lead to Lydda (Lod). When the city was eventually taken, the Arab auxiliaries who had fought alongside the Romans under their general, Fanjar, also spared that westernmost wall from destruction.Midrash Rabba (Eikha Rabba 1:32)

The Arch of Titus, which was built in Rome to commemorate Titus's victory in Judea, depicts a Roman triumph, with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including the temple menorah. According to an inscription on the Colosseum, Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79–possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple.{{cite web |author=Bruce Johnston |date=15 June 2001 |title=Colosseum 'built with loot from sack of Jerusalem temple' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1311985/Colosseum-built-with-loot-from-sack-of-Jerusalem-temple.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1311985/Colosseum-built-with-loot-from-sack-of-Jerusalem-temple.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |work=Telegraph}}{{cbignore}} The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including the priesthood and the Sadducees.{{cite journal |last=Alföldy |first=Géza |year=1995 |title=Eine Bauinschrift aus dem Colosseum |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume=109 |pages=195–226 |jstor=20189648}}

Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, Emperor Hadrian established a new Roman colonia called Aelia Capitolina. At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred. Jews were banned from entering Jerusalem. A Roman temple was set up on the former site of Herod's Temple for the practice of Roman religion.

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|History}}

File:Temple Mount (Aerial view, 2007) 03.jpg visible center and the al-Aqsa Mosque to the left beyond some trees. Parts of the Old City of Jerusalem can be seen surrounding the Mount.]]Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple in Jerusalem.{{cite news |title=A Christian view of the coming Temple – opinion |url=https://www.jpost.com/christianworld/article-705729 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807214558/https://www.jpost.com/christianworld/article-705729 |archive-date=2022-08-07 |access-date=2022-07-24 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post – Christian World}}

• Archaeological remnants of the Jerusalem Temple
• Herodian architecture
• Jerusalem stone
• List of artifacts significant to the Bible
• List of megalithic sites
• Replicas of the Jewish Temple
• Temple of Peace, Rome
• Temple in Jerusalem
• Timeline of Jewish history

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Abadi |first1=Omri |last2=Szypuła |first2=Bartłomiej |last3=Marciak |first3=Michał |date=30 September 2024 |title=The Jerusalem pilgrimage road in the Second Temple period: an anthropological and archaeological perspective |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-024-02261-0 |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |volume=16 |doi= |access-date=2025-03-24 |article-number=173}}
• {{Cite book |last=Bahat |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Bahat |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/herodian-temple/B9397E1BC3AB3CD01FB4B78B666B5EC0 |title=The Early Roman Period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-139-05366-2 |editor-last=Horbury |editor-first=William |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=3 |location= |pages=38–58 |chapter=The Herodian Temple |editor-last2=Davies |editor-first2=W. D. |editor-last3=Sturdy |editor-first3=John}}
• {{Cite book |last=Doering |first=Lutz |author-link= |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199216437.013.0031 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-199-21643-7 |editor-last=Hezser |editor-first=Catherine |volume=3 |location= |pages=566–586 |chapter=Sabbath and Festivals }}
• {{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Goodman (historian) |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047410614/Bej.9789004153097.i-275_014.xml |title=Judaism in the Roman World |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |isbn=978-9-047-41061-4 |series=Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity |volume=66 |location= |pages=47–58 |chapter=The Temple in First-Century Judaism}}
• {{cite book |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/14814 |title=The Jewish People in the First Century, Volume 2: Historical Geography, Political History, Social, Cultural and Religious Life and Institutions |publisher=Brill |year=1988 |isbn=978-90-04-27509-6 |editor1-last=Safrai |editor1-first=Shmuel |series=Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum, Vol. 1/2 |editor2-last=Stern |editor2-first=Menahem |editor3-last=Flusser |editor3-first=David |editor4-last=van Unnik |editor4-first=W.C.}}

{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Second Temple |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

• Grabbe, Lester. 2008. A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. 2 vols. New York: T&T Clark.
• Nickelsburg, George. 2005. Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah: A Historical and Literary Introduction. 2nd ed. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress.
• Schiffman, Lawrence, ed. 1998. Texts and Traditions: A Source Reader for the Study of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. Hoboken, New Jersey: KTAV.
• Stone, Michael, ed. 1984. The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud. 2 vols. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress.

{{commons category|Second Jewish temple in Jerusalem}}

• [http://www.jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/historyresources/second_temple_and_talmudic_era.htm Second Temple and Talmudic Era] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224192231/http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/internetresources/historyresources/second_temple_and_talmudic_era.htm |date=2021-02-24 }} The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
• [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=123&letter=T&search=Herod's%20Temple Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple of Herod]
• [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=128&letter=T&search=Second%20Temple Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple, The Second]
• [http://www.4enoch.org 4 Enoch: The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism]
• [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/portrait/temple.html#purity PBS Frontline: Temple Culture]
• [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/howaboutthat/4837528/A-model-of-biblical-proportions-man-spends-30-years-creating-a-model-of-Herods-Temple.html Picture gallery of a model of the temple]

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