Fertile Crescent

File:Fertile Crescent concept 1916.png, who popularised usage of the phrase.]]

The term "Fertile Crescent" was popularized by archaeologist James Henry Breasted in Outlines of European History (1914) and Ancient Times, A History of the Early World (1916).{{cite book|last=Abt|first=Jeffrey|year=2011|title=American Egyptologist: the life of James Henry Breasted and the creation of his Oriental Institute|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YEc0bc93LwYC|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-0011-04|pages=193–194, 436}}{{cite book|url= https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00gooduoft |last=Goodspeed |first=George Stephen |year=1904 |title=A History of the ancient world: for high schools and academies |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00gooduoft/page/5 5]–6}}{{cite book|last=Breasted|first=James Henry|year=1914|chapter=Earliest man, the Orient, Greece, and Rome|editor1-last=Robinson|editor1-first=James Harvey|editor2-last=Breasted|editor2-first=James Henry|editor3-last=Beard|editor3-first=Charles A.|title=Outlines of European history, Vol. 1|chapter-url= https://archive.org/download/outlinesofeurope01robi/outlinesofeurope01robi.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://archive.org/download/outlinesofeurope01robi/outlinesofeurope01robi.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |location=Boston|publisher=Ginn|pages=56–57}} "The Ancient Orient" map is inserted between pages 56 and 57.{{cite book|last=Breasted|first=James Henry|year=1916|title=Ancient times, a history of the early world: an introduction to the study of ancient history and the career of early man|location=Boston|publisher=Ginn|pages=100–101|url=https://archive.org/download/cu31924027764996/cu31924027764996.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://archive.org/download/cu31924027764996/cu31924027764996.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} "The Ancient Oriental World" map is inserted between pages 100 and 101.{{cite journal|last=Clay|first=Albert T.|year=1924|title=The so-called Fertile Crescent and desert bay|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=44|pages=186–201|jstor=593554|doi=10.2307/593554 | issn=0003-0279 }}{{cite book|last=Kuklick|first=Bruce|year=1996|chapter=Essay on methods and sources|title=Puritans in Babylon: the ancient Near East and American intellectual life, 1880–1930|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/puritansinbabylo0000kukl|chapter-url-access=registration|location=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-02582-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/puritansinbabylo0000kukl/page/241 241]|quote=Textbooks...The true texts brought all of these strands together, the most important being James Henry Breasted, Ancient Times: A History of the Early World (Boston, 1916), but a predecessor, George Stephen Goodspeed, A History of the Ancient World (New York, 1904), is outstanding. Goodspeed, who taught at Chicago with Breasted, antedated him in the conception of a 'crescent' of civilization.}} He wrote:

{{Blockquote|It lies like an army facing south, with one wing stretching along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the other reaching out to the Persian Gulf, while the center has its back against the northern mountains. The end of the western wing is Palestine; Assyria makes up a large part of the center; while the end of the eastern wing is Babylonia. [...] This great semicircle, for lack of a name, may be called the Fertile Crescent.

}}

There is no single term for this region in antiquity. At the time that Breasted was writing, it roughly corresponded with the territories of the Ottoman Empire ceded to Britain and France in the Sykes–Picot Agreement. Historian Thomas Scheffler has noted that Breasted was following a trend in Western geography to "overwrite the classical geographical distinctions between continents, countries and landscapes with large, abstract spaces", drawing parallels with the work of Halford Mackinder, who conceptualised Eurasia as a 'pivot area' surrounded by an 'inner crescent', Alfred Thayer Mahan's Middle East, and Friedrich Naumann's Mitteleuropa.{{Cite journal |last=Scheffler |first=Thomas |date=2003-06-01 |title='Fertile Crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': The Changing Mental Maps of Southwest Asia |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/1350748032000140796 |journal=European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=253–272 |doi=10.1080/1350748032000140796 |s2cid=6707201 |issn=1350-7486|url-access=subscription }}

In current usage, the Fertile Crescent includes Israel, Palestine, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Jordan, as well as the surrounding portions of Turkey and Iran. In addition to the Tigris and Euphrates, riverwater sources include the Jordan River. The boundaries are delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south, the Sahara Desert to the west, the Anatolian and Armenian highlands to the north and the Iranian plateau to the east.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

As crucial as rivers and marshlands were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only factor. The area is geographically important as the "bridge" between North Africa and Eurasia, which has allowed it to retain a greater amount of biodiversity than either Europe or North Africa, where climate changes during the Ice Age led to repeated extinction events when ecosystems became squeezed against the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. The Saharan pump theory posits that this Middle Eastern land bridge was extremely important to the modern distribution of Old World flora and fauna, including the spread of humanity.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

The area has borne the brunt of the tectonic divergence between the African and Arabian plates and the converging Arabian and Eurasian plates, which has made the region a very diverse zone of high snow-covered mountains.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

The Fertile Crescent had many diverse climates, and major climatic changes encouraged the evolution of many "r" type annual plants, which produce more edible seeds than "K" type perennial plants. The region's dramatic variety in elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments in cultivation. Most importantly, the Fertile Crescent was home to the eight Neolithic founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e., wild progenitors to emmer wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch), and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals—cows, goats, sheep, and pigs; the fifth species, the horse, lived nearby.{{cite book|title=Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies |last=Diamond |first=Jared |author-link=Jared Diamond |date=March 1997 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-03891-0 |pages=480 |edition=1st |oclc=35792200|title-link=Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies }} The Fertile Crescent flora comprises a high percentage of plants that can self-pollinate, but may also be cross-pollinated. These plants, called "selfers", were one of the geographical advantages of the area because they did not depend on other plants for reproduction.

{{More citations needed section|date=June 2021}}

File:Fertile crescent Neolithic B circa 7500 BC.jpg period. The area of Mesopotamia proper was not yet settled by humans. Includes Göbekli Tepe, a site in modern-day Turkey that is dated circa 9000 BCE.]]

As well as possessing many sites with the skeletal and cultural remains of both pre-modern and early modern humans (e.g., at Tabun and Es Skhul caves), later Pleistocene hunter-gatherers, and Epipalaeolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers (the Natufians); the Fertile Crescent is most famous for its sites related to the origins of agriculture. The western zone around the Jordan and upper Euphrates rivers gave rise to the first known Neolithic farming settlements (referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)), which date to around 9,000 BCE and includes very ancient sites such as Göbekli Tepe, Chogha Golan, and Jericho (Tell es-Sultan).

This region, alongside Mesopotamia (Greek for "between rivers", between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, lies in the east of the Fertile Crescent), also saw the emergence of early complex societies during the succeeding Bronze Age. There is also early evidence from the region for writing and the formation of hierarchical state level societies. This has earned the region the nickname "The cradle of civilization".

From ancient times empires arose and fell in the Tigris–Euphrates river basin, including Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria, and the Abbasid Caliphate.

It is in this region where the first libraries appeared about 4,500 years ago. The oldest known libraries are found in Nippur (in Sumer) and Ebla (in Syria), both from {{circa|2500 BCE}}.{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMgtAgAAQBAJ |title=A Review of "The Library: An Illustrated History": Murray, Stuart A.P. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2009, 310 pp., $35.00, hard cover, ISBN 978-1602397064. |date=9 July 2009 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. |isbn=9781628733228 |editor-last=Basbanes |editor-first=Nicholas A. |volume=15 |location=New York, NY |pages=69–70 |doi=10.1080/10875300903535149 |oclc=277203534 |editor2-last=Davis |editor2-first=Donald G. |s2cid=61069680}}

Both the Tigris and Euphrates start in the Taurus Mountains of what is modern-day Turkey. Farmers in southern Mesopotamia had to protect their fields from flooding each year. Northern Mesopotamia had sufficient rain to make some farming possible. To protect against flooding they made levees.{{cite book |last1= Beck |first1= Roger B. |last2= Black |first2= Linda |last3= Krieger |first3= Larry S. |last4= Naylor |first4= Phillip C. |last5= Shabaka |first5= Dahia Ibo |title= World History: Patterns of Interaction |publisher=McDougal Littell |year= 1999 |location= Evanston, IL |page= [https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck/page/1082 1082] |url= https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck |url-access= registration |isbn= 978-0-395-87274-1}}

Since the Bronze Age, the region's natural fertility has been greatly extended by irrigation works, upon which much of its agricultural production continues to depend. The last two millennia have seen repeated cycles of decline and recovery as past works have fallen into disrepair through the replacement of states, to be replaced under their successors. Another ongoing problem has been salination—gradual concentration of salt and other minerals in soils with a long history of irrigation.

Prehistoric seedless figs were discovered at Gilgal I in the Jordan Valley, suggesting that fig trees were being planted some 11,400 years ago.{{cite news |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/06/060601-agriculture.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060602003956/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/06/060601-agriculture.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 2, 2006 |title=Ancient Fig Find May Push Back Birth of Agriculture |last=Norris |first=Scott |date=1 June 2006 |work=National Geographic Society |access-date=6 March 2017 |publisher=National Geographic News}} Cereals were already grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago.{{cite web |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605065242/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 5, 2013 |title=Genographic Project: The Development of Agriculture |access-date=14 April 2016 |work=National Geographic}} Small cats (Felis silvestris) also were domesticated in this region.{{cite journal |last1= Driscoll |first1= Carlos A. |first2= Marilyn |last2= Menotti-Raymond |first3= Alfred L. |last3= Roca |first4= Karsten |last4= Hupe |first5= Warren E. |last5= Johnson |first6= Eli |last6= Geffen |first7= Eric H. |last7= Harley |first8= Miguel |last8= Delibes |first9= Dominique |last9= Pontier |first10= Andrew C. |last10= Kitchener |first11= Nobuyuki |last11= Yamaguchi |first12= Stephen J. |last12= O'Brien |author12-link=Stephen J. O'Brien|first13= David W. |last13= Macdonald |author13-link= David Macdonald (biologist) |title= The near eastern origin of cat domestication |journal=Science |date= 27 July 2007 |volume= 317 |doi= 10.1126/science.1139518 |pmid= 17600185 |pmc= 5612713 |issue= 5837 |pages= 519–523|bibcode= 2007Sci...317..519D }} Also, legumes including peas, lentils and chickpea were domesticated in this region.

Domesticated animals include the cattle, sheep, goat, domestic pig, cat, and domestic goose.

{{see also|Genetic history of the Middle East|Levantine corridor}}

File:Maunsell's map, Pre-World War I British Ethnographical Map of eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria and western Persia 01.jpgFile:Diffusion of agriculture from the Fertile Crescent after 9000 BC.jpg

{{Ancient Near East topics}}

Modern analyses{{cite journal |last1= Brace |first1= C. Loring |last2= Seguchi |first2= Noriko |last3= Quintyn |first3= Conrad B. |last4= Fox |first4= Sherry C. |last5= Nelson |first5= A. Russell |last6= Manolis |first6= Sotiris K. |last7= Qifeng |first7= Pan |year= 2006 |title= The questionable contribution of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age to European craniofacial form |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA |volume= 103 |issue=1 |pages= 242–247 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0509801102 |pmid= 16371462 |pmc= 1325007|bibcode= 2006PNAS..103..242B |doi-access= free }}{{cite journal |last1= Ricaut |first1= F. X. |last2= Waelkens |first2= M. |date= Aug 2008 |title= Cranial Discrete Traits in a Byzantine Population and Eastern Mediterranean Population Movements |journal= Human Biology |volume= 80 |issue= 5|pages= 535–564 |doi= 10.3378/1534-6617-80.5.535 |pmid= 19341322|s2cid= 25142338 }} comparing 24 craniofacial measurements reveal a relatively diverse population within the pre-Neolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age Fertile Crescent, supporting the view that several populations occupied this region during these time periods.{{Cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Rollefson |first3=Gary |last4=Merrett |first4=Deborah C. |last5=Rohland |first5=Nadin |last6=Mallick |first6=Swapan |last7=Fernandes |first7=Daniel |last8=Novak |first8=Mario |last9=Gamarra |first9=Beatriz |last10=Sirak |first10=Kendra |last11=Connell |first11=Sarah |last12=Stewardson |first12=Kristin |last13=Harney |first13=Eadaoin |last14=Fu |first14=Qiaomei |last15=Gonzalez-Fortes |first15=Gloria |date=2016-08-25 |title=Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East |journal=Nature |volume=536 |issue=7617 |pages=419–424 |doi=10.1038/nature19310 |pmc=5003663 |pmid=27459054|bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L }}{{cite book |last=Barker |first=G. |title=Transitions to farming and pastoralism in North Africa |year=2002 |editor-last1=Bellwood |editor-first1=P. |pages=151–161 |editor-last2=Renfrew |editor-first2=C.}}Bar-Yosef O (1987), "Pleistocene connections between Africa and SouthWest Asia: an archaeological perspective", The African Archaeological Review; Chapter 5, pp 29–38{{cite journal |last1= Kislev |first1= ME |last2= Hartmann |first2= A |last3= Bar-Yosef |first3= O |year= 2006 |title= Early domesticated fig in the Jordan Valley |journal= Science |volume= 312 |issue= 5778|pages= 1372–1374 |doi= 10.1126/science.1125910 |pmid= 16741119|bibcode= 2006Sci...312.1372K |s2cid= 42150441 }}{{Cite journal |last= Lancaster |first= Andrew |year= 2009 |url= http://www.jogg.info/51/files/Lancaster.pdf |journal= Journal of Genetic Genealogy |volume= 5 |issue= 1 |title= Y Haplogroups, Archaeological Cultures and Language Families: a Review of the Multidisciplinary Comparisons using the case of E-M35 |access-date= 2010-02-23 |archive-date= 2016-05-06 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160506150956/http://www.jogg.info/51/files/Lancaster.pdf |url-status= dead }}Findings include remains of food items carried to the Levant from North Africa —— Parthenocarpic figs and Nile shellfish (please refer to Natufian culture#Long-distance exchange). Similar arguments do not hold true for the Basques and Canary Islanders of the same time period, as the studies demonstrate those ancient peoples to be "clearly associated with modern Europeans". Additionally, no evidence from the studies demonstrates Cro-Magnon influence, contrary to former suggestions.

The studies further suggest a diffusion of this diverse population away from the Fertile Crescent, with the early migrants moving away from the Near East—westward into Europe and North Africa, northward to Crimea, and northeastward to Mongolia. They took their agricultural practices with them and interbred with the hunter-gatherers whom they subsequently came in contact with while perpetuating their farming practices. This supports prior genetic{{cite journal |last1= Chicki |first1= L |last2= Nichols |first2= RA |last3= Barbujani |first3= G |last4= Beaumont |first4= MA |year= 2002 |title= Y genetic data support the Neolithic demic diffusion model |journal= Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume= 99 |issue= 17 |pages= 11008–11013 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.162158799 |pmid= 12167671 |pmc= 123201|bibcode= 2002PNAS...9911008C |doi-access= free }}{{Cite journal |date=July 2004 |title=Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/21/7/1361/1080442 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=1361–1372 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msh135 |last1=Dupanloup |first1=I. |pmid=15044595 }}{{cite journal |pmc= 1181965 |title= Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area |pmid= 15069642 |doi= 10.1086/386295 |volume= 74 |issue= 5 |date=May 2004 |journal= Am. J. Hum. Genet. |pages= 1023–34 |last1= Semino |first1= O. |last2= Magri |first2= C. |last3= Benuzzi |first3= G. |display-authors=etal }}{{Cite journal |last1=Cavalli-Sforza |first1=L. L. |last2=Minch |first2=E. |date=July 1997 |title=Paleolithic and Neolithic lineages in the European mitochondrial gene pool |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=247–254 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9297(07)64303-1 |pmc=1715849 |pmid=9246011}}{{Cite journal |last1=Chikhi |first1=Lounès |last2=Destro-Bisol |first2=Giovanni |last3=Bertorelle |first3=Giorgio |last4=Pascali |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Barbujani |first5=Guido |date=1998-07-21 |title=Clines of nuclear DNA markers suggest a largely Neolithic ancestry of the European gene pool |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=95 |issue=15 |pages=9053–9058 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.15.9053|doi-access=free |pmid=9671803 |pmc=21201 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.9053C }} and archaeologicalM. Zvelebil, in Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies and the Transition to Farming, M. Zvelebil (editor), Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (1986) pp. 5–15, 167–188.P. Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Blackwell: Malden, MA (2005).{{cite journal |last1= Dokládal |first1= M. |last2= Brožek |first2= J. |year= 1961 |title= Physical Anthropology in Czechoslovakia: Recent Developments|journal= Curr. Anthropol. |volume= 2 |issue= 5|pages= 455–477 |doi= 10.1086/200228|s2cid= 161324951 }}{{cite journal |last1= Bar-Yosef |first1= O. |year= 1998 |title= The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture|journal= Evol. Anthropol. |volume= 6 |issue= 5|pages= 159–177 |doi= 10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::aid-evan4>3.0.co;2-7|s2cid= 35814375 }}{{cite journal |last1= Zvelebil |first1= M. |year= 1989 |title= On the transition to farming in Europe, or what was spreading with the Neolithic: a reply to Ammerman (1989)|journal= Antiquity |volume= 63 |issue= 239|pages= 379–383 |doi= 10.1017/s0003598x00076110 |s2cid= 162882505 }} studies which have all arrived at the same conclusion.

Consequently, contemporary in situ peoples absorbed the agricultural way of life of those early migrants who ventured out of the Fertile Crescent. This is contrary to the suggestion that the spread of agriculture disseminated out of the Fertile Crescent by way of sharing of knowledge. Instead, the view now supported by a preponderance of evidence is that it occurred by actual migration out of the region, coupled with subsequent interbreeding with indigenous local populations whom the migrants came in contact with.

A 2005 craniometric study found that not all present-day Europeans share strong affinities to the Neolithic and Bronze Age inhabitants of the Fertile Crescent; the closest ties to the Fertile Crescent rest with Southern Europeans. The same study further demonstrates all present-day Europeans to be closely related. Genetics research finds that most present-day Europeans, across Europe, derive from at least three ancient populations, including the Early European Farmers, who descended from the Near Eastern migrants that brought agriculture to Europe. This ancient farmer population was genetically distinct from European hunter-gatherers and close to present-day Near Easterners.{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Lazaridis I, Patterson N, Mittnik A, Renaud G, Mallick S, Kirsanow K, Sudmant PH, Schraiber JG, Castellano S, Lipson M, Berger B, Economou C, Bollongino R, Fu Q, Bos KI, Nordenfelt S, Li H, de Filippo C, Prüfer K, Sawyer S, Posth C, Haak W, Hallgren F, Fornander E, Rohland N, Delsate D, Francken M, Guinet JM, Wahl J, Ayodo G, Babiker HA, Bailliet G, Balanovska E, Balanovsky O, Barrantes R, Bedoya G, Ben-Ami H, Bene J, Berrada F, Bravi CM, Brisighelli F, Busby GB, Cali F, Churnosov M, Cole DE, Corach D, Damba L, van Driem G, Dryomov S, Dugoujon JM, Fedorova SA, Gallego Romero I, Gubina M, Hammer M, Henn BM, Hervig T, Hodoglugil U, Jha AR, Karachanak-Yankova S, Khusainova R, Khusnutdinova E, Kittles R, Kivisild T, Klitz W, Kučinskas V, Kushniarevich A, Laredj L, Litvinov S, Loukidis T, Mahley RW, Melegh B, Metspalu E, Molina J, Mountain J, Näkkäläjärvi K, Nesheva D, Nyambo T, Osipova L, Parik J, Platonov F, Posukh O, Romano V, Rothhammer F, Rudan I, Ruizbakiev R, Sahakyan H, Sajantila A, Salas A, Starikovskaya EB, Tarekegn A, Toncheva D, Turdikulova S, Uktveryte I, Utevska O, Vasquez R, Villena M, Voevoda M, Winkler CA, Yepiskoposyan L, Zalloua P, Zemunik T, Cooper A, Capelli C, Thomas MG, Ruiz-Linares A, Tishkoff SA, Singh L, Thangaraj K, Villems R, Comas D, Sukernik R, Metspalu M, Meyer M, Eichler EE, Burger J, Slatkin M, Pääbo S, Kelso J, Reich D, Krause J |date=September 2014 |title=Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans |journal=Nature |volume=513 |issue=7518 |pages=409–413 |arxiv=1312.6639 |bibcode=2014Natur.513..409L |doi=10.1038/nature13673 |pmc=4170574 |pmid=25230663}}

{{More citations needed section|date=June 2021}}

Linguistically, the Fertile Crescent was a region of great diversity. Historically, Semitic languages generally prevailed in the modern regions of Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Sinai and the fringes of southeast Turkey and northwest Iran, as well as the Sumerian (a language isolate) in Iraq, whilst in the mountainous areas to the east and north a number of generally unrelated language isolates were found, including; Elamite, Gutian and Kassite in Iran, and Hattic, Kaskian and Hurro-Urartian in Turkey. The precise affiliation of these, and their date of arrival, remain topics of scholarly discussion. However, given lack of textual evidence for the earliest era of prehistory, this debate is unlikely to be resolved in the near future.

The evidence that does exist suggests that, by the third millennium BCE and into the second, several language groups already existed in the region. These included:{{sfn|Steadman|McMahon|2011|p=233}}{{sfn|Steadman|McMahon|2011|p=522}}{{sfn|Steadman|McMahon|2011|p=556}}{{sfn|Potts|2012|p=28}}{{sfn|Potts|2012|p=570}}{{sfn|Potts|2012|p=584}}

• Proto-Euphratean language: a hypothetical non-Semitic language previously hypothesized to be the substratum language of the people that introduced farming into Southern Iraq in the Early Ubaid period. (5300–4700 BCE) The linguistic consensus today is that multiple unknown substrata contributed to the formation of the artifacts in Sumerian names that motivated the Proto-Euphratean substrate hypothesis, including fossilized archaic elements from earlier stages of Sumerian itself.{{Cite journal|last=Rubio|first=Gonzalo|date=January 1999|title=On the Alleged "Pre-Sumerian Substratum"|journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies|volume=51|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/1359726|jstor=1359726|s2cid=163985956}}
• Sumerian: a non-Semitic language isolate that displays a Sprachbund-type relationship with neighbouring Semitic Akkadian
• Elamite language: a non-Semitic language isolate
• Semitic languages: Akkadian (aka Assyrian and Babylonian), Eblaite, Amorite, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Moabite, Edomite, Phoenician/Carthaginian)
• Hattic: a language isolate, spoken originally in central Anatolia
• Indo-European languages: generally believed to be later intrusive languages arriving after 2000 BCE, such as Hittite, Luwian and the Indo-Aryan material attested in the Mitanni civilization, but recent evidence suggests that the language family emerged from the Fertile Crescent as early as 6000 BCE{{Cite journal|date=2023-07-28|title=Language trees with sampled ancestors support a hybrid model for the origin of Indo-European languages|journal=Science|language=en|volume=381|doi=10.1126/science.abg0818|hdl=10234/204329|hdl-access=free |last1=Heggarty |first1=Paul |last2=Anderson |first2=Cormac |last3=Scarborough |first3=Matthew |last4=King |first4=Benedict |last5=Bouckaert |first5=Remco |last6=Jocz |first6=Lechosław |last7=Kümmel |first7=Martin Joachim |last8=Jügel |first8=Thomas |last9=Irslinger |first9=Britta |last10=Pooth |first10=Roland |last11=Liljegren |first11=Henrik |last12=Strand |first12=Richard F. |last13=Haig |first13=Geoffrey |last14=MacÁk |first14=Martin |last15=Kim |first15=Ronald I. |last16=Anonby |first16=Erik |last17=Pronk |first17=Tijmen |last18=Belyaev |first18=Oleg |last19=Dewey-Findell |first19=Tonya Kim |last20=Boutilier |first20=Matthew |last21=Freiberg |first21=Cassandra |last22=Tegethoff |first22=Robert |last23=Serangeli |first23=Matilde |last24=Liosis |first24=Nikos |last25=Stroński |first25=Krzysztof |last26=Schulte |first26=Kim |last27=Gupta |first27=Ganesh Kumar |last28=Haak |first28=Wolfgang |last29=Krause |first29=Johannes |last30=Atkinson |first30=Quentin D. |issue=6656 |pages=eabg0818 |pmid=37499002 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-220000 |display-authors=1 }}
• Egyptian: a stand-alone branch of the Afroasiatic languages confined to Egypt
• Hurro-Urartian languages, a small family. The Kassite language spoken in the northern part of the region may have belonged to this family.

Links between Hurro-Urartian and Hattic and the indigenous languages of the Caucasus have frequently been suggested, but are not generally accepted.

• {{annotated link|Beth Nahrain}}
• {{annotated link|Hilly Flanks}}
• History of agriculture
• History of Mesopotamia
• {{annotated link|Hydraulic empire}}
• Fertile Crescent Plan
• Syria (region)

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{refbegin}}

• Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years, 1997.
• Anderson, Clifford Norman. The Fertile Crescent: Travels In the Footsteps of Ancient Science. 2d ed., rev. Fort Lauderdale: Sylvester Press, 1972.
• Deckers, Katleen. Holocene Landscapes Through Time In the Fertile Crescent. Turnhout: Brepols, 2011.
• Ephʻal, Israel. The Ancient Arabs: Nomads On the Borders of the Fertile Crescent 9th–5th Centuries B.C. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1982.
• Kajzer, Małgorzata, Łukasz Miszk, and Maciej Wacławik. The Land of Fertility I: South-East Mediterranean Since the Bronze Age to the Muslim Conquest. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016.
• Kozłowski, Stefan Karol. The Eastern Wing of the Fertile Crescent: Late Prehistory of Greater Mesopotamian Lithic Industries. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1999.
• {{cite book |title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East |first=Daniel T. |last=Potts |editor1-first=D. T |editor1-last=Potts |date=21 May 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=1445 |volume=1 |isbn=9781405189880 |doi=10.1002/9781444360790 |url=https://archive.org/stream/PottsDanielT.2012ACompanionToTheArchaeologyOfTheAncientNearEast}}
• {{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TY3t4y_L5SQC |last1=Steadman |first1=Sharon R. |last2=McMahon |first2=Gregory |date=15 September 2011 |pages=1174 |publisher=OUP |isbn=9780195376142}}
• Thomas, Alexander R. The Evolution of the Ancient City: Urban Theory and the Archaeology of the Fertile Crescent. Lanham: Lexington Books/Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.

{{refend}}

{{commons category}}

{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Fertile Crescent |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20010813081928/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/05/0518_crescent.html Ancient Fertile Crescent Almost Gone, Satellite Images Show]– from National Geographic News, May 18, 2001. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016012534/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/05/0518_crescent.html |date=October 16, 2008 }}
• http://www.claudiusptolemy.org/AbshireGusevStafeyev_ProceedingsVenice2017.pdf Corey Abshire , Dmitri Gusev , Sergey Stafeyev The Fertile Crescent in Ptolemy’s “Geography”: a new digital reconstruction for modern GIS tools

{{Middle East}}

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{{Prehistoric Asia}}

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