Sora language

Speakers are concentrated mainly in Ganjam District, Gajapati District (including the central Gumma Hills region (Gumma Block),Anderson, Gregory D.S (ed). 2008. The Munda languages. Routledge Language Family Series 3.New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-32890-X}}. and Rayagada District, and are also found in adjacent areas such as Koraput and Phulbani districts; other communities exist in northern Andhra Pradesh (Vizianagaram District, Parvatipuram Manyam District and Srikakulam District).

The Sora language has faced a wavelike pattern of usage—that is, the number of people who speak Sora climbed steadily for decades before crashing down. In fact, the number of people who spoke Sora went from 157 thousand in 1901 to 166 thousand in 1911.{{cite journal |last1=Mahapatra |first1=B.P. |title=Munda Languages in Census |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |date=1991 |volume=51/52 |pages=329–336 |jstor=42930411 }} In 1921, this number marginally rose to 168 thousand and kept climbing. In 1931, speaker numbers jumped to 194 thousand but in 1951, a period of exponential growth occurred, with speaker numbers jumping to 256 thousand. in 1961, numbers topped at 265 thousand speakers before crashing down in 1971 when speaker numbers dropped back down to 221 thousand.

Sora is spoken by the Sora people, who are a part of the Adivasi, or tribal people, in India, making Sora an Adivasi language.{{cite journal |last1=Chatterji |first1=Suniti Kumar |title='Adivasi' Literatures of India: The Uncultivated 'Adivasi' Languages |journal=Indian Literature |date=1971 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=5–42 |jstor=23329913 }} Sora is found in close proximity to Odia and Telugu speaking peoples so that many Sora people are bilingual. Sora had little literature except for a few songs and folk tales which are usually transmitted orally.

On a similar note, our understanding of Sora phonology is limited at best but there are some generalizations that can be made. Most syllables are of the Consonant, Vowel, Consonant form and morphemes usually contain one to three syllables.{{cite journal |last1=Stampe |first1=David L. |title=Recent Work in Munda Linguistics I |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |date=1965 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=332–341 |doi=10.1086/464864 |jstor=1264042 |s2cid=224807949 }} There are 18 identifiable consonants and they fall into most of the established origins of sound. Five consonants originate from the palate while only one consonant originates from the glottis. An interesting facet of Sora consonants is that they contain an inherent ɘ vowel.Sora Sompeng. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2017, from http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Sora Although vowels may be pronounced differently, there exist only six vowels in Sora. There are no diacritics and aspiration varies depending on the speaker. It is likely that the influence of English, Odia, and Telugu has also affected vowel pronunciation over the course of Sora's use.{{cite conference |last1=Donegan |first1=Patricia |first2=David |last2=Stampe |title=South-East Asian Features in the Munda Languages: Evidence for the Analytic-to-Synthetic Drift of Munda |conference=Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Tibeto-Burman and Southeast Asian Linguistics |year=2002 |pages=111–120 |url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/viewFile/1041/825 }} Pronunciations also change in prevocalic (occurring before a vowel) and non prevocalic environments.

Except schwa, all Sora vowels have long counterparts. They may be stressed or unstressed. According to Ramamurti (1986), vowels can be short, half-long, or long. Vowel length may denote expressive formations for certain stems, eg. sura ('big') and suːra ('really big'), but these require further studies.

Horo & Sarmah (2015) reported {{IPA|/a, e, i, u, o, ə/}} for the Sora Assam dialect's vowel inventory.

Sora consonants and vowels can undergo a process of sound alternation at prosodic level based on stress-shifts and morphosyntactic conditioned during which the consonants and vowels assimilate to match with the sound of preceding or following stem, or the final nasal with the initial obstruent of the following word. By doing this, some suffixes will merge with its verb phonotactically and a word can have several allomorphs depending on morphological properties of morpheme initials and codas produced during a casual or rapid speech.{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=Gregory D. S.|last2=Harrison|first2=K. David|title=The Munda Languages|chapter=Sora|place=New York|publisher=Routledge|date=2008|isbn=0-415-32890-X|pages=299–380}}

Sora is polysynthetic and noun-incorporating.{{cite journal|surname1=Horo|given1=Luke|surname2=Anderson|given2=Gregory D. S.|title=Prosody and Morphosyntax in Sora: A Preliminary Study|journal=Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages|year=2021|volume=|issue=|pages=51-55|doi=10.21437/TAI.2021-11}} A single Sora word can convey the meaning of a whole sentence. However, while researchers consider Sora sentence-words to be single individual words, native Sora speakers perceive them as phrases and break them into sequences of iambic words with a rising contour.

For example:

{{Interlinear|indent=3|top={{lang|srb|ǝdmǝltijdariŋdae}}|ǝd- mǝl- tij -dar -iŋ -da -e|NEG- DES- give -rice -1.UND -AUX:TAM -3.ACT|'(he) does not want to give me rice'}}

The grammatically correct form in Sora however requires a subject:

{{Interlinear|indent=3|anin ǝd- mǝl- tij -dar -iŋ -da -e|he NEG- DES- give -rice -1.UND -AUX:TAM -3.ACT|'he does not want to give me rice'}}

A full sentence in Sora:

{{Interlinear|indent=3|top={{lang|srb|Ňen ǝdmǝljomjɛlyɔajtenay}}|Ňen ǝd- mǝl- jom -jɛl -yɔ -aj -t -en -ay|1SG NEG- DES- eat -meat -fish -all -NPST -INTR -1.SS|'I don't want to eat all the fish.'}}

Sora uses grammatical devices, including subject and object agreement, word order, and noun compounding to show case. It is seen as a predominantly nominative-accusative language and once again differs from most other languages with its lack of a passive structure.{{cite book |last1=Starosta |first1=Stanley |chapter=Case Forms and Case Relations in Sora |pages=1069–1107 |jstor=20019195 |oclc=6015240755 |editor1-last=Jenner |editor1-first=Philip N. |editor2-last=Thompson |editor2-first=Laurence C. |editor3-last=Starosta |editor3-first=Stanley |title=Austroasiatic Studies, Part 2 |series=Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications |date=1976 |publisher=University Press of Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-0280-6 }} However, just because Sora lacks a passive case does not mean other established forms of grammatical case are also missing. Rather, Sora has some complex grammatical cases (In Nominal morphology).

In addition, Sora, like many other Munda languages, uses relator nouns to link nouns with the other parts of the sentence in order to provide a more specific meaning, called compounding. These monosyllabic nouns that enhance meaning are called Semantic relator nouns and are used widely in Sora. Sora also has a combining form for every noun in addition to the full form of the noun.{{cite book |last1=Zide |first1=Arlene R. K. |title=Nominal Combining Forms in Sora and Gorum |series=Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications |date=1976 |pages=1259–1294 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |jstor=20019202 }} The combining form allows the noun to be attached to a verb root to create a more semantically complex word, similar to compounding in other languages. Sora contains prefixes, infixes, and suffixes to form its affixation but only uses its suffixes to change the possession of nouns. The combining form is the form seen when the noun is being used with a verb or another full formed noun. The full form is the form seen when the noun is standing alone or functioning not in tandem with other parts of speech. Some templates of Sora combinations between nouns and verbs are as follows:

Verb + Combined Form

Verb + Combined Form + Combined Form

Full Form + Combined Form

Full Form + Combined Form + Combined Form

An example of a Full Form noun shortened into the Combined Form is as follows: mənra, the Full Form of man, transform into the combined form word --mər . The two—indicate that a Noun (Full or Combined) or Verb has to precede the Combined Form noun; that is the Combined Form Noun can not stand on its own. Although by no means conclusive, a few general guidelines about the Combined Form is that it depends on where the combination with the verb or other noun is to take place. If the combined form is to an infix, then its resulting form will be different from if it were to be combined as a prefix. Some examples of Full Form Nouns and their Combined Forms are as follows:

Full Form Combined Form English Translation

ədɘ'ŋ --dɘ'ŋ honeycomb

ərɘ'ŋ --rɘ'ŋ sour

bɘ'nra'j --bɘn flour

ba'ra' --bal gun barrel

kəṛíŋ—diŋ drum

Plural in nouns and verbs is marked by enclitic/suffix -ji positions just right behind noun-suffix -ɘn. Animate nouns generally can attach (not obligatorily) the plural suffix, but inanimate nouns may often not.Anderson & Harrison (2008:308)

{{Interlinear|indent=3|ətɛŋ kəndʊd-ən-ji|many frog-NMLZ-PL|'many frogs'}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|si-leŋ|hand-1PL|'our hand(s)'}}

The plural suffix is not attached after countable numerals and finite numbers but it may trigger plural-verb agreement. Numerals can form compounds with nouns; in those cases, they are nominalized and become plural marking by themselves.Anderson & Harrison (2008:319)

{{Interlinear|indent=3|bagu-mər-an-ji|two-person-NMLZ-PL|'two people'}}

Third person pronouns can be used as definite markers in noun phrases.Anderson & Harrison (2008:316) A reflexive pronoun can be formed with the reflexive enclitic =dəm. For example, anɪnji + =dəm → anɪnji=dəm 'themselves'.

Demonstratives in Sora listed by Starosta (1967).Anderson & Harrison (2008:317)

Case marking in Sora is generally murky. There is no role marker to show syntactic alignments between subjects and objects, i.e. nominative-accusative nor ergative-absolutive. A number of grammatical constructions that may or may not be expressed morphologically into an animate primary object argument of the verb, eg. the oblique-dative marker -dɔ[ʔɔ]ŋ- can manifest in standalone morpheme as adɔŋ.Anderson & Harrison (2008:309–311)

• Absolutive?–Nominal -n
• Dative–Oblique -dɔ[ʔɔ]ŋ-
• Adessive maŋ-
• Possessive a- and -a
• Allative -ban
• Locative–Inessive–Illative -leŋ-ən and -leŋ

{{Interlinear|indent=3|anɪnji-a-sîː|3PL-POSS:3-hand|'their hand(s)'}}

Grammatical gender or class is not deeply encoded in Sora morphosyntax. To signal something masculine/feminine, Sora speakers utilize indigenous compound endings =mar (male, person) and =boj (female) while also use, albeit rarely, gender suffixes borrowed from Indo-Aryan like -a and -i.Anderson & Harrison (2008:315)

Many Sora adjectives are nominal compounds, i.e. phrase-words, and pre-nominal with modificational function.

Adverbs are uninflected.Anderson & Harrison (2008:326) Some Sora adverbs are: tiki 'after', tikki 'afterwards', mailen 'together', dɔ 'so', əntɚpsɛlɛ 'therefore', biɲdɔ 'but', bɔibɔi 'very', annɚŋ 'during', nam 'now', aŋaːnʼaŋaːn 'sometimes', moyed 'previous', moyedʼmoyed 'recently', etc.

Sora verbal morphology makes use of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes per grammatical categories. In typical Munda synthetic structure, the verb phrase in Sora is head-final subject-object-verb SOV. However, Sora has developed an elaborate and productive noun incorporation system which appears to have originated from an earlier offshoot of proto-Munda. Its noun incorporation clearly distinguishes free form and incorporated forms of lexical nouns. In polysynthetic morphosyntax, Sora verb phrases display a strict head-first SVO order like those typically seen in non-Munda Austroasiatic languages. The most intriguing aspect of Sora syntactic noun incorporation is transitive subject incorporation, describes that the language allows transitive verb to incorporate (absorb) its transitive subject/agent with the verb stems remaining transitive and object indexing stays active even after being incorporated.{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Gregory D. S.|author-link=Gregory Anderson (linguist)|editor-last1= Fortescue |editor-first1= Michael |editor-link1= Michael Fortescue |editor-link2=Marianne Mithun |editor-last2= Mithun |editor-first2= Marianne |editor-last3= Evans |editor-first3= Nicholas |editor-link3=Nicholas Evans (linguist)|title=The Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis|chapter=Polysynthesis in Sora (Munda) with Special Reference to Noun Incorporation|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2017|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.50|pages=930–947}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|sa:-bud-t-am|mangle-bear-NPST-2.OBJ|'Bear will mangle you'}}

Verb serialization and clause-chaining can be realized by forming compound of verb1-verb2-nonpast. It also works with pairs of incorporated nouns.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|mal-jum-pu-daː-tam-t-əm poʔŋ?|wish-eat-cake-AUX-mouth-NPST-2 Q|'Do you wish to eat cake?'}}

Object indexing is not obligatory in Sora. In some cases, the object may be omitted or suppressed.Anderson & Harrison (2008:330)

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=CLOC:cislocative|iɛr:-ai-ɛn-a tiki aninji gudeŋ-le|go/come-1/3SG/CLOC-NMLZ-GEN after they call-PST|'After he came, he called them.'}}

Possessor of an incorporated direct object is marked by pronominal object markers, therefore Sora incorporation is not entirely a valency-reducing process like in many languages.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|lem-jeŋ-te-bɛn-ji|bow-foot-NPST-2-3|'They bow to your legs.'}}

In Sora, the basic clausal constituent order is SOV.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|anlen aman daʔa-n aʔ-tiy-t-am|We you water-NMLZ 1PL.SUBJ-give-NPST-1>2SG.OBJ|'We give you water.'}}

Compared to other Munda languages such as Kharia whose vocabulary is reported as having 40 percent of words borrowed from Indo-Aryan, Sora has very few, if not negligible, number of foreign loan words. Sora also has zero foreign phonemes.{{cite book|last1=Donegan |first1=Patricia|first2=David|last2=Stampe|chapter=Rhythm and the Synthetic Drift of Munda|year=2004|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|editor-first=Rajendra|editor-last=Singh|title=The Yearbook of South Asian Languages and Linguistics|pages=3–36}} (Donegan & Stampe, 2004) Sora borrows words from surrounding languages like Telugu and Oriya. An example of a word borrowed from Oriya is kɘ'ra'ñja' which is a tree name. From Telugu mu'nu', which means black gram, is borrowed. Ramamurti (1931) identified three Sora words that apparently were borrowed from Prakrit during ancient time: siŋger (green ginger, cf. Pali singi vera and Sanskrit sr͎inga veram), kaːrella (bitter melon, cf. Sanskrit kāravella), and keda (fragrant screwpine, cf. Sanskrit keta-ki). Moreover, within the Munda family itself most words appear to be mutually intelligible owing to minor differences in pronunciations and phonology. Kharia and Korku, two other Munda languages, share mutually intelligible words with Sora. For example, the number 11 in Kharia is ghol moŋ, in Korku it is gel ḑo miya, and in Sora it is gelmuy. Each 11 in each language looks and sounds remarkably similar to the other 11's. This phenomenon is not just contained in numbers but rather a great deal of vocabulary is mutually intelligible among the Munda languages. Within the Austroasiatic language family more knowledge about Sora vocabulary can be found. The Mon-Khmer language family which encompasses the languages primarily spoken in Southeast Asia has lexical cognates with the Munda family. That means that some words found in Sora are of direct proto-Austroasiatic origin and share similarities with other derived Austroasiatic language families. Words that relate to the body, family, home, field, as well as pronouns, demonstratives, and numerals are the ones with the most cognates.

The Sora numeral system uses a base 12, which only a few other languages in the world do. Ekari, for example, uses a base 60 system.{{cite journal |last1=Mohan |first1=Shailendra |title=Numeral Expressions in Kharia Korku, and Sora: A Comparative Account |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute |date=2012 |volume=72/73 |pages=367–374 |jstor=43610713 }} For example, 39 in Sora arithmetic would be thought of as (1 * 20) + 12 + 7. Here are the first 12 numerals in the Sora language :

English: one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve

Sora: aboy bago yagi unji monloy tudru gulji t^hamji tinji gelji gelmuy migel

Similar to how English uses the suffix from the numeral ten after twelve (such as thirteen, fourteen, etc.), Sora also uses a suffix assignment to numerals after 12 and before 20. Thirteen in Sora is expressed as migelboy (12+1), fourteen as migelbagu (12+2), etc. Between numerals 20 and 99, Sora adds the suffix kuri to the first constituent of the numeral. For example, 31 is expressed as bokuri gelmuy and 90 as unjikuri gelji.

The Sora number system was featured in a puzzle by Lera Boroditsky, found in the More Resources section associated with her [https://www.ted.com/talks/lera_boroditsky_how_language_shapes_the_way_we_think "TED talk"].

The Sora language is written using multiple systems. The Sora Sompeng script was developed in 1936 by Mangei Gomango as a native writing system created for the Sora language.

Sora is also written in the Latin script, in the Odia alphabet in Odisha, and in the Telugu script in Andhra Pradesh.

The following text is from Psalm 23 of the KJV-derived Sora Bible.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|Gamangtunga-na gupa:mar-nen nen-ate er-asu-ige. Anin doʔoŋ-ɲen ledengab-leŋ-ən ab-tabmu-t-in; Anin lagadnana daʔa-n ademadem-ban doʔoŋ-nen uruŋ-t-iɲ.|rich.god-EMPH shepherd:HUM-1SG 1SG-? NEG-be.ill-AUX:TAM 3SG OBL-1SG tender.green.grass-LOC-NMLZ CAUS-lay.down-NPST-1SG.OBJ 3SG peaceful water-NMLZ along-ALL OBL-1SG convey-NPST-1SG.OBJ|'The {{LORD}} is my shepherd; I shall not want (be ill). He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; He leadeth me beside the still waters.'}}

Sora was one of the subjects of Ironbound Films' 2008 American documentary film The Linguists, in which two linguists attempted to document several moribund languages.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

• Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). [http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sora1254 "Sora"]. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
• Ramamurti, R. S. (1931). A Manual of the Sora (Savara) Language. Delhi: Mittal Publication.
• Veṅkaṭarāmamūrti, G. (1986). Sora–English dictionary. Delhi: Mittal Publication.
• Anderson, Gregory D.S (ed). 2008. The Munda languages. Routledge Language Family Series 3.New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-32890-X}}.

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{{Reflist}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704112703/http://ling.lll.hawaii.edu/faculty/stampe/aa.html Austroasiatic Languages: Munda and Mon–Khmer]

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{{Languages of India}}

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Category:Munda languages

Category:Endangered languages of India