Sorghum

{{see also|Sorghum (genus)}}

Sorghum is a large stout grass that grows up to {{convert |2.4 |m |ft}} tall. It has large bushy flowerheads or panicles that provide an edible starchy grain with up to 3,000 seeds in each flowerhead. It grows in warm climates worldwide for food and forage.{{BONAP |ref |genus=Sorghum |access-date=4 September 2016}}{{cite web |title=sorghum: grain |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/sorghum-grain |publisher=Britannica |access-date=6 May 2024}}{{Cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10722-009-9466-7 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=243–253 |last1=Mutegi |first1=Evans |first2=Fabrice |last2=Sagnard |first3=Moses |last3=Muraya |first4=Ben |last4=Kanyenji |first5=Bernard |last5=Rono |first6=Caroline |last6=Mwongera |first7=Charles |last7=Marangu |first8=Joseph |last8=Kamau |first9=Heiko |last9=Parzies |first10=Santie |last10=de Villiers |first11=Kassa |last11=Semagn |first12=Pierre |last12=Traoré |first13=Maryke |last13=Labuschagne |title=Ecogeographical distribution of wild, weedy and cultivated Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench in Kenya: implications for conservation and crop-to-wild gene flow |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |date=2010-02-01 |s2cid=28318220 |display-authors=5 |url=http://oar.icrisat.org/2032/1/GRCE57_243-253__2010.pdf }} Sorghum is native to Africa with many cultivated forms.{{cite web |title=Sorghum- and millet-legume cropping systems |url=http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/392-ASHC-English-Sorghum-BW-A4-lowres.pdf |last1=Hauser |first1=Stefan |last2=Wairegi |first2=Lydia |last3=Asadu |first3=Charles L.A. |last4=Asawalam |first4=Damian O. |last5=Jokthan |first5=Grace |last6=Ugbe |first6=Utiang |publisher=Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International and Africa Soil Health Consortium |access-date=7 October 2018 |date=2015}}{{Cite journal |last1=Dillon |first1=Sally L. |last2=Shapter |first2=Frances M. |last3=Henry |first3=Robert J. |last4=Izquierdo |first4=Liz |last5=Lee |first5=L. Slade |title=Domestication to Crop Improvement: Genetic Resources for Sorghum and Saccharum (Andropogoneae) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=975–989 |date=1 September 2007 |pmc=2759214 |display-authors=3 |pmid=17766842 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcm192}} Most production uses annual cultivars, but some wild species of Sorghum are perennial, which may enable the Land Institute to develop a perennial cultivar for "repeated, sufficient grain harvests without resowing."{{cite web |title=Perennial Sorghum |url=https://landinstitute.org/our-work/perennial-crops/perennial-sorghum/ |publisher=The Land Institute |access-date=7 May 2024}}{{cite web |title=Sorghum Moench |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331290-2 |access-date=2024-05-10 |website=Plants of the World Online }} The name sorghum derives from Italian sorgo, which in turn most likely comes from 12th century Medieval Latin surgum or suricum. This in turn may be from Latin syricum, meaning "[grass] of Syria".{{cite web |title=sorghum (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/sorghum |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=7 May 2024}}

File:Flore médicale des Antilles, ou, Traité des plantes usuelles (10559146133) (cropped).jpg |Botanical illustration

File:Sorghum bicolor.JPG |Maturing crop, Germany

File:दगडी ज्वारी, आटपाडी Dagadi Jowar, Aatpadi (Sorghum bicolor).jpg |Ripe panicle, India

File:Sorghum bicolor (s. lat.) p. p. sl32.jpg |alt=Grains |Branch of panicle with spikelets

Sorghum is closely related to maize and the millets within the PACMAD clade of grasses, and more distantly to the cereals of the BOP clade such as wheat and barley.{{cite journal |last1=Escobar |first1=Juan S |last2=Scornavacca |first2=Céline |last3=Cenci |first3=Alberto |last4=Guilhaumon |first4=Claire |last5=Santoni |first5=Sylvain |last6=Douzery |first6=Emmanuel J. P. |last7=Ranwez |first7=Vincent |last8=Glémin |first8=Sylvain |last9=David |first9=Jacques |display-authors=5 |title=Multigenic phylogeny and analysis of tree incongruences in Triticeae (Poaceae) |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=2011 |page=181 |pmid=21702931 |pmc=3142523 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-181 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..181E }}

{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%

|label1=(Part of Poaceae)

|1={{clade

|label1= BOP clade

|1={{clade

|1=Bambusoideae (bamboos)

|2={{clade

|label1=Pooideae

|1={{clade

|label1=other grasses

|1=(fescue, ryegrass)

|label2=Triticeae

|2={{clade

|1=Hordeum (barley)

|2={{clade

|1=Triticum (wheat)

|2=Secale (rye)

}}

}}

}}

|2=Oryza (rice)

}}

}}

|label2= PACMAD clade

|2={{clade

|1=Pennisetum (fountaingrasses, pearl millet)

|2={{clade

|1=Millets

|2={{clade

|1=Sorghum (sorghum)

|2=Zea (maize)

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

{{further|Domestication of plants}}

File:Piece of sorghum bread contained in basket S - Museo Egizio, Turin S 285 p09.jpg, {{circa}} 3100 BC (5,100 years ago). Egyptian Museum, Turin{{cite web |title=Pane di sorgo contenuto nel cesto S. 283; fa parte del corredo funerario infantile della mummia S. 278 |url=https://collezioni.museoegizio.it/it-IT/material/S_285 |publisher=Egyptian Museum, Turin |access-date=6 May 2024 |quote=S. 285, la 15 Vetrina 02}}]]

S. bicolor was domesticated from its wild ancestor more than 5,000 years ago in Eastern Sudan in the area of the Rivers Atbara and Gash.{{cite book |last=Carney |first=Judith |title=In the Shadow of Slavery |publisher=University of California Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-5202-6996-5 |page=16}} It has been found at an archaeological site near Kassala in eastern Sudan, dating from 3500 to 3000 BC, and is associated with the Neolithic Butana Group culture.{{cite journal |last1=Winchell |first1=Frank |last2=Stevens |first2=Chris J. |last3=Murphy |first3=Charlene |last4=Champion |first4=Louis |last5=Fuller |first5=Dorian Q. |title=Evidence for sorghum domestication in fourth millennium BC eastern Sudan: Spikelet morphology from ceramic impressions of the Butana Group |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=58 |issue=5 |year=2017 |pages=673–683 |doi=10.1086/693898 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf}} Sorghum bread from graves in Predynastic Egypt, some 5,100 years ago, is displayed in the Egyptian Museum, Turin, Italy.

The first race to be domesticated was bicolor; it had tight husks that had to be removed forcibly. Around 4,000 years ago, this spread to the Indian subcontinent; around 3,000 years ago it reached West Africa. Four other races evolved through cultivation to have larger grains and to become free-threshing, making harvests easier and more productive. These were caudatum in the Sahel; durra, most likely in India; guinea in West Africa (later reaching India), and from that race mageritiferum that gave rise to the varieties of Southern Africa.{{cite book |last1=Fuller |first1=Dorian Q. |last2=Stevens |first2=Chris J. |title=Plants and People in the African Past |chapter=Sorghum Domestication and Diversification: A Current Archaeobotanical Perspective |publisher=Springer International Publishing |date=2018 |isbn=978-3-319-89838-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-89839-1_19 |pages=427–452}}

File:Domestication and races of Sorghum.svg

File:"Another view of the making of sorghum molasses on the Fred Hatmaker farm in the Norris Dam reservoir area." - NARA - 532657.tif in rural Tennessee, 1933]]

In the Middle Ages, the Arab Agricultural Revolution spread sorghum and other crops from Africa and Asia across the Arab world as far as Al-Andalus in Spain.{{cite journal |last=Watson |first=Andrew M. |year=1974 |title=The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=8–35 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700079602 |jstor=2116954|s2cid=154359726 }} Sorghum remained the staple food of the medieval kingdom of Alodia and most Sub-Saharan cultures prior to European colonialism.Welsby, Derek (2002). "The Economy", in The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile. British Museum. {{ISBN|978-0-7141-1947-2}}.

Tall varieties of sorghum with a high sugar content are called sweet sorghum; these are useful for producing a sugar-rich syrup and as forage.{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000319.htm |title=Grassland Index: Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench|access-date=2006-08-24|archive-date=2017-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119193819/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/pf000319.HTM|url-status=dead}}{{cite web |title=Sweet Sorghum |url=http://sseassociation.org/SweetSorghum/default.aspx |publisher=Sweet Sorghum Ethanol Producers |access-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116075700/http://sseassociation.org/SweetSorghum/default.aspx |archive-date=16 November 2012 |url-status=usurped }} Sweet sorghum was important to the sugar trade in the 19th century.{{cite book |last=Hyde |first=James F.C. |title=The Chinese Sugar-Cane: Its History, Mode of Culture, Manufacture of the Sugar, Etc. with Reports of Its Success in Different Portions of the United States, and Letters from Distinguished Men |publisher=J. P. Jewett |date=1857 |location=Boston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA_tOyZnXyUC&q=sorghum+sugar+syrup+china}} The price of sugar was rising because of decreased production in the British West Indies and more demand for confectionery and fruit preserves, and the United States was actively searching for a sugar plant that could be produced in northern states. The "Chinese sugar-cane", sweet sorghum, was viewed as a plant that would be productive in the West Indies.{{cite book |last=Hyde |first=James F.C. |title=The Chinese Sugar-Cane: Its History, Mode of Culture, Manufacture of the Sugar, Etc. with Reports of Its Success in Different Portions of the United States, and Letters from Distinguished Men |publisher=J. P. Jewett |date=1857 |location=Boston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA_tOyZnXyUC&q=sorghum+sugar+syrup+china |page=11}}

Most varieties of sorghum are drought- and heat-tolerant, nitrogen-efficient,{{cite news |last=Mulhollem |first=Jeff |title=Flavonoids' presence in sorghum roots may lead to frost-resistant crop |date=10 August 2020 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University |quote=sorghum is a crop that can respond to climate change because of its high water- and nitrogen-use efficiency|url=https://news.psu.edu/story/627935/2020/08/10/research/flavonoids-presence-sorghum-roots-may-lead-frost-resistant-crop}} and are grown particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where the grain is one of the staples for poor and rural people. These varieties provide forage in many tropical regions. S. bicolor is a food crop in Africa, Central America, and South Asia, and is the fifth most common cereal crop grown in the world.{{cite news |last=Danovich |first=Tove |title=Move over, quinoa: sorghum is the new 'wonder grain' |newspaper=The Guardian |date=15 December 2015 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/dec/15/sorghum-wonder-grain-american-food-quinoa |access-date=31 July 2018}}{{cite book |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production |volume=II |chapter=Growth and Production of Sorghum and Millets |editor-last=Verheye |editor-first=Willy H. |date=2010 |publisher=EOLSS Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx}} It is most often grown without application of fertilizers or other inputs by small-holder farmers in developing countries.{{cite web |title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=1995 |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm}} They benefit from sorghum's ability to compete effectively with weeds, especially when it is planted in narrow rows. Sorghum actively suppresses weeds by producing sorgoleone, an alkylresorcinol.{{cite web |title=Tapping into Sorghum's Weed Fighting Capabilities to Give Growers More Options |website=USDA ARS |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2010/tapping-into-sorghums-weed-fighting-capabilities-to-give-growers-more-options/ |access-date=27 July 2021}}

Sorghum grows in a wide range of temperatures. It can tolerate high altitude and toxic soils, and can recover growth after some drought. Optimum growth temperature range is {{convert|12-34|C}}, and the growing season lasts for around 115–140 days.{{cite web |title=Sorghum – Section 4: Plant Growth and Physiology |url=https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grownotes/crop-agronomy/sorghumgrownotes/GrowNote-Sorghum-North-04-Physiology.pdf |website=Grain Research & Development Corporation |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111230932/https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grownotes/crop-agronomy/sorghumgrownotes/GrowNote-Sorghum-North-04-Physiology.pdf |url-status=dead}} It can grow on a wide range of soils, such as heavy clay to sandy soils with the pH tolerance ranging from 5.0 to 8.5.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7vxU44v794C&q=sorghum+verticilliform&pg=PA91 |title=Sorghum: Origin, History, Technology, and Production |first1=C. Wayne |last1=Smith |first2=Richard A. |last2=Frederiksen |date=2000 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-4712-4237-6}} It requires an arable field that has been left fallow for at least two years or where crop rotation with legumes has taken place in the previous year.{{cite book |last1=Ajeigbe |first1=Hakeem A. |title=Handbook on improved agronomic practices of sorghum production in north east Nigeria |date=2020 |publisher=ICRISAT|location=Patancheru}} Diversified 2- or 4-year crop rotation can improve sorghum yield, additionally making it more resilient to inconsistent growth conditions.{{cite journal |last1=Sindelar |first1=Aaron J. |last2=Schmer |first2=Marty R. |last3=Jin |first3=Virginia L. |last4=Wienhold |first4=Brian J. |last5=Varvel |first5=Gary E. |title=Crop Rotation Affects Corn, Grain Sorghum, and Soybean Yields and Nitrogen Recovery |journal=Agronomy Journal|date=2016 |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=1592–1602 |doi=10.2134/agronj2016.01.0005 |bibcode=2016AgrJ..108.1592S }} In terms of nutrient requirements, sorghum is comparable to other cereal grain crops with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium required for growth.{{cite journal |last=Rooney |first=W.L. |title=Sorghum |journal=Reference Module in Food Science |date=2016 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.02986-3 |isbn=9780081005965 }}

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics has improved sorghum using traditional genetic improvement and integrated genetic and natural resources management practices.{{cite news |last=Rajulapudi |first=Srinivas |title=India beats China in sorghum production |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/india-beats-china-in-sorghum-production/article5791021.ece |work=The Hindu|date=16 March 2014 |access-date=17 March 2014}} Some 194 improved cultivars are now planted worldwide.{{cite journal |last1=Reddy |first1=B. V. S. |last2=Ramesh |first2=S. |last3=Reddy |first3=P. S. |year=2004 |title=Sorghum breeding research at ICRISAT-goals, strategies, methods and accomplishments |journal=International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter |issue=45 |pages=5-12 |url=https://oar.icrisat.org/1292/1/ISMN-45_5-12__2004.pdf |id=oai:icrisat:1292}} In India, increases in sorghum productivity resulting from improved cultivars have freed up {{convert|7|e6ha|abbr=off}} of land, enabling farmers to diversify into high-income cash crops and boost their livelihoods.{{cite web |url=http://resourcespace.icrisat.ac.in/filestore/1/0/3/7_7f0990ec0622d50/1037_94e3244b87cb47b.pdf |title=Sorghum, a crop of substance |access-date=2014-03-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120043052/http://resourcespace.icrisat.ac.in/filestore/1/0/3/7_7f0990ec0622d50/1037_94e3244b87cb47b.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-20}} Sorghum is used primarily as poultry feed, and secondarily as cattle feed and in brewing applications.{{cite web |title=General Sorghum |year=2011 |publisher=Agricultural Resource Marketing Center – partially funded by U.S. Department of Agriculture Rural Development Program |url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sorghum/general_sorghum.cfm |access-date=2012-06-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725192243/http://agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sorghum/general_sorghum.cfm |archive-date=2012-07-25 |url-status=dead}}

File:Sorghum harvest at the shore of Lake Hayq Ethiopia.jpg|Sorghum harvest at the shore of Lake Hayq, Ethiopia, 2012

File:Sorghum Harvest.jpg|Harvesting sorghum in Oklahoma, USA, with a combine harvester

File:Sun drying Sorghum in Rhino Camp.jpg|Drying sorghum in the open air, Uganda, 2020

File:Women fanning Sorghum seeds.png|Women drying sorghum seeds by tossing them in trays, 2022

{{further|List of sorghum diseases}}

Insect damage is a major threat to sorghum plants. Over 150 species damage crop plants at different stages of development, resulting in significant biomass loss.{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Chunshan |last2=Cui |first2=Wei |last3=Feng |first3=Xue |last4=Zhao |first4=Jianzhou |last5=Lu |first5=Guihua |title=Sorghum insect problems and management |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology|date=2011 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=178–192 |doi=10.1111/J.1744-7909.2010.01019.X|pmid=21205185 }} Stored sorghum grain is attacked by other insect pests such as the lesser grain borer beetle.{{cite journal |last=Edde |first=Peter A. |title=A review of the biology and control of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) the lesser grain borer |journal=Journal of Stored Products Research |publisher=Elsevier |volume=48 |number=1 |year=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.jspr.2011.08.007 |pages=1–18 |s2cid=84377289}}

Sorghum is a host of the parasitic plant Striga hermonthica, purple witchweed; that can reduce production.{{cite journal |author1=Yoshida, Satoko |author2=Maruyama, Shinichiro |author3=Nozaki, Hisayoshi |author4=Shirasu, Ken |date=28 May 2010 |journal=Science|volume=328 |pages=1128 |doi=10.1126/science.1187145 |issue=5982 |pmid=20508124 |title=Horizontal Gene Transfer by the Parasitic Plant Stiga hermanthica |bibcode= 2010Sci...328.1128Y |s2cid=39376164 }}

Sorghum is subject to a variety of plant pathogens. The fungus Colletotrichum sublineolum causes anthracnose.{{cite report |last1=Ero |first1=T. |last2=Hirpa |first2=D. |last3=Seid |first3=A. |title=Anthracnose of sorghum-Ethiopia: Colletotrichum sublineolum (C. graminicola); yemashila michi |publisher=Plantwiseplus Knowledge Bank |date=2018 |doi=10.1079/pwkb.20157800477 |series=Pest Management Decision Guides |s2cid=253929998 |doi-access=free}}

The toxic ergot fungus parasitises the grain, risking harm to humans and livestock.{{cite journal |last1=Bandyopadhyay |first1=Ranajit |last2=Frederickson |first2=Debra E. |last3=McLaren |first3=Neal W. |last4=Odvody |first4=Gary N. |last5=Ryley |first5=Malcolm J. |title=Ergot: A New Disease Threat to Sorghum in the Americas and Australia |journal=Plant Disease |date=April 1998 |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=356–367 |doi=10.1094/PDIS.1998.82.4.356 |pmid=30856881 |doi-access=free }}

Sorghum produces chitinases as defensive compounds against fungal diseases. Transgenesis of additional chitinases increases the crop's disease resistance.{{cite journal |last1=Waniska |first1=R. D. |last2=Venkatesha |first2=R. T. |last3=Chandrashekar |first3=A. |last4=Krishnaveni |first4=S. |last5=Bejosano |first5=F. P. |last6=Jeoung |first6=J. |last7=Jayaraj |first7=J. |last8=Muthukrishnan |first8=S. |last9=Liang |first9=G. H. |title=Antifungal Proteins and Other Mechanisms in the Control of Sorghum Stalk Rot and Grain Mold |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=49 |issue=10 |date=1 October 2001 |doi=10.1021/jf010007f |pages=4732–4742|pmid=11600015 }}

File:CSIRO ScienceImage 10792 Rhyzopertha dominica Lesser Grain Borer.jpg|The lesser grain borer is a serious pest of sorghum.

File:Acervuli of Colletotrichum sublineolum on Sweet sorghum.jpg|Acervuli of Colletotrichum sublineolum, the cause of anthracnose, on sweet sorghum

File:Anthracnose on Sweet sorghum.jpg|Sorghum leaves showing anthracnose damage

{{anchor|Genetics|Genomics}}

The genome of S. bicolor was sequenced between 2005 and 2007.{{Cite journal |pmid= 19189423 |volume= 457 |issue= 7229 |pages= 551–556 |last= Paterson |first= Andrew H. |author2= John E. Bowers |author3=Remy Bruggmann |author4=Inna Dubchak |author5=Jane Grimwood |author6=Heidrun Gundlach |author7=Georg Haberer |author8=Uffe Hellsten |author9=Therese Mitros |author10=Alexander Poliakov |author11=Jeremy Schmutz |author12=Manuel Spannagl |author13=Haibao Tang |author14=Xiyin Wang |author15=Thomas Wicker |author16=Arvind K. Bharti |author17=Jarrod Chapman |author18=F. Alex Feltus |author19=Udo Gowik |author20=Igor V. Grigoriev |author21=Eric Lyons |author22=Christopher A. Maher |author23=Mihaela Martis |author24=Apurva Narechania |author25=Robert P. Otillar |author26=Bryan W. Penning |author27=Asaf A. Salamov |author28=Yu Wang |author29=Lifang Zhang |author30=Nicholas C. Carpita |author31=Michael Freeling |author32=Alan R. Gingle |author33=C. Thomas Hash |author34=Beat Keller |author35=Patricia Klein |author36=Stephen Kresovich |author37=Maureen C. McCann |author38=Ray Ming |author39=Daniel G. Peterson |author40=Mehboob-ur-Rahman |author41=Doreen Ware |author42=Peter Westhoff |author43=Klaus F. X. Mayer |author44=Joachim Messing |author45=Daniel S. Rokhsar |display-authors=6 |title=The Sorghum bicolor genome and the diversification of grasses |journal=Nature |date= 2009-01-29 |bibcode= 2009Natur.457..551P |doi= 10.1038/nature07723 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite web |url=https://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov/pz/portal.html#!info?alias=Org_Sbicolor |title=Phytozome |website=US DOE JGI Phytozome}} It is generally considered diploid and contains 20 chromosomes,{{Cite journal |last1=Price |first1=H. J. |last2=Dillon |first2=S. L. |last3=Hodnett |first3=G. |last4=Rooney |first4=W. L. |last5=Ross |first5=L. |last6=Johnston |first6=J. S. |date=2005 |title=Genome evolution in the genus Sorghum (Poaceae) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=219–227 |doi=10.1093/aob/mci015 |pmid=15596469 |pmc=4246720}} however, there is evidence to suggest a tetraploid origin for S. bicolor.{{Cite journal |last1=Gomez |first1=M. I. |last2=Islam-Faridi |first2=M. N. |last3=Zwick |first3=M. S. |last4=Czeschin Jr |first4=D. G. |last5=Hart |first5=G. E. |last6=Wing |first6=R. A. |last7=Stelly |first7=D. M. |last8=Price |first8=H. J. |date=1998 |title=Brief communication. Tetraploid nature of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=188–190 |doi=10.1093/jhered/89.2.188 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/89/2/188/2186640?login=true |doi-access=free}} The genome size is approximately 800 Mbp.{{Cite journal |last1=McCormick |first1=Ryan F. |last2=Truong |first2=Sandra K. |last3=Sreedasyam |first3=Avinash |last4=Jenkins |first4=Jerry |last5=Shu |first5=Shengqiang |last6=Sims |first6=David |last7=Kennedy |first7=Megan |last8=Amirebrahimi |first8=Mojgan |last9=Weers |first9=Brock D. |last10=McKinley |first10=Brian |last11=Mattison |first11=Ashley |date=2018 |title=The Sorghum bicolor reference genome: improved assembly, gene annotations, a transcriptome atlas, and signatures of genome organization |journal=The Plant Journal |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=338–354 |doi=10.1111/tpj.13781 |pmid=29161754 |doi-access=free}}

Paterson et al., 2009 provides a genome assembly of 739 megabase. The most commonly used genome database is {{ Visible anchor |SorGSD}} maintained by Luo et al., 2016. A gene expression atlas is available from Shakoor et al., 2014 with 27,577 genes. For molecular breeding (or other purposes) an SNP array has been created by Bekele et al., 2013, a 3K SNP Infinium from Illumina, Inc.{{cite journal |last1=Varshney |first1=Rajeev K. |last2=Bohra |first2=Abhishek |last3=Yu |first3=Jianming |last4=Graner |first4=Andreas |last5=Zhang |first5=Qifa |last6=Sorrells |first6=Mark E. |title=Designing Future Crops: Genomics-Assisted Breeding Comes of Age |journal=Trends in Plant Science |volume=26 |issue=6 |date=2021 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2021.03.010 |pages=631–649 |pmid=33893045 |bibcode=2021TPS....26..631V |doi-access=free }}

Agrobacterium transformation can be used on sorghum, as shown in a 2018 report of such a transformation system.{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Minliang |last2=Ye |first2=Jingyang |last3=Gao |first3=Dawei |last4=Xu |first4=Nan |last5=Yang |first5=Jing |title=Agrobacterium-mediated horizontal gene transfer: Mechanism, biotechnological application, potential risk and forestalling strategy |journal=Biotechnology Advances |volume=37 |issue=1 |date=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.12.008 |pages=259–270 |pmid=30579929 }} A 2013 study developed and validated an SNP array for molecular breeding.{{cite journal |last1=Bekele |first1=Wubishet A. |last2=Wieckhorst |first2=Silke |last3=Friedt |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Snowdon |first4=Rod J. |title=High-throughput genomics in sorghum: from whole-genome resequencing to a SNP screening array |journal=Plant Biotechnology Journal |volume=11 |issue=9 |date=2013 |doi=10.1111/pbi.12106 |pages=1112–1125 |pmid=23919585 |doi-access=free }}

In 2021, world production of sorghum was 61 million tonnes, led by the United States with 19% of the total (table). India, Ethiopia, and Mexico were the largest secondary producers.

File:2019 Sorghum map US.pdf

In 2013, China began purchasing American sorghum as a complementary livestock feed to its domestically grown maize. It imported around $1 billion worth per year until April 2018, when it imposed retaliatory tariffs as part of a trade war.{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-sorghum-china-20180418-story.html |title=Sorghum, targeted by tariffs, is a U.S. crop China started buying only five years ago |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=Apr 18, 2018 |access-date=28 January 2019}} By 2020, the tariffs had been waived, and trade volumes increased before declining again as China began buying sorghum from other countries.{{cite news |title=U.S. Sorghum Exports Dwindle on "Near-Evaporation" of Chinese Demand, as China Looks to Brazilian Corn |url=https://farmpolicynews.illinois.edu/2023/01/u-s-sorghum-exports-dwindle-on-near-evaporation-of-chinese-demand-as-china-looks-to-brazilian-corn/ |access-date=18 March 2024 |work=Farm Policy News |publisher=University of Illinois |date=22 January 2023}} As of 2020, China is the world's largest sorghum importer, importing more than all other countries combined.{{cite web |title=U.S. Sorghum Prices Rally with China's Return to the Market |url=https://fas.usda.gov/data/us-sorghum-prices-rally-china-s-return-market |website=fas.usda.gov |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |date=28 July 2020}} Mexico also accounts for 7% of global sorghum production.{{Cite web |title=Sorghum {{!}} USDA Foreign Agricultural Service |url=https://fas.usda.gov/data/production/commodity/0459200 |access-date=2024-10-08 |website=fas.usda.gov}}

{{nutritional value

| name = Sorghum grain

| kJ = 1380

| water = 12.4 g

| protein = 10.6 g

| fat = 3.46 g

| satfat = 0.61 g

| monofat = 1.13 g

| polyfat = 1.56 g

| carbs = 72.1 g

| fiber = 6.7 g

| sugars = 2.53 g

| calcium_mg = 13

| iron_mg = 3.36

| magnesium_mg = 165

| phosphorus_mg = 289

| potassium_mg = 363

| sodium_mg = 2

| copper_mg = 0.284

| selenium_ug = 12.2

| zinc_mg = 1.67

| manganese_mg = 1.6

| vitC_mg = 0

| thiamin_mg = 0.332

| riboflavin_mg = 0.096

| niacin_mg = 3.69

| pantothenic_mg = 0.367

| vitB6_mg = 0.443

| folate_ug = 20

| vitA_ug = 0

| vitE_mg = 0.5

| source_usda = 1

| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169716/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]

| kcal = 329

}}

The grain is edible and nutritious. It can be eaten raw when young and milky, but has to be boiled or ground into flour when mature.{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364 |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing, United States Department of the Army |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York] |pages=94 |oclc=277203364}}

Sorghum grain is 72% carbohydrates including 7% dietary fiber, 11% protein, 3% fat, and 12% water (table). In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g}}, sorghum grain supplies 79 calories and rich contents (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals (table).{{Cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169716/nutrients |title=Link to USDA Database entry |access-date=7 May 2024 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169716/nutrients |url-status=dead }}

In the early stages of plant growth, some sorghum species may contain levels of hydrogen cyanide, hordenine, and nitrates lethal to grazing animals.{{cite web |title=Sorghum |url=http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/beef/feeding-and-nutrition/sorghum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002184304/http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/beef/feeding-and-nutrition/sorghum |archive-date=2019-10-02 |access-date=2018-10-15 |publisher=Agriculture Victoria|location=Victoria, Australia}} Plants stressed by drought or heat can also contain toxic levels of cyanide and nitrates at later stages in growth.{{cite web |date=7 November 2018 |title=Cyanide (prussic acid) and nitrate in sorghum crops |url=https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/land-management/health-pests-weeds-diseases/livestock/cyanide-nitrate-sorghum |access-date=2021-05-13 |publisher=Queensland Government, Primary Industries and Fisheries}}

Sorghum is widely used for food and animal fodder. It is also used to make alcoholic beverages. It can be made into couscous, porridge, or flatbreads such as Indian Jōḷada roṭṭi or tortillas; and it can be burst in hot oil to make a popcorn, smaller than that of maize. Since it does not contain gluten, it can be used in gluten-free diets.{{cite news |last1=Saner |first1=Emine |title=From porridge to popcorn: how to cook with the ancient grain sorghum |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2021/may/24/how-to-cook-with-ancient-grain-sorghum-porridge-popcorn |work=The Guardian |date=24 May 2021}}

In South Africa, characteristically sour malwa beer is made from sorghum or millet. The process involves souring the mashed grain with lactic acid bacteria, followed by fermenting by the wild yeasts that were on the grain.{{cite journal |last=Van Der Walt |first=J. P. |title=Kaffircorn malting and brewing studies. II.—Studies on the microbiology of Kaffir beer |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=1956 |issn=0022-5142 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740070203 |pages=105–113|bibcode=1956JSFA....7..105V }}

In China and Taiwan, sorghum is one of the main materials of Kaoliang liquor, a type of the colourless distilled alcoholic drink baijiu.{{cite journal |last=Xing-Lin |first=Han |last2=De-Liang |first2=Wang |last3=Wu-Jiu |first3=Zhang |last4=Shi-Ru |first4=Jia |title=The production of the Chinese baijiu from sorghum and other cereals: The production of the Chinese baijiu from sorghum and other cereals |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |volume=123 |issue=4 |date=2017 |doi=10.1002/jib.450 |pages=600–604}}{{cite web |url=https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=10&post=114854 |title=Kaoliang bottlings from Taiwan bag international awards |publisher=Taiwan Today |date=4 May 2017}}

In countries including the US, the stalks of sweet sorghum varieties are crushed in a cane juicer to extract the sweet molasses-like juice. The juice is sold as syrup,{{cite news |last=Rapuano |first=Rina |title=Sorghum Travels From The South To The Mainstream |url=https://www.npr.org/2012/09/12/160946531/sorghum-travels-from-the-south-to-the-mainstream |website=NPR.org |date=12 September 2012}}Bitzer, Morris. Sweet Sorghum for Syrup. Publication. N.p.: U of Kentucky, 2002. Web. 22 May 2014. Curtin, Leo V. MOLASSES – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Publication. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences and University of Florida, n.d. Web. 22 May 2014. and used as a feedstock to make biofuel.{{cite web |url=http://www.agribusinessweek.com/sweet-sorghum-a-new-smart-biofuel-crop/|title=Sweet Sorghum : A New "Smart Biofuel Crop |publisher=agribusinessweek.com|date=30 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801020522/http://www.agribusinessweek.com/sweet-sorghum-a-new-smart-biofuel-crop/ |archive-date=1 August 2008}}

File:Sorghum beer or Omalovu giilya.jpg|Sorghum beer, Omalovu giilya, fermenting in gourds, Namibia

File:Kaoliang.jpg|A bottle of Kaoliang liquor

File:Sorghum cane juicer.jpg|A horse-driven sorghum cane juicer at work in North Carolina

File:Sorghum jar.jpg|A jar of sweet sorghum syrup

File:Simple turkey tail brooms (cropped).png|Brooms made of panicle stalks

File:Sorghum food in locally made plate.jpg|Sorghum dough in a gourd bowl of the Didinga people of South Sudan

File:ಜೋಳದ ರೊಟ್ಟಿ Jōḷada roṭṭi.jpg|Jōḷada roṭṭi flatbread, Karnataka, India

File:Popcorn and pop sorghum.jpg|Maize popcorn and popped sorghum

File:Sorghum forage (kadba).jpg|Sorghum forage, Maharashtra, India

Sorghum can be used to produce fuel ethanol as an alternative to maize. The energy ratio for the production of ethanol is similar to that of sugarcane, and much higher than that of maize.{{cite journal |last=Briand |first=C.H. |last2=Geleta |first2=S.B. |last3=Kratochvil |first3=R.J. |title=Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) a potential biofuel feedstock: Analysis of cultivar performance in the Mid-Atlantic |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=129 |date=2018 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2018.06.004 |pages=328–333}} Extracted carbohydrates can readily be fermented into ethanol because of their simple sugar structure. Residuals contain enough energy to power the ethanol processing facilities used to produce the fuel.{{cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=Albert S. |last2=Anex |first2=Robert P. |title=Farm-Gate Production Costs of Sweet Sorghum as a Bioethanol Feedstock |journal=Transactions of the ASABE |volume=51 |issue=2 |date=2008 |doi=10.13031/2013.24360 |pages=603–613}} As of 2018, production costs (including price of produce,ESS: 4. Concepts on price data. (n.d.). https://www.fao.org/economic/the-statistics-division-ess/methodology/methodology-systems/price-statistics-and-index-numbers-of-agricultural-production-and-prices/4-concepts-on-price-data/en/#:~:text=The%20farm%20gate%20prices%20are,in%20the%20farm%20gate%20prices transport and processing costs) are competitive with maize,{{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Albert S. |last2=Anex |first2=Robert P. |title=Production, transportation and milling costs of sweet sorghum as a feedstock for centralized bioethanol production in the upper Midwest |journal=Bioresource Technology |volume=100 |issue=4 |date=2009 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2008.09.023 |pages=1595–1607}} while sorghum has a lower nitrogen fertilizer requirement than maize.{{cite journal |last=Geng |first=S. |last2=Hills |first2=F. J. |last3=Johnson |first3=S. S. |last4=Sah |first4=R. N. |title=Potential Yields and On‐Farm Ethanol Production Cost of Corn, Sweet Sorghum, Fodderbeet, and Sugarbeet |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=162 |issue=1 |date=1989 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.1989.tb00683.x |pages=21–29}}

To turn it into fuel ethanol, sorghum juice is concentrated into syrup for long term storage, then fermented in a batch fermentation process.{{cite journal |last=Li |first=Xinzhe |last2=Dong |first2=Yufeng |last3=Chang |first3=Lu |last4=Chen |first4=Lifan |last5=Wang |first5=Guan |last6=Zhuang |first6=Yingping |last7=Yan |first7=Xuefeng |title=Develop Dynamic Hybrid Modeling of Fuel Ethanol Fermentation Process by Integrating Biomass Concentration XGBoost Model and Kinetic Parameters Artificial Neural Network Model into Mechanism Model |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |date=2022 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.4181174 |page=}}

In Nigeria, the pulverized red leaf-sheaths of sorghum have been used to dye leather, while in Algeria, sorghum has been used to dye wool.{{cite journal |last=Dalziel |first=J.M. |title=African Leather Dyes |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information |volume=6 |date=1926 |issue=6 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|page=230 |doi=10.2307/4118651 |jstor=4118651 }}

In India, the panicle stalks are used as bristles for brooms.{{Citation |last1=Hariprasanna |first1=K. |title=Sorghum: Origin, Classification, Biology and Improvement |date=2015 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-81-322-2422-8_1 |work=Sorghum Molecular Breeding |pages=3–20 |editor-last=Madhusudhana |editor-first=R. |place=New Delhi |publisher=Springer India |doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2422-8_1 |isbn=978-81-322-2421-1 |last2=Patil |first2=J. V. |editor2-last=Rajendrakumar |editor2-first=P. |editor3-last=Patil |editor3-first=J.V.}}

Sorghum seeds and bagasse have the potential to produce lactic acid via fermentation which can be used to make polylactic acid, a biodegradable thermoplastic resin.{{cite journal |last1=Wee |first1=Y. |last2=Kim |first2=J. |last3=Ryu |first3=H. |year=2006 |title=Biotechnological production of lactic acid and its recent applications |journal=Food Technology and Biotechnology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=163–172 |url=https://doaj.org/article/206aab8f95184a818e1f54fcb9c05d17}}

In Australia, sorghum is personified as a spirit among the Dagoman people of Northern Territory, as well as being used for food; the local species are S. intrans and S. plumosum.{{cite journal |last=Arndt |first=W. |title=Indigenous Sorghum as Food and in Myth: The Tagoman Tribe |journal=Oceania |volume=32 |issue=2 |year=1961 |pages=109–112 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1961.tb01745.x |jstor=40329309 }}

In Korea, the origin tale "Brother and sister who became the Sun and Moon" is also called "The reason sorghum is red".{{cite encyclopedia |title=해와 달이 된 오누이 |language=Korean |trans-title=Brother and sister who became the Sun and Moon |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture |year=1996 |last=최 |first=인학 |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |location=성남 |url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0062663 |access-date= 2022-11-30}} In the tale, a tiger who is chasing a brother and sister follows them up a rotten rope as they climb into the sky, and become the sun and moon. The rope breaks, and the tiger falls to its death, impaling itself on a sorghum stalk, which becomes red with its blood.{{cite encyclopedia |title= 해와 달이 된 오누이 |encyclopedia= 한국민속문학사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture) |year=1996 |last= 조 |first= 현설 |publisher=National Folk Museum of Korea |location= 서울 |url=https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/6006 |access-date= 2022-11-30}}

In Northeastern Italy in the early modern period, sticks of sorghum were used by Benandanti visionaries of the Friuli district to fight off witches who were thought to threaten crops and people.{{cite book |last=Klaniczay |first=Gábor |title=The Uses of Supernatural Power: The Transformation of Popular Religion in Medieval and Early-Modern Europe |translator-first=Susan |translator-last=Singerman |year=1990 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-6910-7377-4 |pages=129–130}}

• 3-Deoxyanthocyanidin
• Apigeninidin
• List of antioxidants in food

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Commons category}}

{{cookbook|Sorghum}}

• [http://www.cwrdiversity.org/checklist/genepool-details.php?id%5b%5d=21 Crop Wild Relatives Inventory]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}: reliable information source on where and what to conserve ex-situ, regarding Sorghum genepool
• [https://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?454806 Taxon: Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench subsp. bicolor – information from National Plant Germplasm System/GRIN]

{{WestAfricanPlants|Sorghum bicolor}}

{{Cereals}}

{{Bioenergy}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q332062|from2=Q15637225|from3=Q39584634}}

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