Strawberry

In Europe, until the 17th century cultivated plants were obtained by transplanting strawberries from the forests; the plants were propagated asexually by pegging down the runners, allowing them to root, and then separating the new plants.{{cite web |last=Welsh |first=Martin |url=http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/strawberry.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080802231801/http://www.nvsuk.org.uk/growing_show_vegetables_1/strawberry.php |archive-date=2 August 2008 |url-status=dead |title=Strawberries |publisher=National Vegetable Society}} F. virginiana, the Virginia strawberry, was brought to Europe from eastern North America; F. chiloensis, the Chilean strawberry, was brought from Chile by Amédée-François Frézier in 1714. At first introduction to Europe, the Chilean strawberry plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit. French gardeners in Brittany in the 1750s noticed that the Chilean plants bore only female flowers. They planted the wild woodland strawberry F. vesca among the Chilean plants to provide pollen; the Chilean strawberry plants then bore abundant fruits.{{cite web |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Fragaria/index.html |title=Strawberry, The Maiden With Runners |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706193324/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Fragaria/index.html |archive-date=6 July 2010}}

In 1759, Philip Miller recorded the 'pine strawberry' (F. ananassa) in Chelsea, England. In the gardens of the Palace of Versailles, France, Antoine Nicolas Duchesne found in 1766 that F. ananassa was a hybrid of the recently arrived F. chiloensis and F. virginiana. In 1806, Michael Keens of Isleworth, England selected the Keens Imperial cultivar from many hybrids, winning the Royal Horticultural Society's Silver Cup. Both the names 'pine' and 'ananassa' meant "pineapple", for the fruit's flavour.{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Harold A. |title=The Contributions of Private Strawberry Breeders |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/downloadpdf/journals/hortsci/25/8/article-p897.pdf |journal=HortScience |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=897–902 |date=August 1990|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.25.8.897 }} Modern strawberries and both parent species are octoploid (8N, meaning they have 8 sets of 7 chromosomes).{{cite journal |pmid=24282021 |year=2014 |last1=Hirakawa |first1=H. |title=Dissection of the octoploid strawberry genome by deep sequencing of the genomes of fragaria species |journal=DNA Research |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=169–181 |last2=Shirasawa |first2=K. |last3=Kosugi |first3=S. |last4=Tashiro |first4=K. |last5=Nakayama |first5=S. |last6=Yamada |first6=M. |last7=Kohara |first7=M. |last8=Watanabe |first8=A. |last9=Kishida |first9=Y. |last10=Fujishiro |first10=T. |last11=Tsuruoka |first11=H. |last12=Minami |first12=C. |last13=Sasamoto |first13=S. |last14=Kato |first14=M. |last15=Nanri |first15=K. |last16=Komaki |first16=A. |last17=Yanagi |first17=T. |last18=Guoxin |first18=Q. |last19=Maeda |first19=F. |last20=Ishikawa |first20=M. |last21=Kuhara |first21=S. |last22=Sato |first22=S. |last23=Tabata |first23=S. |last24=Isobe |first24=S.N.|doi=10.1093/dnares/dst049 |pmc=3989489}} The genome sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019.{{Cite journal |last1=Edger |first1=Patrick P. |last2=Poorten |first2=Thomas J. |last3=VanBuren |first3=Robert |last4=Hardigan |first4=Michael A. |last5=Colle |first5=Marivi |last6=McKain |first6=Michael R. |last7=Smith |first7=Ronald D. |last8=Teresi |first8=Scott J. |last9=Nelson |first9=Andrew D.L. |last10=Wai |first10=Ching Man |last11=Alger |first11=Elizabeth I. |date=March 2019 |title=Origin and evolution of the octoploid strawberry genome |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=541–547 |doi=10.1038/s41588-019-0356-4 |pmid=30804557 |pmc=6882729 |doi-access=free}}

File:Hybridisation and polyploidy in strawberries.svg (8N), like both parents, the Virginia and Chilean strawberries.]]

Further breeding in the following centuries produced varieties with a longer cropping season and more fruit. During the Green Revolution of the 1950s, agronomists used selective breeding to expand phenotypic diversity of the garden strawberry. Adoption of perpetual flowering hybrids not sensitive to changes in photoperiod gave higher yields and enabled production in California to expand.{{cite journal |last1=Feldmann |first1=Mitchell J. |last2=Pincot |first2=Dominique D. A. |last3=Cole |first3=Glenn S. |last4=Knapp |first4=Steven J. |title=Genetic gains underpinning a little-known strawberry Green Revolution |journal=Nature Communications |date=19 March 2024 |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=2468 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-46421-6 |pmid=38504104 |pmc=10951273 |bibcode=2024NatCo..15.2468F}}

File:Fragaria vesca LC0389.jpg|Fragaria vesca, a wild woodland strawberry, was cultivated until the 17th century.

File:Strawberry gariguette DSC03063.JPG|Antoine Nicolas Duchesne discovered that the cultivated strawberry ('Gariguette' pictured) was a hybrid of F. chiloensis and F. virginiana.

The phylogeny of the cultivated strawberry within the genus Fragaria of the Rosaceae family was determined by chloroplast genomics in 2021. The polyploidy (number of sets of chromosomes) is shown as "2N" etc. by each species.{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Jian |last2=Sun |first2=Rui |last3=Liu |first3=Huabo |last4=Chang |first4=Linlin |last5=Li |first5=Shuangtao |last6=Zhao |first6=Mizhen |last7=Shennan |first7=Carol |last8=Lei |first8=Jiajun |last9=Dong |first9=Jing |last10=Zhong |first10=Chuanfei |last11=Xue |first11=Li |last12=Gao |first12=Yongshun |last13=Wang |first13=Guixia |last14=Zhang |first14=Yuntao |title=Complete chloroplast genome sequencing of ten wild Fragaria species in China provides evidence for phylogenetic evolution of Fragaria |journal=Genomics |volume=113 |issue=3 |year=2021 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.01.027 |doi-access=free |pages=1170–1179|pmid=33705887 }}

{{clade

|label1=Rosaceae

|1={{clade

|1=Rosa and other genera 70px

|2={{clade

|1=Potentilla (cinquefoils) 70px

|label2=Fragaria

|2={{clade

|1=at least 11 other species

|2={{clade

|1=F. viridis 2N (green strawberry) 50px

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=F. orientalis 4N (eastern strawberry) 70px

|2=F. moschata 6N (musk strawberry) 70px

}}

|2={{clade

|1=F. mandshurica

|2={{clade

|1=F. vesca ssp. vesca 2N (wild strawberry) 70px

|2={{clade

|1=F. vesca ssp. bracteata 2N

|2={{clade

|1=F. virginiana 8N (Virginia strawberry, parent species) 70px

|2={{clade

|1=F. chiloensis 8N (Chilean strawberry, parent species) 80px

|2=F. x ananassa 8N (the hybrid garden strawberry) 80px

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

}}

{{see also|Fragaria}}

File:Strawberry vs Peapod.svg, covered with many small achenes, the botanical fruits.]]

In culinary terms, a strawberry is an edible fruit. From a botanical point of view, it is not a berry but an aggregate accessory fruit, because the fleshy part is derived from the receptacle. Each apparent seed on the outside of the strawberry is actually an achene, a botanical fruit with a seed inside it.{{cite web |last1=Parrucci |first1=Lynn |last2=Eubanks |first2=Amy |title=The Strawberry: A Multiple Fruit |year=1997 |url=https://carnegiemuseums.org/magazine-archive/1997/mayjun/dept4.htm |publisher=Carnegie Museums |access-date=6 November 2024}}

File:Two strawberry leaves sunny.jpg|Leaves

File:Flower of Fragaria × ananassa.JPG|Flower

File:Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) close-up.jpg|Achenes (botanical fruits)

File:Strawberry growth (Video).webm|Growth (video)

{{nutritional value

|name=Nutrition

|image=Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa).jpg

|kJ=136

|fat=0.3 g

|protein=0.67 g

|water=90.95 g

|carbs=7.68 g

|fiber=2 g

|sugars=4.89 g

|calcium_mg=16

|iron_mg=0.41

|magnesium_mg=13

|phosphorus_mg=24

|potassium_mg=154

|sodium_mg=1

|zinc_mg=0.14

|manganese_mg=0.386

|vitC_mg=58.8

|thiamin_mg=0.024

|riboflavin_mg=0.022

|niacin_mg=0.386

|pantothenic_mg=0.125

|vitB6_mg=0.047

|folate_ug=24

|choline_mg=5.7

|vitE_mg=0.29

|vitK_ug=2.2

|source_usda=0

|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/747448/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]

}}

Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). A reference amount of {{convert |100|g|oz}} supplies 33 kilocalories, is a rich source of vitamin C (65% of the Daily Value, DV), and a good source of manganese (17% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table). Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential unsaturated fatty acids in the achene (seed) oil.

Garden strawberries contain diverse phytochemicals, including the dimeric ellagitannin agrimoniin, which is an isomer of sanguiin H-6.{{cite journal |last1=Lipińska |first1=Lidia |last2=Klewicka |first2=Elżbieta |last3=Sójka |first3=Michał |title=The structure, occurrence and biological activity of ellagitannins: a general review |journal=Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Technologia Alimentaria |publisher=Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Poznaniu (Poznan University of Life Sciences) |volume=13 |issue=3 |date=30 September 2014 |doi=10.17306/j.afs.2014.3.7 |doi-access=free |pages=289–299|pmid=24887944 }}{{cite journal |last1=Vrhovsek |first1=U. |last2=Guella |first2=G. |last3=Gasperotti |first3=M. |last4=Pojer |first4=E. |last5=Zancato |first5=M. |last6=Mattivi |first6=F. |doi=10.1021/jf2052256 |title=Clarifying the Identity of the Main Ellagitannin in the Fruit of the Strawberry, Fragaria vesca and Fragaria ananassa Duch |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=60 |issue=10 |pages=2507–2516 |year=2012 |pmid=22339338|bibcode=2012JAFC...60.2507V }} Other polyphenols present include flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, flavanols, flavonols and phenolic acids, such as hydroxybenzoic acid and hydroxycinnamic acid.{{cite journal |last1=Giampieri |first1=Francesca |last2=Tulipani |first2=Sara |last3=Alvarez-Suarez |first3=Josè M. |last4=Quiles |first4=Josè L. |last5=Mezzetti |first5=Bruno |last6=Battino |first6=Maurizio |title=The Strawberry: Composition, Nutritional Quality, and Impact on Human Health |journal=Nutrition |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.nut.2011.08.009 |pages=9–19|pmid=22153122 }} Although achenes comprise only about 1% of the total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of all polyphenols in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include ellagic acid, ellagic acid glycosides, and ellagitannins.{{cite journal |pmid=15884835 |last1=Aaby |first1=K. |last2=Skrede |first2=G. |last3=Wrolstad |first3=R.E. |title=Phenolic composition and antioxidant activities in flesh and achenes of strawberries (Fragaria ananassa) |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |year=2005 |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=4032–4040 |doi=10.1021/jf048001o|bibcode=2005JAFC...53.4032A }}

Pelargonidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin pigment in strawberries, giving them their red colour, with cyanidin-3-glucoside in smaller amounts. Strawberries also contain purple minor pigments, such as dimeric anthocyanins.{{cite journal |last1=Fossen |first1=Torgils |last2=Rayyan |first2=Saleh |last3=Andersen |first3=Øyvind M. |title=Dimeric anthocyanins from strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) consisting of pelargonidin 3-glucoside covalently linked to four flavan-3-ols |year=2004 |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=1421–1428 |doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.05.003 |pmid=15231416 |bibcode=2004PChem..65.1421F}}

File:Furaneol.svg contributes to the fragrance of strawberries.]]

Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavour are important attributes of strawberries.{{cite journal |last1=Colquhoun |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Levin |first2=Laura A. |last3=Moskowitz |first3=Howard R. |last4=Whitaker |first4=Vance M. |last5=Clark |first5=David G. |last6=Folta |first6=Kevin M. |title=Framing the perfect strawberry: An exercise in consumer-assisted selection of fruit crops |journal=Journal of Berry Research |publisher=IOS Press |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=2012 |doi=10.3233/jbr-2011-027 |doi-access=free |pages=45–61|bibcode=2012JBerR...2...45C }} In plant breeding and farming, emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and volatile compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of the ripe fruit.{{cite journal |pmid=24523895 |year=2014 |last1=Schwieterman |first1=M.L. |title=Strawberry flavor: Diverse chemical compositions, a seasonal influence, and effects on sensory perception |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=e88446 |last2=Colquhoun |first2=T.A. |last3=Jaworski |first3=E.A. |last4=Bartoshuk |first4=L.M. |last5=Gilbert |first5=J.L. |last6=Tieman |first6=D.M. |last7=Odabasi |first7=A.Z. |last8=Moskowitz |first8=H.R. |last9=Folta |first9=K.M. |author-link9=Kevin Folta |last10=Klee |first10=H.J. |last11=Sims |first11=C.A. |last12=Whitaker |first12=V.M. |last13=Clark |first13=D.G. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0088446 |pmc=3921181 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...988446S |doi-access=free}} Esters, terpenes, and furans are the chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavour, sweetness and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to desirable flavour and fragrance. In breeding strawberries for the commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds methyl anthranilate and gamma-decalactone, prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics. As strawberry flavour and fragrance appeal to consumers,{{cite magazine |first1=Dana |last1=Goodyear |title=How Driscoll's reinvented the strawberry |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/08/21/how-driscolls-reinvented-the-strawberry |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=26 June 2019 |date=14 August 2017}}{{cite journal |last1=Negri |first1=Alfredo S. |last2=Allegra |first2=Domenico |last3=Simoni |first3=Laura |last4=Rusconi |first4=Fabio |last5=Tonelli |first5=Chiara |last6=Espen |first6=Luca |last7=Galbiati |first7=Massimo |title=Comparative analysis of fruit aroma patterns in the domesticated wild strawberries Profumata di Tortona (F. moschata) and Regina delle Valli (F. vesca) |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=6 |date=11 February 2015 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2015.00056 |page=56 |pmid=25717332 |pmc=4324068 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |pmid=17954736 |year=2007 |last1=Thompson |first1=J.L. |title=Preferences for commercial strawberry drinkable yogurts among African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic consumers in the United States |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |volume=90 |issue=11 |pages=4974–87 |last2=Lopetcharat |first2=K. |last3=Drake |first3=M.A. |doi=10.3168/jds.2007-0313 |doi-access=free}} they are used widely in manufacturing, including foods, beverages, perfumes and cosmetics.{{cite web |last=Dvorsky |first=George |url=http://io9.com/5958880/how-flavor-chemists-make-your-food-so-addictively-good |title=How Flavor Chemists Make Your Food So Addictively Good |publisher=io9 |date=8 November 2012 |access-date=26 April 2014 |archive-date=11 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111044508/http://io9.com/5958880/how-flavor-chemists-make-your-food-so-addictively-good |url-status=dead}}{{cite web |last=Cassell |first=Deborah |url=http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2014/flavor-trends-yogurt/ |publisher=Food Processing |title=2014 Flavor Trends: Yogurt's Fruitful Union |year=2014 |access-date=26 April 2014}}

Some people experience an anaphylactoid reaction to eating strawberries.{{cite web |url=http://www.cpmc.org/advanced/pediatrics/patients/topics/food-allergies.html |title=Children and food allergies |publisher=California Pacific Medical Center |year=2013 |access-date=27 April 2014 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=5 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105105206/http://www.cpmc.org/advanced/pediatrics/patients/topics/food-allergies.html}} The most common form of this reaction is oral allergy syndrome, but symptoms may also mimic hay fever or include dermatitis or hives, and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems.{{cite journal |pmid=19940506 |year=2010 |last1=Patiwael |first1=J.A. |last2=Vullings |first2=L.G. |last3=De Jong |first3=N.W. |last4=Van Toorenenbergen |first4=A. W. |last5=Gerth Van Wijk |first5=R. |last6=De Groot |first6=H. |title=Occupational allergy in strawberry greenhouse workers |journal=International Archives of Allergy and Immunology |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=58–65 |doi=10.1159/000260084 |url=http://repub.eur.nl/pub/28314 |hdl=1765/28314 |s2cid=31952236 |hdl-access=free}} Proteomic studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1). White-fruited strawberry cultivars, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for people allergic to strawberries.{{cite journal |pmid=19969523 |year=2010 |last1=Muñoz |first1=C. |title=The strawberry fruit Fra a allergen functions in flavonoid biosynthesis |journal=Molecular Plant |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=113–124 |last2=Hoffmann |first2=T. |last3=Escobar |first3=N.M. |last4=Ludemann |first4=F. |last5=Botella |first5=M.A. |last6=Valpuesta |first6=V. |last7=Schwab |first7=W. |doi=10.1093/mp/ssp087 |doi-access=free}} They ripen but remain pale, appearing like immature berries. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.{{cite journal |last1=Hjernø |first1=Karin |last2=Alm |first2=Rikard |last3=Canbäck |first3=Björn |last4=Matthiesen |first4=Rune |last5=Trajkovski |first5=Karin |last6=Björk |first6=Lars |last7=Roepstorff |first7=Peter |last8=Emanuelsson |first8=Cecilia|title=Down-regulation of the strawberry Bet v 1-homologous allergen in concert with the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway in colorless strawberry mutant |journal=Proteomics |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |volume=6 |issue=5 |doi=10.1002/pmic.200500469 |doi-access=free |pages=1574–1587|pmid=16447153 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/medicine_health/report-45626.html |title=The chemistry of strawberry allergy |publisher=Innovations Report |date=21 June 2005 |access-date=9 March 2013}}

{{further|Breeding of strawberries}}

{{main list|List of strawberry cultivars}}

Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit.{{cite web |last=Sagers |first=Larry A. |url=http://www.larrysagers.com/weeklyarticles/proper_cultivation_yields_strawberry_fields_forever_92-04-15.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070420111502/http://www.larrysagers.com/weeklyarticles/proper_cultivation_yields_strawberry_fields_forever_92-04-15.html |archive-date=20 April 2007 |title=Proper Cultivation Yields Strawberry Fields Forever |work=Deseret News |date=15 April 1992}} Traditionally in the Northern Hemisphere, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "everbearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season.{{failed verification | date = March 2025 | reason = The source does not mention anything about Northern Hemisphere vs Southern Hemisphere, and actually describes three classifications, June Bearing, everbearing, and day neutral}} One plant throughout a season may produce 50 to 60 times or roughly once every three days.{{clarification needed | date = March 2025 | reason = The sagers source used in the previous sentence states that June-bearing varieties produce a single crop, which contradicts the statement that a plant may produce 50 to 60 crops a year}} Strawberries occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These describe the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of photoperiod that induces flower formation.{{cite book |last1=Hokanson |first1=S.C. |last2=Maas |first2=J.L. |year=2001 |title=Strawberry biotechnology; In: Plant Breeding Reviews, Volume 21; chapter 4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shbmDigtiqkC&pg=PA139 |isbn=978-0-471-41847-4 |pages=139–179 |doi=10.1002/9780470650196.ch4 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons}} Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod. Strawberry cultivars vary widely in size, colour, flavour, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant.{{cite web |url=http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6135 |title=G6135 Home Fruit Production: Strawberry Cultivars and Their Culture |publisher=University of Missouri |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702100952/http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6135 |url-status=dead}}{{failed verification | date = March 2025 | reason = Cited reference only defines disease resistance, dessert and freezing quality, yield, and season of ripening as the distinguishing characteristics between cultivars}}

In 2023, world production of strawberries was 10.5{{nbsp}}million tonnes, led by China with 40% of the total; the United States was the main secondary producer.

For commercial production, plants can be propagated from bare root plants or plugs. One method of cultivation uses annual plasticulture;{{cite web |url=http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~news/story.php?id=2126 |title=Strawberry Plasticulture Offers Sweet Rewards |publisher=Ohio State University |date=28 June 2002 |access-date=5 December 2009 |archive-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119052744/http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/%7Enews/story.php?id=2126 |url-status=dead}} another is a perennial system of matted rows or mounds which has been used in cold growing regions for many years.{{cite web |url=http://www.newenglandvfc.org/pdf_proceedings/StawberryProduction.pdf |title=Strawberry Production Basics: Matted Row |publisher=newenglandvfc.org |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=3 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403194807/http://www.newenglandvfc.org//pdf_proceedings/stawberryproduction.pdf |url-status=dead}} In some areas, greenhouses are used; in principle they could provide strawberries during the off season for field crops.{{cite web |url=http://www.hort.cornell.edu/pritts/grnhouse.html |title=Pritts Greenhouse Berried Treasures |publisher=Cornell University}}

In the plasticulture system, raised beds are covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants are planted through holes punched in this covering. Irrigation tubing can be run underneath if necessary.{{cite web |url=http://www.noble.org/Ag/Horticulture/StrawberryFields/index.html |title=Strawberry Fields Forever |publisher=Noble.org |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=26 November 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126182638/http://www.noble.org/Ag/Horticulture/StrawberryFields/index.html |url-status=dead}}

Another method uses a compost sock. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more flavonoids, anthocyanins, fructose, glucose, sucrose, malic acid, and citric acid than fruit produced in the black plastic mulch or matted row systems.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=S.W. |last2=Millner |first2=P. |doi=10.1021/jf9020575 |pmid=20560628 |title=Effect of Different Cultural Systems on Antioxidant Capacity, Phenolic Content, and Fruit Quality of Strawberries (Fragaria × aranassa Duch.) |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=57 |issue=20 |pages=9651–57 |year=2009|bibcode=2009JAFC...57.9651W }} Similar results in an earlier study conducted by United States Department of Agriculture confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=S.Y. |last2=Lin |first2=H.S. |title=Compost as a soil supplement increases the level of antioxidant compounds and oxygen radical absorbance capacity in strawberries |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=51 |issue=23 |pages=6844–6850 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14582984 |doi=10.1021/jf030196x|bibcode=2003JAFC...51.6844W }}

Strawberries may be propagated by seed.{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=D. |last2=Goodall |first2=A. |last3=Reeves |first3=J. |title=An improved technique for the germination of strawberry seeds |journal=Euphytica |volume=22 |issue=2 |page=362 |year=1973 |doi=10.1007/BF00022647 |bibcode=1973Euphy..22..362W |s2cid=26544785}} Strawberries can be grown indoors in pots.{{cite book |last=Hessayon |first=D.G. |title=The House Plant Expert |date=1996 |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-90350535-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/newhouseplantexp00hess |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/newhouseplantexp00hess/page/146 146]}} Strawberries will not grow indoors in winter though an experiment using a combination of blue and red LED lamps shows that this could be achieved in principle.{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/strawberries-in-winter-welcome-to-franken-season-9032888.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/strawberries-in-winter-welcome-to-franken-season-9032888.html |archive-date=25 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Strawberries in winter? Welcome to franken-season |newspaper=The Independent |access-date=7 June 2018}} In Florida, winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November.{{cite news |last=Stark |first=Michelle |url=https://www.tampabay.com/things-to-do/food/cooking/10-facts-about-florida-strawberries-that-might-surprise-you/2268248/ |title=10 facts about Florida strawberries that might surprise you |newspaper=Tampa Bay Times |date=7 March 2016 |access-date=7 June 2018}}

File:Dülmen, Kirchspiel, Erdbeerfeld -- 2015 -- 6492-6.jpg|Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

File:Plasticulture.jpg|alt=A large strawberry field with plastic covering the earth around the strawberry plants.|A field using the plasticulture method

File:Picker on a strawberry field in Quebec, Canada.jpg

Nitrogen fertiliser is often needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilised for other crops in preceding years. To provide more organic matter, a cover crop of wheat or rye can be planted in the year before planting the strawberries. Strawberries prefer a somewhat acidic pH from 5.5 to 6.5, so lime is usually not required.{{cite web |title=Production Guide for Commercial Strawberries |url=http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM672D.pdf |publisher=Iowa State University}}{{failed verification | date = March 2025 | reason = "lime is usually not required" appears to misrepresent the cited source}}{{better source needed | date = March 2025 | reason = This source is highly specific to commercial production of strawberries in Iowa only}}

To achieve top quality, berries are harvested at least every other day.{{failed verification | date = March 2025 | reason = Source states berries should be harvested "as often as" every other day, which is not the same as "at least" every other day}} The berries are picked with the caps and half the stem still attached.{{failed verification | date = March 2025 | reason = That is not what the source says, and is somewhat contradicted by the Rivera source}} Strawberries need to remain on the plant until fully ripe, because they do not continue to ripen after being picked.{{cite web |last=Bordelon |first=Bruce |title=Growing Strawberries |url=https://www.purdue.edu/hla/sites/yardandgarden/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2016/10/HO-46.pdf |publisher=Purdue University}} The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time.{{citation needed |date=March 2025}} As they are delicate, strawberries are still often harvested by hand and packed in the field.{{cite web |last1=Rivera |first1=Alvaro |last2=Tong |first2=Cindy |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG6237.html |title=Commercial Postharvest Handling of Strawberries (Fragaria spp.) |publisher=University of Minnesota |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=8 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708141909/http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG6237.html |url-status=dead}}{{failed verification | date = March 2025 | reason = The source seems to suggest that the reason for hand harvesting is for fruit quality selection and precise placement in flats rather than because the fruit is fragile}}

Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous cultivars have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes.{{cite book |last=Klein |first=Carol |title=Grow your own fruit |year=2009 |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |isbn=978-1-84533-434-5 |page=224}} The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

• 'Cambridge Favourite'{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5802 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Cambridge Favourite' (F) strawberry 'Cambridge Favourite' |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=20 January 2023}}
• 'Hapil'{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=6119 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Hapil' (F) strawberry 'Hapil' |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=20 January 2023}}
• 'Honeoye' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|n|i|ɔɪ}} {{respell|HUN|ee|oy}}){{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5892 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Honeoye' (F) strawberry 'Honeoye' |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=20 January 2023}}
• 'Pegasus'{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=805 |title=Fragaria 'Pegasus' strawberry 'Pegasus' |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=20 January 2023}}
• 'Rhapsody'{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5906 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Rhapsody' (F) strawberry 'Rhapsody' |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=20 January 2023}}
• 'Symphony'{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/details?plantid=5066 |title=Fragaria × ananassa 'Symphony' PBR (F) strawberry 'Symphony' |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=20 January 2023}}

Over 200 species of pest arthropods attack strawberries.{{cite web |url=http://www.virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu/StrawMaster.html |title=Insect Pests of Strawberries and Their Management |publisher=Virginiafruit.ento.vt.edu |date=3 May 2000 |access-date=5 December 2009}} These include moths, fruit flies, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, mites, and aphids. Non-arthropod pests include slugs.{{cite web |url=http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/rao.htm |title=Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook |first1=Sujaya |last1=Rao |first2= Stephen C. |last2=Welter |publisher=University of Minnesota |date=20 November 2009 |access-date=5 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626055601/http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/rao.htm |archive-date=26 June 2009}} Some are vectors of plant diseases; for instance, the strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii,{{Cite journal |last1=Cédola |first1=C. |last2=Grecob |first2=N. |title=Presence of the aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, on strawberry in Argentina |journal=Journal of Insect Science |year=2010 |pmid=20569141 |pmc=3014655 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=9 |doi=10.1673/031.010.0901}} can carry the strawberry mild yellow-edge virus.{{cite web |title=Potexvirus fragariae(SMYEV0) |url=https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/SMYEV0/vectors |publisher=European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization |access-date=23 October 2024}}

Strawberry plants are subject to many diseases, especially when subjected to stress. The leaves may be infected by powdery mildew, leaf spot (caused by the fungus Sphaerella fragariae), leaf blight (caused by the fungus Phomopsis obscurans), and by a variety of slime molds. The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele, verticillium wilt, black root rot, and nematodes. The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold (Botrytis cinerea), rhizopus rot, and leather rot.{{cite web |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1148.html |title=Strawberry Diseases |publisher=University of Minnesota |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323074306/http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG1148.html |archive-date=23 March 2009}}{{cite web |url=http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/yard-garden/strawberry-diseases-2-931/ |title=Strawberry Diseases |publisher=Colorado State University |access-date=28 March 2018}}

The {{visible anchor|AtNPR1|text=NPR1 gene from Arabidopsis thaliana}}, AtNPR1, confers A. thaliana{{'}}s broad-spectrum resistance when transexpressed in F. ananassa. This includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot.{{cite journal |issue=1 |year=2020 |last1=Li |last5=Wang |volume=71 |publisher=Annual Reviews |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |first1=Wei |last2=Deng |first2=Yiwen |last3=Ning |first3=Yuese |last4=He |first4=Zuhua |first5=Guo-Liang |title=Exploiting Broad-Spectrum Disease Resistance in Crops: From Molecular Dissection to Breeding |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-010720-022215 |pages=575–603 |pmid=32197052 |s2cid=214600762 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020AnRPB..71..575L}}{{cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Katchen Julliany P. |last2=Brunings |first2=Asha |last3=Peres |first3=Natalia A. |last4=Mou |first4=Zhonglin |last5=Folta |first5=Kevin M. |title=The Arabidopsis NPR1 gene confers broad-spectrum disease resistance in strawberry |journal=Transgenic Research |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=24 |issue=4 |date=27 March 2015 |doi=10.1007/s11248-015-9869-5 |pages=693–704 |pmid=25812515}}

A 1997 study found that many wound volatiles were effective against gray mold (B. cinerea). Both Tribute and Chandler varieties benefited from the treatments, although the effects vary widely with substance and variety. Strawberry plants metabolise these volatiles, more rapidly than do either blackberry or grape.{{cite journal |year=2020 |issue=1 |volume=74 |pages=101–116 |publisher=Annual Reviews |journal=Annual Review of Microbiology |last1=Inamdar |first1=Arati A. |last2=Morath |first2=Shannon |last3=Bennett |first3=Joan W. |title=Fungal Volatile Organic Compounds: More Than Just a Funky Smell? |doi=10.1146/annurev-micro-012420-080428 |pmid=32905756 |s2cid=221624018}}{{cite journal |year=1997 |pages=4032–4037 |issue=10 |volume=45 |publisher=American Chemical Society (ACS) |first4=B. E. |first3=M. M. |first2=T. R. |first1=D. D. |last1=Archbold |last2=Hamilton-Kemp |last3=Barth |last4=Langlois |title=Identifying Natural Volatile Compounds That Control Gray Mold (Botrytis cinerea) during Postharvest Storage of Strawberry, Blackberry, and Grape |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |doi=10.1021/jf970332w |bibcode=1997JAFC...45.4032A |s2cid=84686620}}

{{see also|List of strawberry dishes}}

Strawberries were eaten fresh with cream in the time of Thomas Wolsey in the court of King Henry VIII.{{cite news |last=Driscoll-Woodford |first=Heather |title=Wimbledon's strawberries and cream has Tudor roots |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/newsid_8756000/8756132.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=9 June 2015}} Strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or preserves,{{cite journal |last1=Giampieri |first1=Francesca |last2=Alvarez-Suarez |first2=Josè M. |last3=Mazzoni |first3=Luca |last4=Romandini |first4=Stefania |last5=Bompadre |first5=Stefano |last6=Diamanti |first6=Jacopo |last7=Capocasa |first7=Franco |last8=Mezzetti |first8=Bruno |last9=Quiles |first9=Josè L. |last10=Ferreiro |first10=Maria S. |last11=Tulipani |first11=Sara |last12=Battino |first12=Maurizio|title=The potential impact of strawberry on human health |journal=Natural Product Research |publisher=Informa UK |volume=27 |issue=4–5 |year=2013 |doi=10.1080/14786419.2012.706294 |pages=448–455|pmid=22788743 }} as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars.{{cite web |last=Drummond |first=Ree |url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/ree-drummond/strawberry-oatmeal-bars-recipe/index.html |title=Strawberry Oatmeal Bars |year=2011 |publisher=Food Network |access-date=27 March 2013}} In the United Kingdom, strawberries and cream is a popular dessert at the Wimbledon tennis tournament. Desserts using strawberries include pavlova,{{cite web |last=Muster |first=Douglas |url=http://www.inmamaskitchen.com/FOOD_IS_ART/pavlova_howto.html |title=Contains Pavlova Toppings |publisher=It's Mama's Kitchen |access-date=16 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205162158/http://inmamaskitchen.com/FOOD_IS_ART/pavlova_howto.html |archive-date=2010-12-05}} fraisier,{{cite book |last=Boyle |first=T. |title=Flavorful: 150 Irresistible Desserts in All-time Favorite Flavors |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-118-52355-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Wo4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |access-date=1 November 2015 |page=102}}{{cite book |last=Greenspan |first=D. |title=Baking Chez Moi: Recipes from My Paris Home to Your Home Anywhere |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-547-70832-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrzaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |access-date=1 November 2015 |page=103}} and strawberry shortcake.{{cite web |url=http://www.driscolls.com/recipes/ideas-inspirations/strawberry-shortcake |title=Strawberry Shortcake Through the Years |publisher=Driscoll's |access-date=1 November 2015}}

File:Strawberries and cream Wimbledon 2014.jpg|Strawberries and cream

File:Strawberry cheesecake round.jpg|Cheesecake

File:Pavlova dessert.JPG|Pavlova

File:外出し いちご大福 (35861044490).jpg|Daifuku

File:20110703-13-chocolate strawberries (5972300405).jpg|Chocolate-covered

File:Jordgubb sorbet.jpg|Sorbet

File:Gelato alla fragola e stracciatella - Sicilia, Siracusa (cropped).jpg|Ice cream

File:Home-canned strawberry jam.jpg|Jam

The Roman poet Ovid wrote that in the past Golden Age, people had lived on wild fruits such as mountain strawberries.{{cite journal |last=Gibson |first=Walter S. |title=The Strawberries of Hieronymus Bosch |journal=Cleveland Studies in the History of Art |issue=8 |year=2003 |volume=8 |pages=24–33 |jstor=20079728 |url=https://www.uvm.edu/~hag/bosch/gibson-strawberries.pdf}} Virgil wrote in his Eclogues that "Ye who cull flowers and low-growing strawberries, / Away from here lads; a chill snake lurks in the grass", and his imagery was taken up by medieval and early modern writers, the snake beneath the strawberry standing for dangerous literature, or beautiful but unfaithful women, or eventually any risky pleasure. In this vein, Shakespeare's King Richard III asks for a dish of strawberries while feigning friendship to his enemy; while in Othello, Iago shows Desdemona's handkerchief "spotted with strawberries", implying she has been unfaithful and hinting at Iago's own devious plans.

The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures.{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Lawrence J. |year=1960 |title=The Meaning of Strawberries in Shakespeare |journal=Studies in the Renaissance |volume=7 |pages=225–240 |doi=10.2307/2857136 |jstor=2857136 |url=https://www.uvm.edu/~hag/bosch/ross.pdf}} In medieval depictions, the strawberry often appears in the Virgin Mary's garden, while in the Madonna of the Strawberries, she is seated on a strawberry bed and garlanded with strawberry leaves.

In the work of the late medieval painter Hieronymus Bosch, strawberries feature in The Garden of Earthly Delights amongst "frolicking nude figures". Fray Jose de Siguenza described the painting as embodying the strawberry as a symbol of the ephemerality of earthly joys. More recently, scholars have seen the symbolism entirely differently: Clément Wertheim-Aymes believed it meant the blessed souls' benefit from religion; Pater Gerlach supposed it meant spiritual love; and Laurinda Dixon asserted it was part of an allegory of death and resurrection. By the late 20th century, the strawberry (and the raspberry) had become "traditional symbols of the mouth and female sexuality".{{cite journal |last=Varney |first=Wendy |title=The briar around the strawberry patch |journal=Women's Studies International Forum |volume=19 |issue=3 |year=1996 |doi=10.1016/0277-5395(96)00010-6 |pages=267–276}}

File:Oberrheinischer Meister - Madonna mit den Erdbeeren.png|Madonna of the Strawberries,
the Upper Rhenish Master, 1420–1430

File:Bosch, Hieronymus - The Garden of Earthly Delights, central panel - Detai Man eating a strawberry, Man eating a cherry, and a man bending over a fictional fruit.jpg|The Garden of Earthly Delights, man eating a strawberry (detail),
Hieronymus Bosch, 1490–1500

File:The strawberry girl.PNG|The strawberry girl,
Ammi Phillips, {{circa}} 1830

File:Still Life with Strawberry Basket.jpg|Still Life with Strawberry Basket,
Severin Roesen, 1860–1871

File:Strawberry gatherers (1880), by William Gunning King.jpg|Strawberry Gatherers,
William Gunning King, 1880

File:Strawberrythief.jpg|"Strawberry Thief" textile pattern,
William Morris, 1883{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Michele |title=William Morris Strawberry Thief |year=2010 |publisher=Country Bumpkin Publications |isbn=978-0-9805753-1-6}}

File:Renoir - Still Life with Strawberries, 1914.jpg|Still Life with Strawberries,
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1914

• Outline of strawberries
• California Strawberry Commission
• List of culinary fruits
• Musk strawberry (hautbois strawberry)
• Plant City, Florida (winter strawberry capital of the world)
• Pineberry
• Pomology
• Strawberry generation

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Commons category multi|Strawberries|Fragaria × ananassa}}

{{Cookbook}}

• [https://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?244 Fragaria × ananassa data from GRIN Taxonomy Database]
• {{YouTube|mdCbB0XfW9M|Demonstration of strawberry growth lifecycle timelapse}}

{{Fragaria}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q13158}}

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