Villanovan culture

{{see also|Proto-Villanovan culture|Etruscans}}

The name Villanovan of the early phases of the Etruscan civilization comes from the site of the first archaeological finds relating to this advanced culture, which were remnants of a cemetery found near Villanova (Castenaso, 12 kilometres east of Bologna) in northern Italy. The excavation lasting from 1853 to 1855 was done by the scholar and site owner, count Giovanni Gozzadini, and involved 193 tombs, six of which were separated from the rest as if to signify a special social status. The "well tomb" pit graves lined with stones contained funerary urns. These had been only sporadically plundered and most were untouched. In 1893, a chance discovery unearthed another distinctive Villanovan necropolis at Verucchio overlooking the Adriatic coastal plain.

The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture ({{Circa|1300}}–750 BCE) and Celtic Hallstatt culture that succeeded the Urnfield culture. It is not possible to tell these apart in their earlier stages. Cremated remains were placed in cinerary urns, specifically in biconical urns{{Cite book|title=Art and Archaeology of Ancient Rome|last1=Soren|first1=David|last2=Martin|first2=Archer|publisher=Midnight Marquee Press, Incorporated|year=2015|pages=9}} and then buried. The urns were a form of Villanovan pottery known as impasto. A custom believed to originate with the Villanovan culture is the usage of hut-shaped urns, which were cinerary urns fashioned like the huts in which the villagers lived. Typical sgraffito decorations of swastikas, meanders, and squares were scratched with a comb-like tool. Urns were accompanied by simple bronze fibulae, razors and rings.

The Villanovan culture is broadly divided into Villanovan I from {{Circa|960 BCE}} to {{Circa|801 BCE}} and the Villanovan II from {{Circa|800 BCE}} to 720 BCE. The later phase (Villanovan II) saw radical changes, evidence of contact with Hellenic civilization and trade with the north along the Amber Road. This evidence takes the form of glass and amber necklaces for women, armor and horse harness fittings of bronze, and the development of elite graves in contrast to the earlier egalitarian culture.{{Cite book |title=Le grandi avventure dell'archeologia, VOL 5: Europa e Italia protostorica |publisher=Curcio Editore |year=1980 |location=Rome |pages=1622 |language=Italian}} Chamber tombs and inhumation (burial) practices were developed side-by-side with the earlier cremation practices. With the last phase of Villanovan II the Etruscans, in particular Southern Etruria, entered the Orientalizing period. The northernmost areas of the Etruscan world, such as Etruria Padana, continued in their development as Villanovan III (750–680 BCE) and Villanovan IV (680–540 BCE).

The metalwork quality found in bronze and pottery demonstrate the skill of the Villanovan artisans. Some grave goods from burial sites display an even higher quality, suggesting the development of societal elites within Villanovan culture. Tools and items were placed in graves suggesting a belief in an afterlife. Men's graves contained weapons, armor, while those for women included weaving tools. A few graves switched or mixed these, indicating the possibility that some women employed tools and that some men made clothing.{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Villanovan_Culture/|title=Villanovan Culture|work=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=2018-04-09}}

During the Villanovan period Etruscans traded with other states from the Mediterranean such as Greeks, Balkans, and Sardinia. Trade brought about advancement in metallurgy, and Greek presence influenced Villanovan pottery.

File:Bronze crested helmet MET DP251326.jpg, New York City)]]

Buildings were rectangular in shape. The people lived in small huts, made of wattle and daub with wooden poles for support. Within the huts, cooking stands, utensils and charred animal bones give evidence about the family life of early inhabitants in Italy.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LyvCwAAQBAJ&q=villanovan+culture&pg=PR3|title=History of Rome: Down to the Age of Constantine|last1=Cary|first1=Max|last2=Scullard|first2=H. H.|date=1975|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1349024155|pages=13|language=en}} Some huts contained large pottery jars for food storage sunk into their floors. There was also a rock cut drain to channel rainwater to communal reservoirs.

Generally speaking, Villanovan settlements were centered in the Adriatic Etruria, in Emilia Romagna (in particular, in Bologna and in Verucchio, near Rimini), in Marche (Fermo), and in the Tyrrhenian Etruria, in Tuscany and Lazio. Further south, Villanovan cremation burials are to be found in Campania, at Capua, at the "princely tombs" of Pontecagnano near Salerno,{{NoteTag|Pontecagnano finds are conserved in the Museum of Agro Picentino.}} at Capo di Fiume, at Vallo di Diano and at Sala Consilina.

Small scattered Villanovan settlements have left few traces other than their more permanent burial sites, which were set somewhat apart from the settlements—largely because the settlement sites were built over in Etruscan times. Modern opinion generally follows Massimo Pallottino in regarding the Villanovan culture as ancestral to the Etruscan civilization.

A genetic study published in Science in November 2019 examined the remains of a female from the Villanovan culture buried in Veio Grotta Gramiccia, Italy between ca. 900 BCE and 800 BCE. She carried the maternal haplogroup K1a4,{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|loc=Table 2 Sample Information, Row 28}} found all over Europe since Neolithic times,{{sfn|Fowler et al.|2022|}} and her autosomal DNA was a mixture of 72.9% Copper Age ancestry (EEF + WHG) and 27.1% Steppe-related ancestry.{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|loc=Supplementary materials. Table S16, p. 85}} There was evidence for consanguinity for this sample with another ancient sample (700 BCE - 600 BCE) from the Etruscan necropolis of La Mattonara near Civitavecchia, compatible with being the latter an offspring of third-degree relatives from the former.{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|loc=Supplementary materials, Kinship analysis and runs of homozygosity, pp. 13-14}}

File:Zierscheibe Italien Slg Ebnöther.jpg|Decorative disk (chest guard), bronze, Italy, 8th century BC. Schaffhausen, Museum zu Allerheiligen, Ebnöther Collection (Department “Warriors/Weapons”).

File:Urna cineraria biconica con coperchio a elmo crestato, da pozzo cinerario a monterozzi, loc. forse fontanaccia.jpg|Biconical cinerary urn with helmet-shaped lid, 9th-8th century BC. BC, from Monterozzi (Fontanaccia), Tarquinia, Museo archeologico nazionale.

File:EEMCAB24.jpg|Etruscan crested bronze helmet from Visentium (Bisenzio), necropolis of Bucacce, tomb 1. Mid-8th century. National Archaeological Museum of Florence, inv. 85531.

File:Cinerario biconico villanoviano con coperchio in ceramica d'impasto, 850-800 ac. ca.JPG|Villanovan biconical cinerary urn with impasto ceramic lid, -850/-800. National Archaeological Museum G.C.Mecenate - MIBAC.

File:Lamine d'oro ri rivestimento di fibule, dalla necropoli della guerruccia, tomba S 1, 730-700 ac. ca 01.JPG|Gold plates covering fibulae, Guerruccia necropolis, tomb S1, 730-700 BC. Guarnacci Museum.

File:Lamine d'oro ri rivestimento di fibule, dalla necropoli della guerruccia, tomba S 1, 730-700 ac. ca 02.JPG|Gold plates covering fibulae, Guerruccia necropolis, tomb S1, 730-700 BC. Guarnacci Museum.

File:Rasoio lunato con scena di caccia incisa, IX-VIII sec., da necropoli villanoviane di vetulonia.JPG|Lunar razor with engraved hunting scene, -9th-8th century, from the Villanovan necropolis of Vetulonia. Museo archeologico et d’arte della Maremma.

File:Punta di lancia e di giavellotto in bronzo, IX-VIII secolo ac, da necropoli di colfiorito, foligno.jpg|Bronze spear and javelin tip, 9th-8th century BC, from the necropolis of Colfiorito, Foligno.

File:Scodella baccellata in lamina bronzea da sepolcreto della fiera, tomba 154, villanoviano III, 750-700 ac. ca.JPG|Ribbed bronze plaque cup from the Fairground burial site, grave 154, Villanovan III, 750-700 BC.

File:Three-Pronged Clasp and Buckle LACMA M.76.97.873a-b.jpg|Three-prong clasp and buckle. LACMA M.76.97.873a-b.

File:Corredo della tomba maschile 871 della necropoli di casal del fosso, 730-720 ac ca. 01.jpg|Funerary furniture from male tomb 871 of the necropolis of Casal del Fosso, circa 730-720 BC.

File:Fiasca da pellegrino di importazione, 725-700 ac ca.jpg|Imported pilgrim's flask, 725-700 BC.

File:Corredo della tomba maschile 871 della necropoli di casal del fosso, 730-720 ac ca. 04 scudo circolare da parata in bronzo decorato a sbalzo con file di punti.jpg|Funerary furniture from male tomb 871 of the necropolis of Casal del Fosso, circa 730-720 BC. Circular bronze parade shield decorated with rows of raised dots.

File:Cinturone a losanga, 800-750 ac ca.jpg|Belt buckle, circa 800-750 BC.

File:Fibule serpeggianti con staffa, 900-850 ac ca.jpg|Serpentine brooches with stirrup, 900-850 BC.

File:Scudo rotondo decorato a sbalzo da fasce concentriche con cavallini e cerchietti, bronzo, necropoli dei quattro fontanili, tomba AA1 a pozzo, 750 ac ca.jpg|Round shield decorated with concentric bands in relief with horses and circles, bronze, Necropolis of the Four Fountains, shaft tomb AA1, 750 BC.

File:Situla di bronzo, narce, necropoli della petrina, tomba 4, 730-720 ac ca.jpg|Bronze situla, Narce, Petrina necropolis, tomb 4, 730-720 BC.

File:Urna a capanna in bronzo, dalla necropoli dell'osteria, 800-750 ac ca. 05.jpg|Bronze urn in the shape of a hut, from the Osteria necropolis, circa 800-750 BC.

File:Vaso biconico con coperchio a elmo e apice a capanna, dalla necropoli dell'osteria, la cantina, 850-800 ac ca.jpg|Biconical vase with helmet-shaped lid and hut-shaped top, from the Osteria Necropolis, 850-800 BC.

File:Vaso cinerario con coperchio ad elmo ad alta cresta, bronzo, necropoli dei quattro fontanili, tomba AA1 a pozzo, 750 ac ca.jpg|Cinerary vase with lid in the shape of a high-crested helmet, bronze, Necropolis of the Four Fountains, shaft tomb AA1, 750 BC.

File:Vaso biconico in bronzo, forse da vulci, 720-700 ac ca.jpg|Biconical bronze vase, possibly from Vulci, 720-700 BC.

File:Louvre, reperti villanoviani.JPG|Louvre, Villanovan objects.

File:Cintura femminile villanoviana (Verucchio).jpg|Villanovan woman's belt (Verucchio).

File:Vaso globulare villanoviano in bronzo, originariamente per profumi e incensi, poi come cinerario, 750-725 ac ca., da tomba 74 di montevetrano.jpg|Villanovan bronze globular vase, originally for perfumes and incense, then as a cinerary, circa 750-725 BC, tomb 74 of Montevetrano.

File:Elmo crestato dalla tomba del guerriero al poggio alle croci.JPG|Crested helmet from the warrior's tomb at Poggio alle Croci.

File:Bottega di vulci, urna cineraria a forma di abitazione, VIII sec ac, 01.jpg|Vulci workshop, house-shaped cinerary urn, 8th century BC.

File:Terracotta two-handled bowl MET DP132251.jpg|MET DP132251 terracotta two-handled bowl.

File:Ossuario biconico, IX-VII sec. ac 01.JPG|Biconical ossuary, 9th-7th century.

File:Villanovan Horse Bit LACMA AC1992.152.17.jpg|Villanovian bit, LACMA AC1992.152.17.

File:Pendagli a doppia spirale in bronzo, da isola del giglio, località campese, X-IX sec. ac.JPG|Double spiral bronze pendants, from the island of Giglio, Campese region, 10th-9th century.

File:Collana (torques) in bronzo, da isola del giglio, località campese, X-IX sec. ac.JPG|Bronze necklace (torc), from the island of Giglio, Campese region, 10th-9th century.

File:Harness Trapping in the Shape of a Horse LACMA M.76.97.596.jpg|Bronze harness trapping in the shape of a horse. Villanovan, 9th–8th century BCE. LACMA.

• Etruscans
• Proto-Villanovan culture
• Urnfield culture
• Prehistoric Italy

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• {{cite journal |last1=Antonio |first1=Margaret L. |last2=Gao |first2=Ziyue |display-authors=1 |date=November 8, 2019 |title=Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean |journal=Science |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |volume=366 |issue=6466 |pages=708–714 |doi=10.1126/science.aay6826 |pmc=7093155 |pmid= 31699931|bibcode=2019Sci...366..708A |ref={{harvid|Antonio et al.|2019}}}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Fowler |first1=Chris|title=A high-resolution picture of kinship practices in an Early Neolithic tomb |journal=Nature |year=2022 |volume=601 |issue=7894 |pages=584–587 |doi= 10.1038/s41586-021-04241-4|pmc= 8896835|pmid= 34937939|bibcode=2022Natur.601..584F|ref={{harvid|Fowler et al.|2022}}}}
• Giovanni Gozzadini, La nécropole de Villanova, Fava et Garagnani, Bologna, 1870
• J. P. Mallory, "Villanovan Culture", Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, (Fitzroy Dearborn), 1997.
• Gilda Bartoloni, "The origin and diffusion of Villanovan culture." in M. Torelli, (editor) The Etruscans, pp 53–74. (Milan), 2000.
• Mary E. Moser, The "Southern Villanovan" Culture of Campania, (Ann Arbor), 1982.
• David Ridgway, "The Villanovan Cemeteries of Bologna and Pontecagnano" in Journal of Roman Archaeology 7: pp 303–16 (1994)
• David Ridgway, The World of the Early Etruscans, Göteborgs Universitet: The Félix Neubergh Lecture, 2000.
• Perkins, Phil (2017). DNA and Etruscan identity. In: Naso, Alessandro ed. Etruscology. Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 109–118. URL: https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/128551

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{{commons category|Villanovan culture}}

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Villanova}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20060515022132/http://www.comunediverucchio.it/museo/testo_villi.htm Museo Archeologico di Verucchio: Villanovan necropolis] (in English)
• [http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/oopp/AncientItaly/28_chapter_5.html Ashmolean Museum: Ancient Italy Before the Romans]
• [http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4163/files/villa2.html Images of Villanovan hut-urn]

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