Walter Lippmann

Lippmann was born on New York's Upper East Side as the only child of Jewish parents of German origin. According to his biographer Ronald Steel, he grew up in a "gilded Jewish ghetto".{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjzAKTSg6H8C&q=lippmann+ronald+steel++gilded+jewish+ghetto&pg=PA1|title=Walter Lippmann: Odyssey of a Liberal|last=Riccio|first=Barry D.|date=1994|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-4114-6|language=en}} His father Jacob Lippmann was a rentier who had become wealthy through his father's textile business and his father-in-law's real estate speculation. His mother, Daisy Baum, cultivated contacts in the highest circles, and the family regularly spent its summer holidays in Europe. The family had a Reform Jewish orientation; averse to "orientalism", they attended Temple Emanu-El. Walter had his Reform Jewish confirmation instead of the traditional Bar Mitzvah at the age of 14. Lippmann was emotionally distanced from both parents, but had closer ties to his maternal grandmother. His family was Republican.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmRQDwAAQBAJ&q=lippmann+sachs+institute+greek+and+latin&pg=PA6|title=Walter Lippmann and the American Century|last=Steel|first=Ronald|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-29975-6|language=en}}

From 1896 Lippmann attended the Sachs School for Boys, followed by the Sachs Collegiate Institute, an elite and strictly secular private school in the German Gymnasium tradition, attended primarily by children of German-Jewish families and run by the classical philologist Julius Sachs, a son-in-law of Marcus Goldmann from the Goldman-Sachs family. Classes included 11 hours of ancient Greek and 5 hours of Latin per week.

Shortly before his 17th birthday, he entered Harvard University where he wrote for The Harvard Advocate and studied under George Santayana, William James, and Graham Wallas, concentrating upon philosophy and languages (he spoke German and French). While at Harvard, he tried out for The Harvard Crimson but was rejected.{{Cite web |title=Walter Lippmann Dead at 85; Had Multiple Ties to Harvard {{!}} News {{!}} The Harvard Crimson |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1974/12/16/walter-lippmann-dead-at-85-had/ |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=www.thecrimson.com}} He took only one course in history and one in government. He was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa society,[http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_InfoView.aspx?t=&id=59 Who Belongs To Phi Beta Kappa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103230618/http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_InfoView.aspx?t=&id=59 |date=January 3, 2012 }}, Phi Beta Kappa website, accessed October 4, 2009 though important social clubs rejected Jews as members.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2018/09/should-journalists-be-insiders/570637/|title=Should Journalists Be Insiders?|last=Petrou|first=Michael|date=2018-09-19|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-25|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516225446/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2018/09/should-journalists-be-insiders/570637/|url-status=live}}

Lippmann became a member, alongside Sinclair Lewis, of the New York chapter of the Socialist Party of America.{{cite book |last1=Lingeman |first1=Richard R. |title=Sinclair Lewis: Rebel from Main Street |date=2005 |publisher=Minnesota Historical Society |isbn=978-0-87351-541-2 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQozEkrNYjIC |language=en |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514021350/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQozEkrNYjIC |url-status=live }} In 1911, Lippmann served as secretary to George R. Lunn, the first Socialist mayor of Schenectady, New York, during Lunn's first term. Lippmann resigned his post after four months, finding Lunn's programs to be worthwhile in and of themselves, but inadequate as socialism.{{cite journal |last1=Hendrickson |first1=Kenneth E. |title=George R. Lunn and the Socialist Era in Schenectady, New York, 1909-1916 |journal=New York History |date=1966 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=22–40{{page range too broad|date=December 2021}} |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23162444 |issn=0146-437X |jstor=23162444 |access-date=September 18, 2017 |archive-date=May 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516225446/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23162444 |url-status=live }}

File:Walter Lippmann 1914.jpg]]

Lippmann was a journalist, a media critic and an amateur philosopher who tried to reconcile the tensions between liberty and democracy in a complex and modern world, as in his 1920 book Liberty and the News.{{cite book |last=Lippmann |first=Walter|title=Liberty and the News |publisher= Harcourt, Brace and Howe |place=New York |year= 1920 |url=https://archive.org/stream/libertynews00lippuoft#page/n5/mode/2up |access-date= February 2, 2018 |via= Internet Archive}}{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Robert E. |date=1921 |title=Review of Liberty and the News. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2764526 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=116 |jstor=2764526 |issn=0002-9602 |access-date=March 28, 2024 |archive-date=March 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328224257/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2764526 |url-status=live }} In 1913, Lippmann, Herbert Croly, and Walter Weyl became the founding editors of The New Republic.

During World War I, Lippmann was commissioned a captain in the Army on June 28, 1918, and was assigned to the intelligence section of the AEF headquarters in France. He was assigned to the staff of Edward M. House in October and attached to the American Commission to negotiate peace in December. He returned to the United States in February 1919 and was immediately discharged.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GG09AQAAMAAJ&q=Harvard%27s+Military+Record+in+the+World+War |title=Harvard's Military Record in the World War |first=Frederick Sumner |last=Mead |date=March 14, 1921 |publisher=Harvard Alumni Association |page=584 |via=Google Books |access-date=May 9, 2021 |archive-date=September 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924020532/https://books.google.com/books?id=GG09AQAAMAAJ&q=Harvard%27s+Military+Record+in+the+World+War#v=snippet&q=Harvard's%20Military%20Record%20in%20the%20World%20War&f=false |url-status=live }}

Through his connection to House, Lippmann became an adviser to Wilson and assisted in the drafting of Wilson's Fourteen Points speech. He sharply criticized George Creel, whom the President appointed to head wartime propaganda efforts at the Committee on Public Information. While he was prepared to curb his liberal instincts because of the war, saying he had "no doctrinaire belief in free speech," he nonetheless advised Wilson that censorship should "never be entrusted to anyone who is not himself tolerant, nor to anyone who is unacquainted with the long record of folly which is the history of suppression."Steel, 125–126.

Lippmann examined the coverage of newspapers and saw many inaccuracies and other problems. He and Charles Merz, in a 1920 study entitled A Test of the News, stated that The New York Times' coverage of the Bolshevik Revolution was biased and inaccurate. In addition to his newspaper column "Today and Tomorrow", he wrote several books.

Lippmann was the first to bring the phrase "Cold War" to a common currency, in his 1947 book by the same name.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/31/opinion/31thompson.html|title=Opinion – A War Best Served Cold|first=Nicholas|last=Thompson|date=July 31, 2007|newspaper=New York Times|access-date=March 14, 2021|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516225446/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/31/opinion/31thompson.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2010/04/bernard-baruch-coins-term-cold-war-april-16-1947-035862|title=Bernard Baruch coins term 'Cold War,'|date=April 16, 2010|website=PoliticO|access-date=March 14, 2021|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516225446/https://www.politico.com/story/2010/04/bernard-baruch-coins-term-cold-war-april-16-1947-035862|url-status=live}}

Lippmann saw nationalist separatism, imperialist competition, and failed states as key causes of war.{{Cite journal |last=Tarlton |first=Charles D. |date=1965 |title=The Styles of American International Thought: Mahan, Bryan, and Lippmann |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/styles-of-american-international-thought-mahan-bryan-and-lippmann/0B93E77C7798CF8EE250FA5FEFF00CA0 |journal=World Politics |language=en |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=604–611 |doi=10.2307/2009323 |jstor=2009323 |s2cid=155136740 |issn=1086-3338 |access-date=July 24, 2023 |archive-date=July 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724094157/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/styles-of-american-international-thought-mahan-bryan-and-lippmann/0B93E77C7798CF8EE250FA5FEFF00CA0 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} He envisioned the eventual decline of the nation-state and its replacement with large inclusive and democratic political units.

As solution to the problem of failed states, he proposed the creation of regional authorities to provide political control, as well as education of public opinion to build support for these regional governments. He called for the creation of international organizations for each crisis region in the world: "there should be in existence permanent international commissions to deal with those spots of the earth where world crises originate."

He saw the creation of the United States in 1789 as a model for a proposed World State or supranational government, as it was possible to create a constitution to bring order to an otherwise anarchic area. Commerce and regular interactions between people from different nations would alleviate the adverse aspects of nationalism.

After the fall of the British colony Singapore in February 1942, Lippmann authored an influential Washington Post column that criticized empire and called on western nations to "identify their cause with the freedom and security of the peoples of the East" and purge themselves of "white man's imperialism".{{Cite book |last=Elkins |first=Caroline |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3icqEAAAQBAJ |title=Legacy of Violence: A History of the British Empire |date=2022 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday |isbn=978-0-593-32008-2 |pages=314–315 |language=en |access-date=April 11, 2022 |archive-date=March 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327181842/https://books.google.com/books?id=3icqEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}

Following the removal from office of Secretary of Commerce (and former Vice President of the United States) Henry A. Wallace in September 1946, Lippmann became the leading public advocate of the need to respect a Soviet sphere of influence in Europe, as opposed to the containment strategy being advocated at the time by George F. Kennan.

Lippmann was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1947 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1949.{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Walter+Lippmann&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=search.amphilsoc.org |archive-date=March 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314164341/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Walter+Lippmann&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Walter Lippmann |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/walter-lippmann |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |date=February 9, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=March 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314164332/https://www.amacad.org/person/walter-lippmann |url-status=live }}

Lippmann was an informal adviser to several presidents. On September 14, 1964, President Lyndon Johnson presented Lippmann with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-presentation-the-1964-presidential-medal-freedom-awards|title=Remarks at the Presentation of the 1964 Presidential Medal of Freedom Awards – The American Presidency Project|website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu|access-date=March 14, 2021|archive-date=June 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618052714/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=26496|url-status=live}} He later feuded with Johnson over his handling of the Vietnam War of which Lippmann had become highly critical.

He won a special Pulitzer Prize for journalism in 1958, as a nationally syndicated columnist, citing "the wisdom, perception and high sense of responsibility with which he has commented for many years on national and international affairs."[http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/Special-Awards-and-Citations "Special Awards and Citations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224112755/http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/Special-Awards-and-Citations |date=December 24, 2015 }}. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2013-11-01. Four years later he won the annual Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting citing "his 1961 interview with Soviet Premier Khrushchev, as illustrative of Lippmann's long and distinguished contribution to American journalism."[http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/International-Reporting "International Reporting"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224123142/http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/International-Reporting |date=December 24, 2015 }}. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2013-11-01.

Lippmann retired from his syndicated column in 1967.{{cite web |url=http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Lipp%26showFullAbstract%3D1 |title=Writings of Walter Lippmann |work=C-SPAN |access-date=2011-06-30 |archive-date=October 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019025925/http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Lipp%26showFullAbstract%3D1 |url-status=dead }}

Lippmann died in New York City due to cardiac arrest in 1974.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/15/archives/walter-lippmann-political-analyst-dead-at-85-walter-lippmann.html |last=Whitman |first=Alden |title=Walter Lippmann, Political Analyst, Dead at 85 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 15, 1974 |access-date=February 2, 2018 |archive-date=May 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516225446/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/15/archives/walter-lippmann-political-analyst-dead-at-85-walter-lippmann.html |url-status=live }}{{cite web |access-date=2008-11-09 |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=4629 |author=Wooley, John T. and Gerhard Peters |title=Gerald R. Ford: Statement on the Death of Walter Lippmann |work=The American Presidency Project |date=December 14, 1974 |archive-date=December 14, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214014207/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=4629 |url-status=live }}

{{more citations needed section|date=December 2024}}

{{see also|Post-factual}}

Though a journalist himself, Lippmann did not assume that news and truth are synonymous. For Lippmann, the "function of news is to signalize an event, the function of truth is to bring to light the hidden facts, to set them in relation with each other, and make a picture of reality on which men can act." A journalist's version of the truth is subjective and limited to how they construct their reality. {{Citation needed|date=October 2021|reason=This looks like a summary of the subject's views but it's unverifiable without citation}} The news, therefore, is "imperfectly recorded" and too fragile to bear the charge as "an organ of direct democracy."

To Lippmann, democratic ideals had deteriorated: voters were largely ignorant about issues and policies and lacked the competence to participate in public life and cared little for participating in the political process. In Public Opinion (1922), Lippmann noted that modern realities threatened the stability that the government had achieved during the patronage era of the 19th century. He wrote that a "governing class" must rise to face the new challenges.

The basic problem of democracy, he wrote, was the accuracy of news and protection of sources. He argued that distorted information was inherent in the human mind. People make up their minds before they define the facts, while the ideal would be to gather and analyze the facts before reaching conclusions. By seeing first, he argued, it is possible to sanitize polluted information. Lippmann argued that interpretation as stereotypes (a word which he coined in that specific meaning) subjected us to partial truths. Lippmann called the notion of a public competent to direct public affairs a "false ideal." He compared the political savvy of an average man to a theater-goer walking into a play in the middle of the third act and leaving before the last curtain.

John Dewey in his book The Public and Its Problems, published in 1927, agreed about the irrationality of public opinion, but he rejected Lippmann's call for a technocratic elite. Dewey believed that in a democracy, the public is also part of the public discourse.{{Cite web |last=Illing |first=Sean |date=2018-08-09 |title=Intellectuals have said democracy is failing for a century. They were wrong. |url=https://www.vox.com/2018/8/9/17540448/walter-lippmann-democracy-trump-brexit |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=Vox |language=en |archive-date=October 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005033605/https://www.vox.com/2018/8/9/17540448/walter-lippmann-democracy-trump-brexit |url-status=live }} The Lippmann-Dewey Debate started to be widely discussed by the late 1980s in American communication studies circles.{{Cite journal |last=Schudson |first=Michael |date=2008-09-22 |title=The "Lippmann-Dewey Debate" and the Invention of Walter Lippmann as an Anti-Democrat 1985-1996 |url=https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/343 |journal=International Journal of Communication |language=en |volume=2 |pages=12 |issn=1932-8036 |access-date=October 5, 2022 |archive-date=October 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005033503/https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/343 |url-status=live }} Lippmann also figured prominently in the work Manufacturing Consent by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky who cited Lippmann's advocacy of "manufacture of consent" which referred "to the management of public opinion, which [Lippmann] felt was necessary for democracy to flourish, since he felt that public opinion was an irrational force."{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100132197|title=A Dictionary of Media and Communication|first1=Daniel|last1=Chandler|first2=Rod|last2=Munday|date=2011|website=Oxford University Press|access-date=August 30, 2022|archive-date=September 24, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924022648/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100132197|url-status=live}}{{cite book |last1=Wintonick |first1=Peter |title=Manufacturing consent: Noam Chomsky and the media |date=1994 |publisher=Black Rose Books |isbn=1551640023 |pages=40–43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfOM2H_AbIIC |access-date=October 4, 2022 |archive-date=September 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924020531/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfOM2H_AbIIC |url-status=live }}

In 1932, Lippmann famously dismissed future President Franklin D. Roosevelt's qualifications and demeanor, writing: "Franklin D. Roosevelt is no crusader. He is no tribune of the people. He is no enemy of entrenched privilege. He is a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be President." Despite Roosevelt's later accomplishments, Lippmann stood by his words, saying: "That I will maintain to my dying day was true of the Franklin Roosevelt of 1932."{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/04/01/trump-breakdown-threaten-sink-presidency-158321|title=Trump's Breakdown|first=John F.|last=Harris|website=Politico|date=April 2020|access-date=April 15, 2020|archive-date=July 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730052815/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/04/01/trump-breakdown-threaten-sink-presidency-158321|url-status=live}} He believed his judgment was an accurate summation of Roosevelt's 1932 campaign, saying it was "180 degrees opposite to the New Deal. The fact is that the New Deal was wholly improvised after Roosevelt was elected."{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/15/archives/walter-lippmann-political-analyst-dead-at-85-walter-lippmann.html|title=Walter Lippmann, Political Analyst, Dead at 85|first=Alden|last=Whitman|date=December 15, 1974|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=February 9, 2018|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516225446/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/15/archives/walter-lippmann-political-analyst-dead-at-85-walter-lippmann.html|url-status=live}}

Lippmann was an early and influential commentator on mass culture, notable not for criticizing or rejecting mass culture entirely but discussing how it could be worked with by a government licensed "propaganda machine" to keep democracy functioning. In his first book on the subject, Public Opinion (1922), Lippmann said that mass man functioned as a "bewildered herd" who must be governed by "a specialized class whose interests reach beyond the locality." The elite class of intellectuals and experts were to be a machinery of knowledge to circumvent the primary defect of democracy, the impossible ideal of the "omnicompetent citizen".

Later, in The Phantom Public (1925), Lippmann recognized that the class of experts were also, in most respects, outsiders to any particular problem, and hence not capable of effective action. Philosopher John Dewey (1859–1952) agreed with Lippmann's assertions that the modern world was becoming too complex for every citizen to grasp all its aspects, but Dewey, unlike Lippmann, believed that the public (a composite of many "publics" within society) could form a "Great Community" that could become educated about issues, come to judgments and arrive at solutions to societal problems.

In 1943, George Seldes described Lippmann as one of the two most influential columnists in the United States.{{cite book |last1=Culver |first1=John |last2=Hyde |first2=John |title=American Dreamer: A Life of Henry A. Wallace |date=2001 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |isbn=978-0393292046 |pages=482}}{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/factsfascism0000unse |url-access=registration |last1=Seldes |first1=George |title=Facts and fascism |date=1943 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/factsfascism0000unse/page/260 260]}}

From the 1930s to the 1950s, Lippmann became even more skeptical of the "guiding" class. In The Public Philosophy (1955), which took almost twenty years to complete, he presented a sophisticated argument that intellectual elites were undermining the framework of democracy.{{cite book |last1=Lippmann |first1=Walter |author-link=Walter Lippmann |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysinpublicph00inlipp |title=Essays on the Public Philosophy |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |year=1955 |page=179 |access-date=2019-10-11}} The book was very poorly received in liberal circles.{{cite book |last1=Marsden |first1=George |title=The Twilight of the American Enlightenment: The 1950s and the Crisis of Liberal Belief |date=11 February 2014 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03010-1 |page=56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-iMAgAAQBAJ |quote=...Lippmann's conception of natural law, for all its nobility, cannot help seem an artificial construct.' (quoting Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.) |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513022624/https://books.google.com/books?id=U-iMAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}

The Walter Lippmann House at Harvard University, which houses the Nieman Foundation for Journalism, is named after him.

Similarities between the views of Lippmann and Gabriel Almond produced what became known as the Almond–Lippmann consensus, which is based on three assumptions:{{cite journal |last1=Holsti |first1=Ole R. |last2=Rosenau |first2=James N. |title=Vietnam, Consensus, and the Belief Systems of American Leaders |journal=World Politics |date=October 1979 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–56 {{page range too broad|date=December 2021}} |doi=10.2307/2010081 |jstor=2010081 |s2cid=154028288 |issn=1086-3338}}

1. Public opinion is volatile, shifting erratically in response to the most recent developments. Mass beliefs early in the 20th century were "too pacifist in peace and too bellicose in war, too neutralist or appeasing in negotiations or too intransigent"{{cite book |last1=Lippmann |first1=Walter |title=Essays in the Public Philosophy |date=1955 |publisher=Little, Brown |isbn=978-0-451-61866-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8IiGAAAAMAAJ |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=September 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924022646/https://books.google.com/books?id=8IiGAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
2. Public opinion is incoherent, lacking an organised or a consistent structure to such an extent that the views of US citizens could best be described as "nonattitudes"Converse, Philip. 1964. "The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics." In Ideology and Discontent, ed. David Apter, 206–261. New York: Free Press.
3. Public opinion is irrelevant to the policy-making process. Political leaders ignore public opinion because most Americans can neither "understand nor influence the very events upon which their lives and happiness are known to depend."Almond, Gabriel. 1950. The American People and Foreign Policy. New York: Harcourt, Brace.Kris, Ernst, and Nathan Leites. 1947. "Trends in Twentieth Century Propaganda." In Psychoanalysis and the Social Sciences, ed. Geza Rheim, pp. 393–409. New York: International University Press.

{{further|Neoliberalism}}

French philosopher Louis Rougier convened a meeting of primarily French and German liberal intellectuals in Paris in August 1938 to discuss the ideas put forward by Lippmann in his work The Good Society (1937). They named the meeting after Lippmann, calling it the Colloque Walter Lippmann. The meeting is often considered the precursor to the first meeting of the Mont Pèlerin Society, convened by Friedrich von Hayek in 1947. At both meetings discussions centered around what a new liberalism, or "neoliberalism", should look like.

Lippmann was married twice, the first time from 1917 to 1937 to Faye Albertson (1893–1975). Faye was the daughter of Ralph Albertson, a pastor of the Congregational Church. He was one of the pioneers of Christian socialism and the social gospel movement in the spirit of George Herron. During his studies at Harvard, Walter often visited the Albertsons' estate in West Newbury, Massachusetts, where they had founded a socialist cooperative, the (Cyrus Field) Willard Cooperative Colony.

Lippmann was divorced by Faye Albertson to be able to marry Helen Byrne Armstrong in 1938 (died 16 February 1974), daughter of James Byrne. She divorced her husband Hamilton Fish Armstrong, the editor of Foreign Affairs. He was the only close friend in Lippmann's life. The friendship and involvement in Foreign Affairs ended when a hotel in Europe accidentally forwarded Lippmann's love letters to Mr. Armstrong.Steel, pp. 342-366.

{{refbegin|2}}

• [https://archive.org/details/campaignagainsts01lipp "The Campaign Against Sweating"]. The New Republic, March 27, 1915.
• [https://archive.org/download/jstor-1013427/1013427.pdf "What Program Shall the United States Stand for in International Relations?"]. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 66, July 1916, pp. 60–70. {{JSTOR|1013427}}
• [https://archive.org/download/jstor-1013638/1013638.pdf "The World Conflict in its Relation to American Democracy."] Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 72, July 1917, pp. 1–10. {{JSTOR|1013638}}
• "The Basic Problem of Democracy: What Liberty Means", The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 124, 1919, pp. 616.
• "Liberty and the News", The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 124, 1919, pp. 779.
• [https://archive.org/download/jstor-1014825/1014825.pdf "Democracy, Foreign Policy and the Split Personality of the Modern Statesman."] Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 102, July 1922, pp. 190–193. {{JSTOR|1014825}}
• [http://ddr.densho.org/ddr-densho-67-1/ "Today and Tomorrow."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824223459/http://ddr.densho.org/ddr-densho-67-1/ |date=August 24, 2019 }} Washington Post, February 12, 1942. [https://ddr.densho.org/media/ddr-densho-67/ddr-densho-67-1-mezzanine-669b4d2adf.tif Full text available] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824223457/https://ddr.densho.org/media/ddr-densho-67/ddr-densho-67-1-mezzanine-669b4d2adf.tif |date=August 24, 2019 }}.
• [https://archive.org/download/CIA-RDP80B01676R003800120009-1/CIA-RDP80B01676R003800120009-1.pdf "A Talk With Mr. K."] November 10, 1958.
• [https://archive.org/download/VietnamOnTheBrink/ELS017-027.pdf "Nearing the Brink in Vietnam."] Newsweek, April 12, 1965, pp. 25–46.

• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1926-04-01/intimate-papers-colonel-house Review of The Intimate Papers of Colonel House by Charles Seymour] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130843/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1926-04-01/intimate-papers-colonel-house |date=February 7, 2020 }}. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 3, April 1926. {{JSTOR|20028461}} {{doi|10.2307/20028461}}

• [https://archive.org/download/BasicProblemOfDemocracyWalterLippmann/The_Basic_Problem_Of_Democracy_Walter_Lippmann.pdf "The Basic Problem of Democracy."] November 1919, pp. 616–627 – this essay later became the first chapter Liberty and the News.
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1926-01-01/concerning-senator-borah "Concerning Senator Borah."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130854/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1926-01-01/concerning-senator-borah |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 2, January 1926, pp. 211–222. {{JSTOR|20028440}} {{doi|10.2307/20028440}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/central-america-caribbean/1927-04-01/vested-rights-and-nationalism-latin-america "Vested Rights and Nationalism in Latin-America."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207125325/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/central-america-caribbean/1927-04-01/vested-rights-and-nationalism-latin-america |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 3, April 1927, pp. 353–363. {{JSTOR|20028538}} {{doi|10.2307/20028538}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/cuba/1928-07-01/second-thoughts-havana "Second Thoughts on Havana."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130840/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/cuba/1928-07-01/second-thoughts-havana |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4, July 1928, pp. 541–554. {{JSTOR|20028641}} {{doi|10.2307/20028641}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/mexico/1930-01-01/church-and-state-mexico-american-mediation "Church and State in Mexico: The American Mediation."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130858/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/mexico/1930-01-01/church-and-state-mexico-american-mediation |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 2, January 1930. pp. 186–207. {{JSTOR|20030272}} {{doi|10.2307/20030272}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/oceans/1930-07-01/london-naval-conference-american-view "The London Naval Conference: An American View."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130838/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/oceans/1930-07-01/london-naval-conference-american-view |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 4, July 1930, pp. 499–518. {{JSTOR|20030304}} {{doi|10.2307/20030304}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1932-10-01/ten-years-retrospect-and-prospect "Ten Years: Retrospect and Prospect."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207125328/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1932-10-01/ten-years-retrospect-and-prospect |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 11, No. 1, October 1932, pp. 51–53. {{JSTOR|20030482}} {{doi|10.2307/20030482}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1934-01-01/self-sufficiency "Self-Sufficiency: Some Random Reflections."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207130900/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1934-01-01/self-sufficiency |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 2, January 1934, pp. 207–217. {{JSTOR|20030578}} {{doi|10.2307/20030578}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/authors/walter-lippmann "Britain and America: The Prospects of Political Cooperation in the Light of Their Paramount Interests."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215533/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/authors/walter-lippmann |date=June 2, 2021 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 13, No. 3, April 1936, pp. 363–372. {{JSTOR|20030675}} {{doi|10.2307/20030675}}
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1937-07-01/rough-hew-them-how-we-will "Rough-Hew Them How We Will."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207125538/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1937-07-01/rough-hew-them-how-we-will |date=February 7, 2020 }} Foreign Affairs, Vol. 15, No. 4, July 1937, pp. 586–594. {{JSTOR|20028803}} {{doi|10.2307/20028803}}
• [https://archive.org/download/thecoldwarbywalterlippmannforeignaffairsvol.65no.4spring1987pp.869884/The%20Cold%20War%2C%20by%20Walter%20Lippmann%20%28Foreign%20Affairs%2C%20Vol.%2065%2C%20No.%204%2C%20Spring%201987%29%2C%20pp.%20869-884.pdf "The Cold War."] Foreign Affairs, Vol. 65, No. 4, Spring 1987, pp. 869–884. {{JSTOR|20043099}} {{doi|10.2307/20043099}}

• [https://archive.org/download/LippmannMerzATestoftheNews/Lippmann_Merz_ATestoftheNews.pdf "A Test of the News."] The New Republic, Vol. 23, No. 296, August 1920. 42 pages.

• [https://archive.org/download/prefacetopolitic00lippuoft/prefacetopolitic00lippuoft.pdf A Preface to Politics]. Mitchell Kennerley, 1913. {{ISBN|1591022924}}. [https://archive.org/details/prefacetopolitics_1404_librivox Audiobook available].
• Drift and Mastery. University of Wisconsin Press, 1914. {{ISBN|0299106047}}. [https://archive.org/download/driftmasteryatte00lipp/driftmasteryatte00lipp.pdf Full text available].
• [https://archive.org/download/stakesofdiplomac00lippuoft/stakesofdiplomac00lippuoft.pdf The Stakes of Diplomacy]. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1915.
• [https://archive.org/details/politicalscenees00lipprich The Political Scene]. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1919.
• [https://archive.org/details/libertynews00lippiala Liberty and the News]. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920.
• Public Opinion. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1922. {{ISBN|0029191300}}. [https://archive.org/details/public_opinion_1312_librivox Audiobook available].
• The Phantom Public. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1925. {{ISBN|1560006773}}
• [https://archive.org/details/menofdestiny0000lipp Men of Destiny]. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1927. {{ISBN|0295950269}}. [http://nobsblog.blogspot.com/1999/03/men-of-destiny-by-walter-lippman-1927.html?m=1 Excerpts available] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513022807/http://nobsblog.blogspot.com/1999/03/men-of-destiny-by-walter-lippman-1927.html?m=1 |date=May 13, 2023 }}.
• American Inquisitors. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1928.
• [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.188702 A Preface to Morals]. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1929. {{ISBN|0878559078}}
• Interpretations, 1931–1932. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932.
• The United States in World Affair, 1931. New York: Harper & Bros, 1932.
• The United States in World Affairs, 1932. New York: Harper & Bros, 1933.
• The Method of Freedom. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1934.
• [https://archive.org/details/interpretations10000lipp_m6z6 Interpretations, 1933–1935]. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1936.
• [https://monoskop.org/images/9/9f/Lippman_Walter_The_Good_Society.pdf The Good Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116150420/https://monoskop.org/images/9/9f/Lippman_Walter_The_Good_Society.pdf |date=January 16, 2021 }}. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1937. {{ISBN|0765808048}}
• U.S. Foreign Policy: Shield of the Republic. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1943.
• U.S. War Aims. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1944. {{ISBN|978-0306707735}}
• [https://archive.org/details/coldwarstudyin00lipp The Cold War]. New York: Harper & Row, 1947. {{ISBN|0061317233}}
• [https://archive.org/details/essaysinpublicph00lipp The Public Philosophy], with William O. Scroggs. New York: New American Library, 1955. {{ISBN|0887387918}}
• [https://archive.org/details/comingtestwithru00lipp The Coming Tests With Russia]. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1961. {{LCCN|6114950}}

• Notes on the Crisis (No. 5). New York: John Day, 1932. 28 pages.
• A New Social Order (No. 25). John Day, 1933. 28 pages.
• The New Imperative. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935. 52 pages.

{{refend}}

{{Portal|Journalism }}

• Harold Lasswell
• Edward Bernays
• Progressivism
• Liberal democracy

{{Reflist|30em}}

• Baker, Matt. [https://www.the-american-interest.com/2019/11/19/how-to-cure-liberal-democracy-then-and-now/ "Walter Lippmann: How to Cure Liberal Democracy, Then and Now"] The American Interest, November 19, 2019.
• Clavé, Francis. [https://doi.org/10.1080/09592296.2011.625803 "Comparative Study of Lippmann's and Hayek's Liberalisms (or Neo-liberalisms)."] The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought, Vol. 22, Issue 6, 2015, pp. 978–999. {{doi|10.1080/09672567.2015.1093522}}
• Goodwin, Craufurd D. "The promise of expertise: Walter Lippmann and the policy sciences." Policy Sciences 28.4 (1995): 317–345. [http://www.econ.ryukoku.ac.jp/~komine/hope/16836134.pdf online]
• Gorbach, Julien. "The Non-Jewish Jew: Walter Lippmann and the Pitfalls of Journalistic 'Detachment'." American Journalism 37.3 (2020): 321–345. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Julien-Gorbach/publication/344553052_The_Non-Jewish_Jew_Walter_Lippmann_and_the_Pitfalls_of_Journalistic_Detachment/links/5f8a6e1392851c14bccc6012/The-Non-Jewish-Jew-Walter-Lippmann-and-the-Pitfalls-of-Journalistic-Detachment.pdf online]
• Jackson, Ben. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09592296.2011.625803 "Freedom, the Common Good, and the Rule of Law: Lippmann and Hayek on Economic Planning."] Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 72, 2012, pp. 47–68. {{doi|10.1080/09592296.2011.625803}}
• Lacey, Robert J. "Walter Lippmann: Unlikely Conservative." in Lacey, Pragmatic Conservatism (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016) pp. 63–107.
• Logevall, Fredrik. "First Among Critics: Walter Lippmann and the Vietnam War." Journal of American-East Asian Relations (1995): 351-375 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23612509 online].
• Porter, Patrick. [http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/26030/1/Patrick_Porter_Beyond_the_American_Century.pdf "Beyond the American Century: Walter Lippmann and American Grand Strategy, 1943–1950."] Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol. 22, No. 4, 2011, pp. 557–577.
• Seyb, Ronald P. [https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-3787253491/what-walter-saw-walter-lippmann-the-new-york-world "What Walter Saw: Walter Lippmann, the New York World, and Scientific Advocacy as an Alternative to the News-Opinion Dichotomy."] Journalism History, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2015, pp. 58+.
• Van Rythoven, E. (2021). "Walter Lippmann, emotion, and the history of international theory." International Theory
• Whitfield, Stephen J. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1981.1502_68.x "Part IV: The Journalist as Intellectual. Walter Lippmann: A Career in Media's Rays."] Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1981, pp. 68–77. {{doi|10.1111/j.0022-3840.1981.1502_68.x}}

• Adams, Larry Lee. [https://archive.org/details/walterlippmann0000adam Walter Lippmann]. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1977. {{ISBN|978-0805777093}}, short biography
• Blum, D. Steven. Walter Lippmann: Cosmopolitanism in the Century of Total War (1984), scholarly biography
• Edwards, Mark Thomas. Walter Lippmann: American Skeptic, American Pastor (Oxford University Press, 2023). {{ISBN|9780192895165}} [https://issforum.org/essays/PDF/E575.pdf online book review]
• Forcey, Charles. [https://archive.org/download/crossroadsoflibe007335mbp/crossroadsoflibe007335mbp.pdf The Crossroads of Liberalism: Croly, Weyl, Lippmann, and the Progressive Era, 1900–1925]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1961. {{LCCN|61-8370}}
• Goodwin, Craufurd D. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dmSDBAAAQBAJ Walter Lippmann: Public Economist]. Harvard University Press, 2014. {{isbn|978-0674368132}}
• Riccio, Barry D. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjzAKTSg6H8C&q=walter+lippmann+odyssey+of+a+liberal Walter Lippmann: Odyssey of a Liberal]. Transaction Publishers, 1994. {{ISBN|978-1560000969}}
• Schapsmeier, Edward L. and Frederick H. Schapsmeier. Walter Lippmann: philosopher-journalist (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1969), scholarly biography
• Steel, Ronald. [https://archive.org/details/walterlippmanna00stee Walter Lippmann and the American Century]. Little, Brown & Co., 1980. {{isbn|978-0765804648}}, a major scholarly biography
• [http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/34278/harry-c-mcpherson-jr/walter-lippmann-and-the-american-century Foreign Affairs online review].
• Wasniewski, Matthew A. [https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/1763/umi-umd-1741.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y "Walter Lippmann, Strategic Internationalism, the Cold War, and Vietnam, 1943-1967"] (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Maryland, 2004.
• Wellborn, Charles. [https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury0000well Twentieth Century Pilgrimage: Walter Lippmann and the Public Philosophy]. LSU Press, 1969. {{ISBN|0807103039}}
• {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Benjamin Fletcher |title=5 Public Philosophies of Walter Lippmann |volume= |authorlink=Benjamin Fletcher Wright |author-mask= |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin |year=2015 |orig-year=1973 |isbn=978-0-2927-2407-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/5publicphilosoph00benj |ref=wright1973}}

• [https://archive.org/details/publicphilosophe00lipp Public Philosopher: Selected Letters of Walter Lippmann]. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1985.
• Rossiter, Clinton, and James Lare (eds.). [https://archive.org/details/essentiallippman00lipprich The Essential Lippmann: A Political Philosophy for Liberal Democracy]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963.

{{wikiquote}}

{{wikisource author}}

{{wikibooks|Communication Theory/Propaganda and the Public}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• [https://www.theatlantic.com/author/walter-lippmann/ Articles by Walter Lippmann] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215032/https://www.theatlantic.com/author/walter-lippmann/ |date=June 2, 2021 }} at The Atlantic
• [https://www.foreignaffairs.com/authors/walter-lippmann Articles by Walter Lippmann] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215533/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/authors/walter-lippmann |date=June 2, 2021 }} at Foreign Affairs
• [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Search/Home?lookfor=%22Lippmann,%20Walter,%201889-1974.%22&type=author&inst= Books by Walter Lippmann] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214420/https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Search/Home?lookfor=%22Lippmann,%20Walter,%201889-1974.%22&type=author&inst= |date=June 2, 2021 }} at HathiTrust
• [https://www.jstor.org/action/doAdvancedSearch?si=1&Query=au%3A%22Walter+Lippmann%22 Works by Walter Lippmann] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602232937/https://www.jstor.org/action/doAdvancedSearch?si=1&Query=au:%22Walter+Lippmann%22 |date=June 2, 2021 }} at JSTOR
• {{Gutenberg author | id=2049}}
• {{Internet Archive author |sname=Walter Lippmann}}
• {{Librivox author |id=5781}}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20060702062606/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Hyper2/CDFinal/Lippman/cover.html Public Opinion (1922)] from American Studies at the University of Virginia.
• [http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.0326 Walter Lippmann Papers (MS 326).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924021539/https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/4564 |date=September 24, 2024 }} Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
• [http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5172 Walter Lippmann, "The Mental Age of Americans", New Republic 32, no. 412 (October 25, 1922): 213–215; no. 413 (November 1, 1922): 246–248; no. 414 (November 8, 1922): 275–277; no. 415 (November 15, 1922): 297–298; no. 416 (November 22, 1922): 328–330; no. 417 (November 29, 1922): 9–11.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610154557/http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5172/ |date=June 10, 2021 }}
• [http://www.c-span.org/video/?170338-1/writings-walter-lippmann "Writings of Walter Lippmann"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305044123/http://www.c-span.org/video/?170338-1/writings-walter-lippmann |date=March 5, 2016 }} from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
• [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=26496 The American Presidency Project – Remarks at the Presentation of the 1964 Presidential Medal of Freedom Awards – September 14, 1964] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531001435/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=26496 |date=May 31, 2010 }}
• [http://www.panarchy.org/lippmann/patriotism.html Walter Lippmann, Patriotism and state sovereignty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030193116/http://www.panarchy.org/lippmann/patriotism.html |date=October 30, 2021 }} (1929)
• {{LCAuth|n80019504|Walter Lippmann|122|}}
• [http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/mssa.ms.0766 Robert O. Anthony Collection of Walter Lippmann (MS 766) – Yale University Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924021540/https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/4830 |date=September 24, 2024 }}
• {{IMDb name|id=2547620|name=Walter Lippmann}}

{{refend}}

{{1920s media culture}}

{{Media culture}}

{{PulitzerPrize International Reporting}}

{{PulitzerPrize SpecialCitations Journalism}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lippmann, Walter}}

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