Well-being contributing factors

Central theories are Diener's tripartite model of subjective well-being, Ryff's Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being, Corey Keyes' work on flourishing, and Seligman's contributions to positive psychology and his theories on authentic happiness and P.E.R.M.A.

Positive psychology is concerned with eudaimonia, "the good life" or flourishing, living according to what holds the greatest value in life – the factors that contribute the most to a well-lived and fulfilling life. While not attempting a strict definition of the good life, positive psychologists agree that one must live a happy, engaged, and meaningful life in order to experience "the good life". Martin Seligman referred to "the good life" as "using your signature strengths every day to produce authentic happiness and abundant gratification".Seligman, M.E.P. (2009). Authentic Happiness. New York: Free Press. According to Christopher Peterson, "eudaimonia trumps hedonism".Christopher Peterson (2008), [https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-good-life/200805/what-is-positive-psychology-and-what-is-it-not What Is Positive Psychology, and What Is It Not?]

Research on positive psychology, well-being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes and Seligmann cover a broad range of levels and topics, including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."{{sfn|Seligman|Csikszentmihalyi|2000}} Happiness was famously analyzed by Aristotle as being the sole ultimate goal of human existence, meaning that he viewed it the only thing important in its own right, not merely as a means to an end. {{Cite journal |last=Metz |first=Thaddeus |title=Happiness: Transforming the Development Landscape |url=https://www.academia.edu/34774907}}

The pursuithttp://thriving.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/Catalino - Prioritizing Positivity (Simon-Thomas Lecture).pdf of happiness predicts both positive emotions and less depressive symptoms. People who prioritize happiness are more psychologically able, all else held equal.

Different ways of measuring well-being reveal different contributing factors. The correlation between two of these, life satisfaction and happiness, in the World Values Survey (1981–2005) is only 0.47.{{cite web|url=https://internationaljournalofwellbeing.org/index.php/ijow/article/viewFile/364/477 |title=A statistical meta-analysis of the wellbeing literature |website=internationaljournalofwellbeing.org}} These are different, but related concepts which are used interchangeably outside of academia. Typically, life satisfaction, or evaluative wellbeing is measured with Cantril's self-anchoring ladder, a questionnaire where wellbeing is rated on a scale from 1–10. Happiness or hedonic/Affective well-being measurement is measured with the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS), a more complex scale.

The UK Government's Department of Health compiled a factsheet in 2014, in which it is stated that the key limitations to well-being, quality of life and life satisfaction research are that:{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/wellbeing-and-health-policy|title=Wellbeing and health policy|website=GOV.UK}}

• There are numerous associations and correlations in the body of evidence, but few causal relationships, since existing longitudinal datasets "do not use consistent wellbeing and predictor measures at different time points";
• After controlling for mental health status, not many of the found associations are still significant;
• Subgroup analyses are rare;
• There are too few studies to conduct meta-analyses;
• There are too few interventional studies.

Mental health is the strongest{{Cite web|url=http://cep.lse.ac.uk/_new/research/wellbeing/causes_and_effects_of_wellbeing.asp|title=Archived version of http://cep.lse.ac.uk/_new/research/wellbeing/causes_and_effects_of_wellbeing.asp from 2015|access-date=2020-02-13|archive-date=2014-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220070443/http://cep.lse.ac.uk/_new/research/wellbeing/causes_and_effects_of_wellbeing.asp|url-status=live}} individual predictor of life satisfaction. Mental illness is associated{{cite journal | vauthors = Garaigordobil M | title = Predictor variables of happiness and its connection with risk and protective factors for health | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 6 | pages = 1176 | year = 2015 | pmid = 26321990 | pmc = 4532923 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01176 | doi-access = free }} with poorer well-being. In fact, mental health is the strongest determinant of quality of life at a later age.

Studies{{cite journal | vauthors = Mendlowicz MV, Stein MB | title = Quality of life in individuals with anxiety disorders | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 157 | issue = 5 | pages = 669–82 | date = May 2000 | pmid = 10784456 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.669 }} have documented the relationship between anxiety and quality of life.

The VOXEU{{cite web|url=http://voxeu.org/article/origins-happiness|title=Origins of happiness: Evidence and policy implications|first1=Andrew|last1=Clark|first2=Sarah|last2=Fleche|first3=Richard|last3=Layard|first4=Nattavudh|last4=Powdthavee|first5=George|last5=Ward | name-list-style = vanc |date=12 December 2016}} analysis of happiness showed the principal determinants of an adult's life satisfaction to be income, parenting, family break up, mother's mental health and schooling.

The factors that explain life satisfaction roughly map (negatively) to those factors that explain misery. They are first and foremost diagnosed depression/anxiety, which explains twice as much as the next factor, physical health (number of medical conditions), that explains just as much variance in subjective well-being between people, as income and whether someone is partnered.

These factors count twice as much as each of whether someone is employed and whether they are a non-criminal, which in turn are 3 times as important as years of education.

Overall, the best predictor of an adult's life satisfaction is their emotional health as a child as reported by the mother and child. It trumps factors like the qualifications that someone gets and their behaviour at 16 as reported by the mother. A child and therefore an adult's emotional health is most affected itself by a mother's mental health, which is just over twice as important as family income.

2/3 as important as family income is parent's involvement, which is 0.1 partial correlation coefficients more important than aggressive parenting (negative), father's unemployment (negative), family conflict (negative) and whether the mother worked in the subject's 1st year of life.

Whether the mother worked thereafter has 0 correlation with well-being, however. In terms of non-family factors, the place where someone goes to secondary school matters a fair bit more than observed family background altogether, which in turn is slightly more important than the place where someone went to primary school.

The main determinants of affective well-being, by correlation and effect size are:

1. Corruption index (-0.54)
2. Control of corruption (0.47)
3. Bureaucratic quality (0.40)
4. PPP-adjusted GDP per capita (although there is evidence of publication bias) (0.39)
5. Economic freedom (0.35)
6. Human rights violations (-0.33)
7. Political and ethnic violence (-0.28)
8. Civil liberties (0.28)
9. Life expectancy at birth (0.27)
10. Satisfaction with standard of living (0.24)

Over the last 33 years, a significant decrease in women's happiness leads researchers to believe that men are happier than women.{{cite journal |last1=Stevenson |first1=B. |last2=Wolfers |first2=J. |year=2009|title=The paradox of declining female happiness |journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy |volume= 1 |issue=2 |pages=190–225 |doi=10.1257/pol.1.2.190 |s2cid=7659076 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w14969.pdf }} In contrast, a Pew Research Centre survey found that more women are satisfied with their lives than men, overall.{{cite web|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/men-or-women-happier.htm|title=Are men or women happier?|date=20 May 2009}} Other research has found no gender gap in happiness.{{cite journal |title=Happiness Inequality in the United States |first1=Betsey |last1=Stevenson |first2=Justin |last2=Wolfers |year=2008 |journal=Journal of Legal Studies |volume=37 |issue=S2 |pages=S33–S79 |doi=10.1086/592004 |s2cid=215805545 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=bepp_papers |hdl=10419/35143 |hdl-access=free }}

Part of these findings could be due to the way men and women differ in calculating their happiness. Women calculate the positive self-esteem, closeness in their relationships and religion. Men calculate positive self-esteem, active leisure and mental control.{{cite journal | last1 = Reid | first1 = A. | year = 2004 | title = Gender and sources of subjective well-being | journal = Sex Roles | volume = 51 | issue = 11/12| pages = 617–629 | doi = 10.1007/s11199-004-0714-1 | s2cid = 144106390 }} Therefore, neither men nor women are at greater risk of being less happy than the other. Earlier in life, women are more likely than men to fulfill their goals (material goals and family life aspirations), thereby increasing their life satisfaction and overall happiness. However, it is later in life that men fulfill their goals, are more satisfied with their family life and financial situation and, as a result, their overall happiness surpasses that of women.{{cite journal | vauthors = Plagnol A, Easterlin R |title=Aspirations, attainments, and satisfaction: life cycle differences between American women and men |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=601–619 |year=2008 |doi=10.1007/s10902-008-9106-5 |s2cid=18464655 |url=http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/2555/3/PlagnolEasterlin08.pdf }} Possible explanations include the unequal division of labor within the household,{{cite journal | vauthors = Mencarini L, Sironi M |title=Happiness, Housework and Gender Inequality in Europe |journal=European Sociological Review |issue=2 |pages=1–17 |year=2010 |volume=28 |doi=10.1093/esr/jcq059 |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1490240/1/Sironi_happiness_housework_and_gender_inequality.pdf }} or that women experience more variance (more extremes) in emotion but are generally happier. Effects of gender on well-being are paradoxical: men report feeling less happy than women,{{cite web |last1=Stevenson |first1=Betsey |last2=Wolfers |first2=Justin |title=The Paradox of Declining Female Happiness |url=https://law.yale.edu/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/Stevenson_ParadoxDecliningFemaleHappiness_Dec08.pdf |access-date=17 August 2020}} however, women are more susceptible to depression.{{cite journal | vauthors = Strickland B |title=Women and depression |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=132–5 |year=1992 |jstor=20182155 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.ep10769766|s2cid=143898424 }}

A study was conducted by Siamak Khodarahimi to determine the roles of gender and age on positive psychology constructs – psychological hardiness, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and happiness – among 200 Iranian adolescents and 200 young adults who were questioned through various tests. The study found that the males of the sample showed significantly higher rates in psychological hardiness, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and happiness than females, regardless of age.{{cite journal|last1=Khodarahimi|first1=Siamak | name-list-style = vanc |title=The Role of Gender on Positive Psychology Constructs in a Sample of Iranian Adolescents and Young adults|journal=Applied Research in Quality of Life|date=5 February 2013|volume=9|issue=1|pages=45–61|doi=10.1007/s11482-013-9212-3|s2cid=144490749 }}

Happiness is partly genetically based.{{cite journal | vauthors = Okbay A, Baselmans BM, De Neve JE, Turley P, Nivard MG, Fontana MA, Meddens SF, Linnér RK, Rietveld CA, Derringer J, Gratten J, Lee JJ, Liu JZ, de Vlaming R, Ahluwalia TS, Buchwald J, Cavadino A, Frazier-Wood AC, Furlotte NA, Garfield V, Geisel MH, Gonzalez JR, Haitjema S, Karlsson R, van der Laan SW, Ladwig KH, Lahti J, van der Lee SJ, Lind PA, Liu T, Matteson L, Mihailov E, Miller MB, Minica CC, Nolte IM, Mook-Kanamori D, van der Most PJ, Oldmeadow C, Qian Y, Raitakari O, Rawal R, Realo A, Rueedi R, Schmidt B, Smith AV, Stergiakouli E, Tanaka T, Taylor K, Thorleifsson G, Wedenoja J, Wellmann J, Westra HJ, Willems SM, Zhao W, Amin N, Bakshi A, Bergmann S, Bjornsdottir G, Boyle PA, Cherney S, Cox SR, Davies G, Davis OS, Ding J, Direk N, Eibich P, Emeny RT, Fatemifar G, Faul JD, Ferrucci L, Forstner AJ, Gieger C, Gupta R, Harris TB, Harris JM, Holliday EG, Hottenga JJ, De Jager PL, Kaakinen MA, Kajantie E, Karhunen V, Kolcic I, Kumari M, Launer LJ, Franke L, Li-Gao R, Liewald DC, Koini M, Loukola A, Marques-Vidal P, Montgomery GW, Mosing MA, Paternoster L, Pattie A, Petrovic KE, Pulkki-Råback L, Quaye L, Räikkönen K, Rudan I, Scott RJ, Smith JA, Sutin AR, Trzaskowski M, Vinkhuyzen AE, Yu L, Zabaneh D, Attia JR, Bennett DA, Berger K, Bertram L, Boomsma DI, Snieder H, Chang SC, Cucca F, Deary IJ, van Duijn CM, Eriksson JG, Bültmann U, de Geus EJ, Groenen PJ, Gudnason V, Hansen T, Hartman CA, Haworth CM, Hayward C, Heath AC, Hinds DA, Hyppönen E, Iacono WG, Järvelin MR, Jöckel KH, Kaprio J, Kardia SL, Keltikangas-Järvinen L, Kraft P, Kubzansky LD, Lehtimäki T, Magnusson PK, Martin NG, McGue M, Metspalu A, Mills M, de Mutsert R, Oldehinkel AJ, Pasterkamp G, Pedersen NL, Plomin R, Polasek O, Power C, Rich SS, Rosendaal FR, den Ruijter HM, Schlessinger D, Schmidt H, Svento R, Schmidt R, Alizadeh BZ, Sørensen TI, Spector TD, Starr JM, Stefansson K, Steptoe A, Terracciano A, Thorsteinsdottir U, Thurik AR, Timpson NJ, Tiemeier H, Uitterlinden AG, Vollenweider P, Wagner GG, Weir DR, Yang J, Conley DC, Smith GD, Hofman A, Johannesson M, Laibson DI, Medland SE, Meyer MN, Pickrell JK, Esko T, Krueger RF, Beauchamp JP, Koellinger PD, Benjamin DJ, Bartels M, Cesarini D | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic variants associated with subjective well-being, depressive symptoms, and neuroticism identified through genome-wide analyses | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 48 | issue = 6 | pages = 624–33 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27089181 | pmc = 4884152 | doi = 10.1038/ng.3552 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Bartels M | title = Genetics of wellbeing and its components satisfaction with life, happiness, and quality of life: a review and meta-analysis of heritability studies | journal = Behavior Genetics | volume = 45 | issue = 2 | pages = 137–56 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25715755 | pmc = 4346667 | doi = 10.1007/s10519-015-9713-y }} Based on twin studies, 50 percent of a given human's happiness level is genetically determined, 10 percent is affected by life circumstances and situation, and a remaining 40 percent of happiness is subject to self-control.{{cite book|last1=Lyubomirsky|first1=Sonja | name-list-style = vanc |author-link=Sonja Lyubomirsky|title=The How of Happiness: a new approach to getting the life you want|date=2008|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0143114956|page=[https://archive.org/details/howofhappinesssc00lyub/page/56 56]|url=https://archive.org/details/howofhappinesssc00lyub|url-access=registration|quote=50 40 10.|access-date=1 April 2017}}

Whether emotions are genetically determined or not was studied by David Lykken and Auke Tellegen. They found that up to 80% of the variance in long-term sense of well-being among Minnesotan twins separated at birth was attributable to heredity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lykken D, Tellegen A | year = 1996 | title = Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon | url = http://cogprints.org/767/3/167.pdf| journal = Psychological Science | volume = 7 | issue = 3| pages = 186–189 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00355.x| s2cid = 16870174 }} The remaining theoretical 20%, however, still leaves room for significant change in thoughts and behavior from environmental/learned sources that should not be understated, and the interpretation of variance in twin studies is controversial, even among clinical psychologists.{{Cite journal|url=https://vaughanbell.net/nature-vs-nurture-is-a-lie/ |title= Nature vs nurture is a lie | last1 = Bell | first1 = Vaughan | name-list-style = vanc | journal = The Psychologist | date = July 2009}}

Individual differences in both overall Eudaimonia, identified loosely with self-control, and in the facets of eudaimonia are inheritable. Evidence from one study supports 5 independent genetic mechanisms underlying the Ryff facets of this trait, leading to a genetic construct of eudaimonia in terms of general self-control, and four subsidiary biological mechanisms enabling the psychological capabilities of purpose, agency, growth, and positive social relations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Archontaki D, Lewis GJ, Bates TC | title = Genetic influences on psychological well-being: a nationally representative twin study | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality_2013-04_81_2/page/221 | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 81 | issue = 2 | pages = 221–30 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 22432931 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00787.x }}

It is generally accepted that happiness is at least in part mediated through dopaminergic, adrenergic and serotonergic metabolism.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dfarhud D, Malmir M, Khanahmadi M | title = Happiness & Health: The Biological Factors- Systematic Review Article | journal = Iranian Journal of Public Health | volume = 43 | issue = 11 | pages = 1468–77 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 26060713 | pmc = 4449495 }} A correlation has been found between hormone levels and happiness. SSRIs, such as Prozac, are used to adjust the levels of serotonin in the clinically unhappy. Researchers, such as Alexander, have indicated that many peoples usage of narcotics may be the unwitting result of attempts to readjust hormone levels to cope with situations that make them unhappy.Alexander: Rat Park

A positive relationship has been found between the volume of gray matter in the right precuneus area of the brain and the subject's subjective happiness score.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sato W, Kochiyama T, Uono S, Kubota Y, Sawada R, Yoshimura S, Toichi M | title = The structural neural substrate of subjective happiness | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 5 | pages = 16891 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26586449 | pmc = 4653620 | doi = 10.1038/srep16891 | bibcode = 2015NatSR...516891S }} Meditation based interventions, including mindfulness, have been found to correlate with a significant gray matter increase within the precuneus.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kurth F, Luders E, Wu B, Black DS | title = Brain Gray Matter Changes Associated with Mindfulness Meditation in Older Adults: An Exploratory Pilot Study using Voxel-based Morphometry | journal = Neuro | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–26 | year = 2014 | pmid = 25632405 | pmc = 4306280 | doi = 10.17140/NOJ-1-106 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Vangel M, Congleton C, Yerramsetti SM, Gard T, Lazar SW | title = Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 191 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–43 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21071182 | pmc = 3004979 | doi = 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Kurth F, MacKenzie-Graham A, Toga AW, Luders E | title = Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–61 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 24643652 | pmc = 4994843 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsu029 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Fox KC, Nijeboer S, Dixon ML, Floman JL, Ellamil M, Rumak SP, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K | title = Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 43 | pages = 48–73 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24705269 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016 | s2cid = 207090878 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Evans KC, Hoge EA, Dusek JA, Morgan L, Pitman RK, Lazar SW | title = Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 11–7 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 19776221 | pmc = 2840837 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsp034 }}

Neuroscience and brain imaging have shown increasing potential for helping science understand happiness and sadness, as parts of the brain have been identified as having a role in the control of happiness, specifically with regard to research in the field of neurotransmitters.{{Cite journal |last1=Dfarhud |first1=Dariush |last2=Malmir |first2=Maryam |last3=Khanahmadi |first3=Mohammad |date=2014-11-01 |title=Happiness & Health: The Biological Factors- Systematic Review Article |journal=Iranian Journal of Public Health |volume=43 |issue=11 |pages=1468–1477 |issn=2251-6085 |pmc=4449495 |pmid=26060713}}{{Cite journal |last1=Gomez-Gomez |first1=Alex |last2=Martin |first2=Blanca Montero-San |last3=Haro |first3=Noemí |last4=Pozo |first4=Oscar J. |date=2023-11-15 |title=Determination of well-being-related markers in nails by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry |journal=Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety |volume=267 |pages=115586 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115586 |pmid=37897979 |bibcode=2023EcoES.26715586G |s2cid=264528302 |issn=0147-6513|doi-access=free |hdl=10230/61376 |hdl-access=free }} Though it may be impossible to achieve any comprehensive objective measure of happiness, some physiological correlates to happiness can be measured. Stefan Klein, in his book The Science of Happiness, links the dynamics of neurobiological systems (i.e., dopaminergic, opiate) to the concepts and findings of positive psychology and social psychology.{{cite book | first = Stefan | last = Klein | author-link = Stefan Klein | title = The Science of Happiness | url = https://archive.org/details/scienceofhappine0000klei | publisher = Marlowe & Company | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-56924-328-2 }}

Nobel prize winner Eric Kandel and researcher Cynthia Fu described very accurate diagnoses of depression just by looking at fMRI brain scans.{{cite web |url=http://www.wnyc.org/shows/radiolab/episodes/2008/12/05 |title=Diagnosis – Radiolab |publisher=Wnyc.org |access-date=2011-02-07 |archive-date=2010-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818214256/http://www.wnyc.org/shows/radiolab/episodes/2008/12/05 |url-status=dead }}

By identifying neural correlates for emotions, scientists may be able to use methods like brain scans to tell us more about the different ways of being "happy". Richard Davidson has conducted research to determine which parts of the brain are involved in positive emotions. He found that the left prefrontal cortex is more activated when we are happy and is also associated with greater ability to recover from negative emotions as well as enhanced ability to suppress negative emotions. Davidson found that people can train themselves to increase activation in this area of their brains.{{cite book | vauthors = Luz A, Dunne J, Davidson R | year = 2007 | chapter = Meditation and the neuroscience of consciousness | veditors = In Zelazo P, Moscovitch M, Thompson E | title = Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness | publisher = Cambridge University Press }} It is thought that our brain can change throughout our lives as a result of our experiences; this is known as neuroplasticity.

The evolutionary perspective offers an alternative approach to understanding happiness and quality of life. Key guiding questions are: What features are included in the brain that allow humans to distinguish between positive and negative states of mind? How do these features improve humans' ability to survive and reproduce? The evolutionary perspective claims that the answers to these questions point towards an understanding of what happiness is about and how to best exploit the capacities of the brain with which humans are endowed. This perspective is presented formally and in detail by the evolutionary biologist Bjørn Grinde in his 2002 book Darwinian Happiness.{{cite journal | last = Grinde | first = Bjørn | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2002 | title = Happiness in the perspective of evolutionary psychology | journal = Journal of Happiness Studies | volume = 3 | pages = 331–354 | doi = 10.1023/A:1021894227295 | issue = 4 | s2cid = 141630118 }}

There has been a significant focus in past research on adulthood, in regards to well-being and development and although eudaimonia is not a new field of study, there has been little research done in the areas of adolescence and youth. Research that has been done on this age group had previously explored more negative aspects than well-being, such as problem and risk behaviours (i.e. drug and alcohol use).

Researchers who conducted a study in 2013 recognized the absence of adolescents in eudaimonic research and the importance of this developmental stage. Adolescents rapidly face cognitive, social and physical changes, making them prime subjects to study for development and well-being. The eudaimonic identity theory was used in their research to examine the development of identity through self-discovery and self-realization. They emphasize the personal value found in discovering and appeasing one's “daimon” (daemon) through subjective experiences that develop eudaimonic happiness from aligning with one's true self.{{cite book | vauthors = Coatsworth JD, Sharp EH | title = The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia | url = https://archive.org/details/bestwithinusposi0000unse | url-access = registration | date = 2013 | publisher = American Psychological Association | location = Washington, DC | isbn = 9781433812613 }}{{rp|250}}

Researchers focused their studies on PYD (positive youth development) and the eudaimonic identity theory in the context of three developmental elements: self-defining activities, personal expressiveness and goal-directed behaviours.

They determined that adolescents sample multiple self-defining activities; these activities aid in identity formation, as individuals choose activities that they believe represents who they are. These self-defining activities also help determine the adolescent's social environments. For example, an adolescent involved in sports, would likely surround themselves with like-minded active and competitive people.

Personal expressiveness, as coined by psychologist A. S. Waterman, are the activities that we choose to express and connect with our “daimon” through subjective experiences.{{cite journal | vauthors = Waterman AS |title=Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1993-04_64_4/page/678 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|date=1993|volume=64|issue=4|pages=678–691|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678}}

Finally, goal-directed behaviours, are developed through goal setting, where individuals work towards identity establishment. Adolescents recognize their passions, abilities and talents and aim to fulfill their goals and behave in a way that appeases their true self.{{rp|251}}

The study on adolescents was conducted in Italy, Chile and the United States, which produced slightly varied outcomes. Outcomes were contingent on availability, access and choice of opportunities (activities).{{rp|254}} Socioeconomic context also affected the results, as not all individuals could access the activities that may be more in-line with their true selves.

The Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire (PEAQ) was used to conduct the study. Adolescence was the youngest age group that the PEAQ was used on. The PEAQ asked adolescents to self-report on activities they participate in and describe themselves with self-defining activities.{{rp|260}} It was reported that 80% of adolescents defined themselves with two to four self-defining activities signifying an understanding in adolescence of self-concept through the domains of leisure, work and academia.{{rp|255}}

Leisure activities were found to have the largest impact on individuals because these activities were the most self-directed of the three domains, as adolescents had the choice of activity, and were more likely to be able to align it with their true selves. The study found that subjective experiences were more important than the activities themselves and that adolescents reported higher levels of well-being. They reported that when adolescents express themselves through self-defining activities across multiple domains, they have a clearer image of themselves, of what they want to achieve and higher wellness. Goal-setting was found to be a unique predictor; when adolescents work towards goals set by themselves and accomplish them, they are likely to have a clearer emerging identity and higher well-being. Researchers found that more adolescents were happy when they were involved in self-chosen activities because the activities were chosen in line with their true self.{{rp|257–259}}

The midlife crisis may mark the first reliable drop in happiness during an average human's life. Evidence suggests most people generally become happier with age, with the exception of the years 40 – 50, which is the typical age at which a crisis might occur. Researchers specify that people in both their 20s and 70s are happier than during midlife, although the extent of happiness changes at different rates. For example, feelings of stress and anger tend to decline after age 20, worrying drops after age 50, and enjoyment very slowly declines in adulthood but finally starts to rise after age 50.{{cite news|last=Bakalar |first=Nicholas | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/health/research/01happy.html?_r=1 |title=The Guardian, Happiness May Come With Age, Study Says. "...by almost any measure, people become happier with age, although researchers are not sure why"|work=The New York Times |date=2010-05-31 |access-date=2011-11-12}}{{cite news| first = Alok | last = Jha | name-list-style = vanc | url = https://www.theguardian.com/society/2008/jan/29/health.medicalresearch |title=Happiness is being young or old, but middle age is misery |newspaper=Guardian |date= 2008-01-29|access-date=2011-11-12 |location=London}}

Well-being in late life is more likely to be related to other contextual factors including proximity to death.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gerstorf D, Ram N, Estabrook R, Schupp J, Wagner GG, Lindenberger U | title = Life satisfaction shows terminal decline in old age: longitudinal evidence from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 1148–59 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18605841 | pmc = 3551350 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1148 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Gerstorf D, Ram N, Röcke C, Lindenberger U, Smith J | title = Decline in life satisfaction in old age: longitudinal evidence for links to distance-to-death | journal = Psychology and Aging | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 154–68 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18361663 | pmc = 3482430 | doi = 10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.154 }} However, most of this terminal decline in well-being could be attributed to other changes in age-normative functional declines including physical health and function.{{cite journal | vauthors = Burns RA, Mitchell P, Shaw J, Anstey KJ | title = Trajectories of terminal decline in the well-being of older women: the DYNOPTA project | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychology-and-aging_2014-03_29_1/page/44 | journal = Psychology and Aging | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–56 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24660795 | doi = 10.1037/a0035370 }} Also, there is growing debate that assumptions that a single population estimate of age-related changes in well-being truly reflects the lived experiences of older adults has been questioned. The use of growth mixture modelling frameworks has allowed researchers to identify homogenous groups of individuals who are more similar to each other than the population based on their level and change in well-being and has shown that most report stable well-being in their late life and in the decade prior to death.{{cite journal | vauthors = Burns RA, Byles J, Magliano DJ, Mitchell P, Anstey KJ | title = The utility of estimating population-level trajectories of terminal wellbeing decline within a growth mixture modelling framework | journal = Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology | volume = 50 | issue = 3 | pages = 479–87 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25108532 | doi = 10.1007/s00127-014-0948-3 | s2cid = 9979528 }} These findings are based on decades of data, and control for cohort groups; the data avoids the risk that the drops in happiness during midlife are due to populations' unique midlife experiences, like a war. The studies have also controlled for income, job status and parenting (as opposed to childlessness) to try to isolate the effects of age.

Researchers found support for the notion of age changes inside the individual that affect happiness.

This could be for any number of reasons. Psychological factors could include greater awareness of one's self and preferences; an ability to control desires and have more realistic expectations – unrealistic expectations tend to foster unhappiness; moving closer to death may motivate people to pursue personal goals; improved social skills, like forgiveness, may take years to develop – the practice of forgiveness seems linked to higher levels of happiness; or happier people may live longer and are slightly overrepresented in the elderly population. Age-related chemical changes might also play a role.{{cite news|last=Bakalar |first=Nicholas | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/health/research/01happy.html?_r=1 |title=The Guardian, Happiness May Come With Age, Study Says |work=The New York Times |date=2010-05-31 |access-date=2011-11-12}}{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17722567 |title=Age and happiness: The U-bend of life|newspaper=The Economist |date=2010-12-16 |access-date=2011-02-07}}

Other studies have found older individuals reported more health problems, but fewer problems overall. Young adults reported more anger, anxiety, depression, financial problems, troubled relationships and career stress. Researchers also suggest depression in the elderly is often due largely to passivity and inaction – they recommend people continue to undertake activities that bring happiness, even in old age.{{cite news

| first = Shankar

| last = Vedantam

| url =https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/13/AR2008071301641.html?hpid=sec-health

| title = Older Americans May Be Happier Than Younger Ones

| newspaper = The Washington Post

| date = 2008-07-14

}}

The activity restriction model of depressed affect suggests that stressors that disrupt traditional activities of daily life can lead to a decrease in mental health. The elderly population is vulnerable to activity restriction because of the disabling factors related to age. Increases in scheduled activity, as well as social support, can decrease the chances of activity restriction.Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R. "The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology". Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 167.

{{See also|Lived experience}}

A study by Keyes found that there are major costs of depression, which 14% of adults experience annually: it impairs social roles; it costs billions each year due to work absenteeism, diminished productivity, and healthcare costs; finally, depression accounts for at least one-third of suicides. Therefore, it is important to study flourishing to learn about what is possible if issues such as depression are tackled and how the ramifications of focusing on the positive make life better not just for one person, but also for others around them.

Flourishing has significant positive aspects magnified when compared to languishing adults and when languishing adults are compared to depressed adults, as explained by Keyes. For example, languishing adults have the same amount of chronic disease as those that are depressed whereas flourishing adults are in exceptionally better physical health. Languishing adults miss as many days at work as depressed adults and, in fact, visit doctors and therapists more than depressed adults.(2001). Ask an expert: What is 'positive psychology'? Retrieved from {{cite web |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/fyi/teachers.tools/01/24/c.keyes/ |title=CNNfyi.com - Ask an expert: What is 'positive psychology'? - January 24, 2001 |access-date=2011-04-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115021035/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/fyi/teachers.tools/01/24/c.keyes/ |archive-date=2013-01-15 }}

A strengths-based approach to personal positive change aims to have clinical psychology place an equal weight on both positive and negative functioning when attempting to understand and treat distress.{{cite journal | vauthors = Duckworth AL, Steen TA, Seligman ME | title = Positive psychology in clinical practice | journal = Annual Review of Clinical Psychology | volume = 1 | pages = 629–51 | year = 2005 | pmid = 17716102 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144154 | s2cid = 14205912 }} This rationale is based on empirical findings. Because positive characteristics interact with negative life events to predict disorder the exclusive study of negative life events could produce misleading results.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen LH, McGowan J, Fooskas S, Rose S | title = Positive life events and social support and the relationship between life stress and psychological disorder | journal = American Journal of Community Psychology | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 567–87 | date = October 1984 | pmid = 6496413 | doi = 10.1007/BF00897213 | s2cid = 13454932 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1007/BF00897213| url-access = subscription }}

Thus, psychologists are looking to use positive psychology to treat patients. Amy Krentzman, among the others, discussed positive intervention as a way to treat patients. She defined positive intervention as a therapy or activity primarily aimed at increasing positive feelings, positive behaviors, or positive cognitions, as opposed to focusing on negative thoughts or dysfunctional behaviors. A way of using positive intervention as a clinical treatment is to use positive activity interventions. Positive activity interventions, or PAIs, are brief self-administered exercises that promote positive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Two widely used PAIs are “Three Good Things” and “Best Future Self.” “Three Good Things” requires a patient to daily document, for a week, three events that went well during the day, and the respective cause, or causes (this exercise can be modified with counterfactual thinking, that is, adding the imagination of things had them been worse{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qz4nhZ3ZMmgC&q=gratitude+counterfactual&pg=PA332|title=The Psychology of Gratitude|first1=Robert A.|last1=Emmons|first2=Michael E.|last2=McCullough | name-list-style = vanc |date=26 February 2004|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|via=Google Books|isbn=9780195150100}}). “Best Future Self” has a patient “think about their life in the future, and imagine that everything has gone as well as it possibly could. They have worked hard and succeeded at accomplishing all of their life goals. Think of this as the realization of all of their life dreams.” The patient is then asked to write down what they imagined. These positive interventions have been shown to decrease depression,{{cite journal | vauthors = Bolier L, Haverman M, Westerhof GJ, Riper H, Smit F, Bohlmeijer E | title = Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 13 | pages = 119 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23390882 | pmc = 3599475 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-13-119 | doi-access = free }} and interventions focusing on strengths and positive emotions can, in fact, be as effective in treating disorder as other more commonly used approaches such as cognitive behavioral therapy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seligman ME, Steen TA, Park N, Peterson C | title = Positive psychology progress: empirical validation of interventions | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 60 | issue = 5 | pages = 410–21 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16045394 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410 | s2cid = 6262678 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Sin NL, Lyubomirsky S | title = Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: a practice-friendly meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 467–87 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19301241 | doi = 10.1002/jclp.20593 | s2cid = 6823410 | url = http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~sonja/papers/SL2009.pdf | access-date = 2017-06-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120120164432/http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~sonja/papers/SL2009.pdf | archive-date = 2012-01-20 | url-status = dead }} Moreover, the apparent effect of PPIs cannot be caused by publication bias, according to a meta-analysis on 49 studies (2009). PPIs studied included producing gratitude letters, performing optimistic thinking, replaying positive life experiences, and socializing with people.

Also, in a newer meta-analysis (39 studies, 6,139 participants, 2012), the standardized mean difference was 0.34 higher for subjective well-being, 0.20 for psychological well-being and 0.23 for depression. Three to six months after the intervention, the effects for subjective well-being and psychological well-being were still significant, so effects seem fairly sustainable. However, in high-quality studies, the positive effect was weaker, though positive, so authors considered further high-quality studies necessary to strengthen the evidence. They claimed that the above-mentioned meta-analysis (2009) did not put enough weight on the quality of studies.

PPIs found positive included blessings, kindness practices, taking personal goals, and showing gratitude.

The interventions called "Gratitude Journaling" and "Three Good Things" seem to operate via gratitude. There is evidence that, when gratitude journaling, focussing on quality over quantity as well as people more than possessions, yields greater benefits.{{Cite web|url=http://www.greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/tips_for_keeping_a_gratitude_journal|title=Tips for Keeping a Gratitude Journal|access-date=2018-04-14|archive-date=2018-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416060421/https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/tips_for_keeping_a_gratitude_journal|url-status=dead}} There is also evidence of a diminished effect from gratitude journaling if it is done more than once or twice a week. Journaling sans gratitude is effective in decreasing negative emotions in general, which suggests that the act of journaling, rather than gratitude alone, is involved in the treatment effect.{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/research/action/romantic-relationships.aspx|title=Breakups aren't all bad: Coping strategies to promote positive outcomes|website=www.apa.org}}

Positive psychology seeks to inform clinical psychology of the potential to expand its approach, and of the merit of the possibilities. Given a fair opportunity, positive psychology might well change priorities to better address the breadth and depth of the human experience in clinical settings.

Posttraumatic growth (PTG) is a possible outcome after a traumatic event, besides posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Following a traumatic event, for instance rape, incest, cancer, attack, or combat, "it is normal to experience debilitating symptoms of depression and anxiety."{{cite book | vauthors = Reivich K, Shatte A |year=2003|title=The Resilience Factor: Seven Essential Skills For Overcoming Life's Inevitable Obstacles|publisher=Three Rivers Press|edition=Reprint|pages=9–59}} A person who shows PTG however, will experience these negative outcomes for a time and then show an increase in well-being, higher than it was before the trauma occurred. Martin Seligman, a founder of positive psychology, emphasizes that "arriving at a higher level of psychological functioning than before" is a key point in PTG.{{cite book | vauthors = Seligman ME |year=2011|title=Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and wellbeing|location=New York, NY|publisher=Free Press|chapter=Ch. 8}} If instead an individual experiences a depressive period but recovers from an incident and returns to their normal level of psychological functioning, they are demonstrating resilience. This suggests that in PTG, the trauma acts as a turning point for the person to achieve greater well-being. Seligman recognizes "the fact that trauma often sets the stage for growth" and given the right tools, individuals can make the most of that opportunity."

When reflecting on a traumatic growth, Seligman suggests using the following five elements to facilitate PTG: understand the response to trauma, reduce anxiety, utilize constructive disclosure, create a trauma narrative, and articulate life principles and stances that are more robust to challenge. Someone experiencing PTG will achieve elements of Seligman's "good life" theory, including a more meaningful and purposeful valuing of life, improved positive relationships, accomplishment, and a more optimistic and open mindset according to the broaden-and-build theory.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tedeschi RG, Calhoun LG | title = The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: measuring the positive legacy of trauma | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 455–71 | date = July 1996 | pmid = 8827649 | doi = 10.1002/jts.2490090305 | s2cid = 4127177 }}

The phenomenon of PTG is applicable to many disciplines. The construct is important not only for just soldiers, emergency responders, and survivors of traumatic events, but on average, for everyday citizens facing typical adversity. One way to expose citizens to stories of PTG is through constructive journalism. Constructive journalism, as defined by PhD student Karen McIntyre at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, is "an emerging style of journalism in which positive psychology techniques are applied to news work with the aim of engaging readers by creating more productive news stories, all while maintaining core journalistic functions".{{cite web|vauthors=McIntyre K|year=2014|title=My current research focus is the subject of my dissertation: constructive journalism|url=http://karenmcintyre.org/research-2/|access-date=2017-06-14|archive-date=2019-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526022741/http://karenmcintyre.org/research-2/|url-status=dead}} Cathrine Gyldensted, an experienced reporter with a Masters in applied positive psychology and coauthor of two books, demonstrated that typical news reporting, which is associated with negative valence, harms mood.{{cite thesis | vauthors = Gyldensted C |year=2011|title= Innovating News Journalism through Positive Psychology|type=Master Thesis|publisher=University of Pennsylvania|url=http://repository.upenn.edu/mapp_capstone/20/}} Using PTG to focus on victims' strengths and instances of overcoming adversity encourages readers to implement similar ideals in their own lives. "So the goal of positive psychology in well-being theory is to measure and to build human flourishing." Combining positive psychology constructs like PTG, PERMA, and "broaden and build" with journalism could potentially improve affect and inspire individuals about the benefits of positive psychology.

PERMA not only plays a role in our own personal lives but also can be used for public major news stories. With this model, journalists can instead focus on the positives of a story and ask questions about how conflicts or even tragedies have brought people together, how someone has experienced post-traumatic growth, and more. News stories then shift the perspective from a victimizing one to an uplifting one. Positive psychology is slowly but steadily making its way through news reporting via constructive journalism. PERMA helps journalists ask the right questions to continue that progress by bringing the focus of a potentially negative story to the positives and solutions.{{cite web|url=http://positivepsychologynews.com/news/cathrine-gyldensted/2013072426851|title=Hurricane Sandy, Utoya, Homelessness: Constructive News out of Loss|date=15 May 2023 }}

Fredrickson and Losada postulated in 2005 that the ratio of positive to negative affect, known as the critical positivity ratio, can distinguish individuals that flourish from those that do not. Languishing was characterized by a ratio of positive to negative affect of 2.5. Optimal functioning or flourishing was argued to occur at a ratio of 4.3. The point at which flourishing changes to languishing is called the Losada line and is placed at the positivity ratio of 2.9. Those with higher ratios were claimed to have broader behavioral repertoires, greater flexibility and resilience to adversity, more social resources, and more optimal functioning in many areas of their life.{{cite journal | last1 = Fredrickson | first1 = B. L. | last2 = Losada | first2 = M. F. | year = 2005 | title = Positive affect and complex dynamics of human flourishing | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 60 | issue = 7| pages = 678–686 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.60.7.678 | pmid = 16221001 | pmc = 3126111 }} The model also predicted the existence of an upper limit to happiness, reached at a positivity ratio of 11.5. Fredrickson and Losada claimed that at this limit, flourishing begins to disintegrate and productivity and creativity decrease. They suggested as positivity increased, so to "appropriate negativity" needs to increase. This was described as time-limited, practicable feedback connected to specific circumstances, i.e. constructive criticism.

This positivity ratio theory was widely accepted until 2013, when Nick Brown, a graduate student in applied positive psychology, co-authored a paper with Alan Sokal and Harris Friedman, showing that the mathematical basis of the paper was invalid.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown NJ, Sokal AD, Friedman HL | title = The complex dynamics of wishful thinking: the critical positivity ratio | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-psychologist_2013-12_68_9/page/801 | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 68 | issue = 9 | pages = 801–13 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 23855896 | doi = 10.1037/a0032850 | arxiv = 1307.7006 | bibcode = 2013arXiv1307.7006B | s2cid = 644769 }} Fredrickson partially retracted the paper, agreeing that the math may be flawed, but maintaining that the empirical evidence is still valid.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fredrickson BL | title = Updated thinking on positivity ratios | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 68 | issue = 9 | pages = 814–22 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 23855895 | doi = 10.1037/a0033584 | s2cid = 29283230 }}> Brown and colleagues insist there is no evidence for the critical positivity ratio whatsoever.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown NJ, Sokal AD, Friedman HL | title = The persistence of wishful thinking | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 69 | issue = 6 | pages = 629–32 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25197848 | doi = 10.1037/a0037050 | arxiv = 1409.4837 | s2cid = 12697463 }}

Most psychologists focus on a person's most basic emotions. There are thought to be between seven and fifteen basic emotions. The emotions can be combined in many ways to create more subtle variations of emotional experience. This suggests that any attempt to wholly eliminate negative emotions from our life would have the unintended consequence of losing the variety and subtlety of our most profound emotional experiences. Efforts to increase positive emotions will not automatically result in decreased negative emotions, nor will decreased negative emotions necessarily result in increased positive emotions.Schimmack, U. (2005). The structure of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. Larsen (Eds.) The science of subjective well-being. New York, NY, US: Guilford Press, pp. 97–123. Russell and Feldman Barrett (1992) described emotional reactions as core affects, which are primitive emotional reactions that are consistently experienced but often not acknowledged; they blend pleasant and unpleasant as well as activated and deactivated dimensions that we carry with us at an almost unconscious level.{{cite journal | vauthors = Russell JA, Barrett LF | title = Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 76 | issue = 5 | pages = 805–19 | date = May 1999 | pmid = 10353204 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805 | s2cid = 14362153 }}

While a 2012 study found that wellbeing was higher for people who experienced both positive and negative emotions,{{Cite journal | title=Mixed Emotional Experience is Associated with and Precedes Improvements in Psychological Well-Being| journal=PLOS ONE| volume=7| issue=4| pages=e35633| bibcode=2012PLoSO...735633A| last1=Adler| first1=Jonathan M.| last2=Hershfield| first2=Hal E.| year=2012| doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0035633| pmid=22539987| pmc=3334356| doi-access=free}}{{cite journal | last1=Hershfield | first1=Hal E. | last2=Scheibe | first2=Susanne | last3=Sims | first3=Tamara L. | last4=Carstensen | first4=Laura L. | journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2012 | doi=10.1177/1948550612444616 | pages=54–61 | url= | title=When Feeling Bad Can Be Good: Mixed Emotions Benefit Physical Health Across Adulthood| pmid=24032072 | pmc=3768126 }} evidence suggests negative emotions can be damaging. In an article titled "The undoing effect of positive emotions", Barbara Fredrickson et al. hypothesized positive emotions undo the cardiovascular effects of negative emotions. When people experience stress, they show increased heart rate, higher blood sugar, immune suppression, and other adaptations optimized for immediate action. If unregulated, the prolonged physiological activation can lead to illness, coronary heart disease, and heightened mortality. Both lab and survey research substantiate that positive emotions help people under stress to return to a preferable, healthier physiological baseline.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fredrickson BL, Mancuso RA, Branigan C, Tugade MM | title = The Undoing Effect of Positive Emotions | journal = Motivation and Emotion | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 237–258 | date = December 2000 | pmid = 21731120 | pmc = 3128334 | doi = 10.1023/A:1010796329158 }} Other research shows that improved mood is one of the various benefits of physical exercise.[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,197466,00.html Best Benefit of Exercise? Happiness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626155303/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,197466,00.html |date=2012-06-26 }}, Robin Loyd, Fox News, May 30, 2006.

The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests positive emotions (e.g. happiness, interest, anticipation){{cite book|last=Compton|first=William C|name-list-style=vanc|title=An Introduction to Positive Psychology|publisher=Wadsworth Publishing|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontopo0000comp/page/23 23–40]|chapter=2|isbn=978-0-534-64453-6|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontopo0000comp/page/23}} broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence. Positive emotions are contrasted with negative emotions, which prompt narrow survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of anxiety leads to the specific fight-or-flight response for immediate survival.

{{Main|Elevation (emotion)}}

After several years of researching disgust, Jonathan Haidt, and others, studied its opposite; the term "elevation" was coined. Elevation is a pleasant moral emotion, triggered by witnessing virtuous acts of remarkable moral goodness and resulting in a desire to act morally and do "good". As an emotion it has a biological basis, and is sometimes characterized by a feeling of expansion in the chest or a tingling feeling on the skin.Haidt, Jonathan (2005). The Happiness Hypothesis. Basic Books.Haidt, J. (2003). [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/haidt.elevation-and-positive-psychology.manuscript.html Elevation and the positive psychology of morality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509200844/http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/haidt.elevation-and-positive-psychology.manuscript.html |date=2009-05-09 }}. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. (pp. 275–289).

Thomas Nagel has said that "There are elements which, if added to one's experience, make life better; there are other elements which if added to one's experience, make life worse. But what remains when these are set aside is not merely neutral: it is emphatically positive."Further; "Therefore life is worth living even when the bad elements of experience are plentiful, and the good ones too meager to outweigh the bad ones on their own. The additional positive weight is supplied by experience itself, rather than by any of its consequences." 'Death' (essay), Thomas Nagel, CUP, 1979{{Cite web | url=http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/the-vise-side-of-life/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180523222330/http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/the-vise-side-of-life/ | url-status=usurped | archive-date=May 23, 2018 | title=The Vise Side of Life| date=2018-04-24}}

Experiences are central to a proposed dimension of well-being called psychological richness. This additional dimension of well-being was proposed as an empirically-supported expansion to the hedonic vs. eudaimonic well-being dichotomy. Whereas hedonic well-being can be measured via life satisfaction, and eudaimonic well-being can be measured via one’s perceptions of the meaning of their life, psychological richness is measured via characteristic experiences. Psychological richness is cultivated through having psychologically rich experiences, which are characterized as varying, interesting, novel, challenging, and perspective-changing, as subjectively measured by the experiencer. One line of evidence for this comes from studies conducted with college students, where students who went on trips (new and unusual experiences), whether they be short excursions or semester-length study abroad programs, reported increased psychological richness, but not increases in happiness or meaning (Oishi et al., 2021).{{Cite journal |last1=Oishi |first1=Shigehiro |last2=Choi |first2=Hyewon |last3=Liu |first3=Ailin |last4=Kurtz |first4=Jaime |date=September 2021 |title=Experiences associated with psychological richness |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0890207020962334 |journal=European Journal of Personality |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=754–770 |doi=10.1177/0890207020962334 |s2cid=229416478 |issn=0890-2070|url-access=subscription }} In contrast to hedonic well-being, which is thought to result in personal satisfaction, and eudaimonic well-being, which is thought to result in societal contribution, psychological richness is thought to result in wisdom.{{Cite journal |last1=Oishi |first1=Shigehiro |last2=Westgate |first2=Erin C. |date=July 2022 |title=A psychologically rich life: Beyond happiness and meaning. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/rev0000317 |journal=Psychological Review |language=en |volume=129 |issue=4 |pages=790–811 |doi=10.1037/rev0000317 |pmid=34383524 |s2cid=236997619 |issn=1939-1471|url-access=subscription }}

{{Main|Flourishing}}

The term flourishing, in positive psychology, refers to optimal human functioning. It comprises four parts: goodness, generativity, growth, and resilience (Fredrickson, 2005).{{cite journal | vauthors = Fredrickson BL, Losada MF | title = Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 60 | issue = 7 | pages = 678–86 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16221001 | pmc = 3126111 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.60.7.678 }}{{Erratum|doi=10.1037/a0034435|pmid=16221001|http://retractionwatch.com/2013/09/19/fredrickson-losada-positivity-ratio-paper-partially-withdrawn/ Retraction Watch}} According to Fredrickson (2005), goodness is made up of: happiness, contentment, and effective performance; generativity is about making life better for future generations, and is defined by “broadened thought-action repertoires and behavioral flexibility”; growth involves the use of personal and social assets; and resilience reflects survival and growth after enduring a hardship. A flourishing life stems from mastering all four of these parts. Two contrasting ideologies are languishing and psychopathology. On the mental health continuum, these are considered intermediate mental health disorders, reflecting someone living an unfulfilled and perhaps meaningless life. Those who languish experience more emotional pain, psychosocial deficiency, restrictions in regular activities, and missed workdays.

Fredrickson & Losada (2005) conducted a study on university students, operationalizing positive and negative affect. Based on a mathematical model which has been strongly criticized, and now been formally withdrawn by Fredrickson as invalid,{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/a0034435 |title='Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing': Correction to Fredrickson and Losada (2005) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-psychologist_2013-12_68_9/page/822 |journal=American Psychologist |volume=68 |issue=9 |page=822 |year=2013 |last1=Fredrickson |first1=Barbara L |last2=Losada |first2=Marcial F | name-list-style = vanc }} Fredrickson & Losada claimed to have discovered a critical positivity ratio, above which people would flourish and below which they would not. Although Fredrickson claims that her experimental results are still valid,Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). [https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033584 Updated thinking on positivity ratios]{{void|Fabrickator|comment|link previously provided (no longer working): http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/Fredrickson%202013%20Updated%20Thinking.pdf}}. American Psychologist. Electronic publication ahead of print. these experimental results have also been questioned due to poor statistical methodology, and Alan Sokal has pointed out that "given [Fredrickson and Losada's] experimental design and method of data analysis, no data whatsoever could possibly give any evidence of any nonlinearity in the relationship between "flourishing" and the positivity ratio — much less evidence for a sharp discontinuity."{{cite web|url=http://retractionwatch.wordpress.com/2013/09/19/fredrickson-losada-positivity-ratio-paper-partially-withdrawn/|title=Fredrickson-Losada "positivity ratio" paper partially withdrawn|publisher=Retraction Watch|date=September 19, 2013}}

Another study surveyed a U.S. sample of 3,032 adults, aged 25–74. Results showed 17.2 percent of adults were flourishing, while 56.6 percent were moderately mentally healthy. Some common characteristics of a flourishing adult included: educated, older, married and wealthy. The study findings suggest there is room for adults to improve as less than 20 percent of Americans are living a flourishing life. (Keyes, 2002).{{cite journal | vauthors = Keyes CL | year = 2002 | title = The Mental Health Continuum: From Languishing to Flourishing in Life | journal = Journal of Health and Social Behavior | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 207–222 | doi=10.2307/3090197| jstor = 3090197 | pmid = 12096700 | s2cid = 2961978 }}

Benefits from living a flourishing life emerge from research on the effects of experiencing a high ratio of positive to negative affect. The studied benefits of positive affect are increased responsiveness, "broadened behavioral repertoires", increased instinct, and increased perception and imagination. In addition, the good feelings associated with flourishing result in improvements to immune system functioning, cardiovascular recovery, lessened effects of negative affect, and frontal brain asymmetry. Other benefits to those of moderate mental health or moderate levels of flourishing were: stronger psychological and social performance, high resiliency, greater cardiovascular health, and an overall healthier lifestyle (Keyes, 2007).{{cite journal | vauthors = Keyes CL | title = Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: a complementary strategy for improving national mental health | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 62 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–108 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17324035 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.62.2.95 | s2cid = 12443620 }} The encountered benefits of flourishing suggest a definition: "[flourishing] people experience high levels of emotional, psychological and social well being due to vigor and vitality, self-determination, continuous self- growth, close relationships and a meaningful and purposeful life" (Siang-Yang, 2006, p. 70).{{cite journal | last1 = Siang-Yang | first1 = T. | year = 2006 | title = Applied Positive Psychology: Putting Positive Psychology into Practice | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-psychology-and-christianity_2006_spring_25_1/page/68 | journal = Journal of Psychology & Christianity | volume = 25 | issue = 1| pages = 68–73 }}

Psychologists Peter Hills and Michael Argyle developed the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire[http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/oxford-happiness-questionnaire/214/ Oxford Happiness Questionnaire] by Michael Argyle and Peter Hills, a survey of current level of happiness. See also discussion in {{cite journal | last1 = Hills | first1 = P. | last2 = Argyle | first2 = M. | year = 2002 | title = The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-individual-differences_2002-11_33_7/page/1073 | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 33 | issue = 7| pages = 1073–1082 | doi = 10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00213-6 }} as a broad measure of psychological well-being. The approach was criticized for lacking a theoretical model of happiness and for overlapping too much with related concepts such as self-esteem, sense of purpose, social interest, kindness, sense of humor and aesthetic appreciation.{{cite journal | first = Todd B. | last = Kashdan | url = http://mason.gmu.edu/~tkashdan/publications/happy.PDF | title = The assessment of subjective well-being (issues raised by the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire) | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | year = 2004 | pages = 1225–1232 | volume = 36 | doi = 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00213-7 | issue = 5 }}

"Happiness" encompasses different emotional and mental phenomena. One method of assessment is Ed Diener's Satisfaction with Life Scale. According to Diener, this five-question survey corresponds well with impressions from friends and family, and low incidence of depression.{{clarify|date=June 2014}}

Rather than long-term, big picture appraisals, some methods attempt to identify the amount of positive affect from one activity to the next. Scientists use beepers to remind volunteers to write down the details of their current situation. Alternatively, volunteers complete detailed diary entries each morning about the day before. A discrepancy arises when researchers compare the results of these short-term "experience sampling" methods, with long-term appraisals. Namely, the latter may not be very accurate; people may not know what makes their life pleasant from one moment to the next. For instance, parents' appraisals mention their children as sources of pleasure, while "experience sampling" indicates parents were not enjoying caring for their children, compared to other activities.{{cite web |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory.html |title=Daniel Kahneman: The riddle of experience vs. memory | Video on |publisher=Ted.com |access-date=2011-02-07 |archive-date=2011-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104150221/http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory.html |url-status=dead }}

Psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains this discrepancy by differentiating between happiness according to the "experiencing self" compared to the "remembering self": when asked to reflect on experiences, memory biases like the Peak-End effect (e.g. we mostly remember the dramatic parts of a vacation, and how it was at the end) play a large role. A striking finding was in a study of colonoscopy patients. Adding 60 seconds to this invasive procedure, Kahneman found participants reported the colonoscopy as more pleasant. This was attributed to making sure the colonoscopy instrument was not moved during the extra 60 seconds – movement is the source of the most discomfort. Thus, Kahneman was appealing to the remembering self's tendency to focus on the end of the experience. Such findings help explain human error in affective forecasting – people's ability to predict their future emotional states.

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Humans exhibit a variety of abilities. This includes an ability of emotional Hedonic Adaptation, an idea suggesting that beauty, fame and money do not generally have lasting effects on happiness (this effect has also been called the Hedonic treadmill). In this vein, some research has suggested that only recent events, meaning those that occurred within the last 3 months, affect happiness levels.{{cite journal | vauthors = Suh E, Diener E, Fujita F | title = Events and subjective well-being: only recent events matter | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1996-05_70_5/page/1091 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 1091–102 | date = May 1996 | pmid = 8656337 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.1091 }}

The tendency to adapt, and therefore return to an earlier level of happiness, is illustrated by studies showing lottery winners are no happier in the years after they've won. Other studies have shown paraplegics are nearly as happy as control groups that are not paralyzed,{{Cite book | last1 = Seligman | first1 = Martin E. P. | name-list-style = vanc | author-link = Martin Seligman | title = Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment | year = 2002 | publisher = Free Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7432-2297-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/authentichappine00seli_0 }} after equally few years. Daniel Kahneman explains: "they are not paraplegic full time... It has to do with allocation of attention". Thus, contrary to our impact biases, lotteries and paraplegia do not change experiences to as great a degree as we would believe.

However, in a newer study (2007), winning a medium-sized lottery prize had a lasting mental wellbeing effect of 1.4 GHQ points on Britons even two years after the event.{{cite journal | last1=Gardner | first1=Jonathan | last2=Oswald | first2=Andrew J. | author-link2=Andrew Oswald | title = Money and mental wellbeing: a longitudinal study of medium-sized lottery wins | journal = Journal of Health Economics | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 49–60 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 16949692 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.08.004 | s2cid = 79613 | url = http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/320/1/WRAP_Oswald_jhelottery2006.pdf }} Moreover, adaptation can be a very slow and incomplete process. Distracting life changes such as the death of a spouse or losing one's job can show measurable changes in happiness levels for several years. Even the "adapted" paraplegics mentioned above did ultimately report lower levels of pleasure (again, they were happier than one would expect, but not fully adapted).{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/significant-results/201304/5-myths-positive-psychology|title=5 Myths of Positive Psychology| first = Robert | last = Biswas-Diener | name-list-style = vanc |work=Psychology Today}} Thus, adaptation is a complex process, and while it does mitigate the emotional effects of many life events it cannot mitigate them entirely.

The happiness set point idea is that most people return to an average level of happiness – or a set point – after temporary highs and lows in emotionality. People whose set points lean toward positive emotionality tend to be cheerful most of the time and those whose set points tend to be more negative emotionality tend to gravitate toward pessimism and anxiety. Lykken found that we can influence our level of well-being by creating environments more conductive to feelings of happiness and by working with our genetic makeup. One reason that subjective well-being is for the most part stable is because of the great influence genetics have. Although the events of life have some effect on subjective well-being, the general population returns to their set point.Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R. "The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology". Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 189.

{{Pie chart

|value1 = 50

|label1 = Genetic

|value2 = 40

|label2 = Intentional activity

|value3 = 10

|label3 = Circumstance

|footer=Lyubomirsky's breakdown of happiness sources in The How of Happiness'. In the recipe for one person's happiness, it is nonsensical to blame one ingredient (because all are necessary). However, when comparing two people's happiness, ingredients like genetics can account for as much as half the difference.}}

In her 2008 book The How of Happiness, Sonja Lyubomirsky similarly argued people's happiness varies around a genetic set point. Diener warns, however, that it is nonsensical to claim that "happiness is influenced 30–50% by genetics". Diener explains that the recipe for happiness for an individual always requires genetics, environment, and behaviour too, so it is nonsensical to claim that an individual's happiness is due to only one ingredient.

Only differences in happiness can be attributed to differences in factors. In other words, Lyubomirsky's research does not discuss happiness in one individual; it discusses differences in happiness between two or more people. Specifically, Lyubomirsky suggests that 30–40% of the difference in happiness levels is due to genetics (i.e. heritable). In other words, still, Diener says it makes no sense to say one person's happiness is "due 50% to genetics", but it does make sense to say one person's difference in happiness is 50% due to differences in their genetics (and the rest is due to behaviour and environment).

Findings from twin studies support the findings just mentioned. Twins reared apart had nearly the same levels of happiness thereby suggesting the environment is not entirely responsible for differences in people's happiness. Importantly, an individual's baseline happiness is not entirely determined by genetics, and not even by early life influences on one's genetics. Whether or not a person manages to elevate their baseline to the heights of their genetic possibilities depends partly on several factors, including actions and habits. Some happiness-boosting habits seem to include gratitude, appreciation, and even altruistic behavior.{{Cite web|title=Giving thanks can make you happier|url=https://www.health.harvard.edu/healthbeat/giving-thanks-can-make-you-happier|access-date=2020-12-04|website=Harvard Health|date=22 November 2011}} Other research-based habits and techniques for increasing happiness are discussed on this page.

Besides the development of new habits, the use of antidepressants, effective exercise, and a healthier diet have proven to affect mood significantly. There is evidence{{cite web|url=https://faunalytics.org/veganism-help-reduce-stress-anxiety/|title=Does Veganism Help Reduce Stress and Anxiety? - Faunalytics|date=25 May 2016}} that a vegan diet reduces stress and anxiety. Exercise is sometimes called the "miracle" or "wonder" drug – alluding to the wide variety of proven benefits it provides.{{cite web|publisher=American Association of Kidney Patients|title=Physical Activity and Exercise: The Wonder Drug|url=http://www.aakp.org/aakp-library/Physical-Activity-and-Exercise/|access-date=2017-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927221329/http://www.aakp.org/aakp-library/Physical-Activity-and-Exercise/|archive-date=2011-09-27|url-status=dead}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Pimlott N | title = The miracle drug | journal = Canadian Family Physician | volume = 56 | issue = 5 | pages = 407, 409 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20463262 | pmc = 2868602 }}

A 2010 book, Anatomy of an Epidemic, challenges the use of non-conservative usage of medications for mental patients, specially with respect to their long-term positive feedback effects.{{cite web|url=http://www.thersa.org/__data/assets/file/0009/407961/20110706MartinSeligman.mp3|title=Seligman, Martin E.P. (6 July 2011). "Flourish". Royal Society of Arts. audio|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318003154/http://www.thersa.org/__data/assets/file/0009/407961/20110706MartinSeligman.mp3|archive-date=18 March 2012|url-status=dead}}

Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche has said that neuro scientists have found that with meditation, an individual's happiness baseline can change.{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/science-has-proved-that-meditation-can-improve-quality-of-life-buddhist-master/articleshow/58200304.cms|title=Science has proved that meditation can improve quality of life: Buddhist master - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=16 April 2017 }} and meditation has been found to increase happiness in several studies. A study on Brahma Kumaris Raja yoga meditators showed them having higher happiness (Oxford happiness questionnaire) than the control group.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ramesh MG, Sathian B, Sinu E, Kiranmai SR | title = Efficacy of rajayoga meditation on positive thinking: an index for self-satisfaction and happiness in life | journal = Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research | volume = 7 | issue = 10 | pages = 2265–7 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24298493 | pmc = 3843423 | doi = 10.7860/JCDR/2013/5889.3488 }}

In recent large panel studies divorce, death of a spouse, unemployment, disability and similar events have been shown to change the long-term subjective well-being, even though some adaptation does occur and inborn factors affect this.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00479.x |jstor=20183166 |title=Adaptation and the Set-Point Model of Subjective Well-Being |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=75–9 |year=2016 |last1=Lucas |first1=Richard E |s2cid=18842089 }}

Fujita and Diener found that 24% of people changed significantly between the first five years of the study and the last five years. Almost one in four people showed changes in their well-being over the years; indeed sometimes those changes were quite dramatic.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fujita F, Diener E | title = Life satisfaction set point: stability and change | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 88 | issue = 1 | pages = 158–64 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15631581 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.158 | hdl = 2022/24829 | hdl-access = free }} Bruce Headey found that 5–6% of people dramatically increased their life satisfaction over a 15- to 20-year period and that the goals people pursued significantly affected their life satisfaction.{{cite journal | last1 = Headey | first1 = B. | year = 2008 | title = Life goals matter to happiness: A revision of set-point theory | url = http://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw_01.c.44816.de/dp639.pdf| journal = Social Indicators Research | volume = 86 | issue = 2| pages = 312–231 | doi = 10.1007/s11205-007-9138-y | hdl = 10419/18532 | s2cid = 59069696 }}

The easiest and best possible way to increase one's happiness is by doing something that increases the ratio of positive to negative emotions. Contrary to some beliefs, in many scenarios, people are actually very good at determining what will increase their positive emotions.{{cite journal | vauthors = Thayer RE, Newman JR, McClain TM | title = Self-regulation of mood: strategies for changing a bad mood, raising energy, and reducing tension | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 67 | issue = 5 | pages = 910–25 | date = November 1994 | pmid = 7983582 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.67.5.910 | s2cid = 17422600 }} There have been many techniques developed to help increase one's happiness.

A first technique is known as the "Sustainable Happiness Model (SHM)." This model proposes that long-term happiness is determined upon: (1) one's genetically determined set-point, (2) circumstantial factors, and (3) intentional activities. Lyubomirsky, Sheldon and Schkade suggest to make these changes in the correct way in order to have long-term happiness.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyubomirsky S, Sheldon KM, Schkade D |author1-link=Sonja Lyubomirsky|author3-link=David Schkade| year = 2005 | title = Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change | journal = Review of General Psychology | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 111–131 | doi = 10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111 | s2cid = 6705969 }} Another suggestion of how to increase one's happiness is through a procedure called "Hope Training." Hope Training is primarily focused on hope due to the belief that hope drives the positive emotions of well-being.{{cite book| vauthors = Lopez SJ, Floyd RK, Ulven JC, Snyder CR |year=2000|contribution=Hope therapy: Building a house of hope|editor=C.R. Snyder|title=The handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications|pages=123–148|location=New York|publisher=Academic Press}} This training is based on the hope theory, which states that well-being can increase once people have developed goals and believe themselves to achieve those goals.{{cite book|author=Rand, Kevin L., & Cheaven, Jennifer S|year=2009|contribution=Hope theory|title=Oxford handbook of positive psychology|edition=2nd |editor= Lopez, Shane, J., Snyder, C.R. |location=New York, NY, US|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=323–333}} One of the main purposes of hope training is to eliminate individuals from false hope syndrome. False hope syndrome particularly occurs when one believes that changing their behavior is easy and the outcomes of the change will be evidenced in a short period of time.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00076 |title=The False-Hope Syndrome |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=9 |issue=4 |page=128 |year=2016 |last1=Polivy |first1=Janet |last2=Herman |first2=C. Peter |s2cid=145499330 | name-list-style = vanc }}

There are coaching procedures based on positive psychology, which are backed by scientific research, with availability of intervention tools and assessments that positive psychology trained coaches can utilize to support the coaching process. Positive psychology coaching uses scientific evidence and insights gained in these areas to work with clients in their goals.{{cite book | last = Biswas-Diener | first = Robert | name-list-style = vanc |year=2010|title=Practicing Positive Psychology Coaching: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Intervention | isbn = 978-0-470-53676-6|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}

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Philip Zimbardo suggests we might also analyze happiness from a "time perspective". He suggested the sorting of people's focus in life by valence (positive or negative) and also by their time perspective (past, present, or future orientation). Doing so may reveal some individual conflicts, not over whether an activity is enjoyed, but whether one prefers to risk delaying gratification further. Zimbardo also believes research reveals an optimal balance of perspectives for a happy life; commenting, our focus on reliving positive aspects of our past should be high, followed by time spent believing in a positive future, and finally spending a moderate (but not excessive) amount of time in enjoyment of the present.{{cite web |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_prescribes_a_healthy_take_on_time.html |title=Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time | Video on |publisher=Ted.com |access-date=2011-02-07 |archive-date=2011-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629021229/http://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_prescribes_a_healthy_take_on_time.html |url-status=dead }}

In the 1970s Csikszentmihalyi started to study flow, a state of absorption where one's abilities are well-matched to the demands at-hand. Flow is characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense "time is flying". Flow is intrinsically rewarding; it can also assist in the achievement of goals (e.g., winning a game) or improving skills (e.g., becoming a better chess player).{{Cite book | last1 = Csikszentmihalyi | first1 = Mihaly | author-link1=Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi | title = Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience | url = https://archive.org/details/flowpsychologyof00csik | url-access = registration | year = 1990 | publisher = Harper & Row | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-06-016253-5 }} Anyone can experience flow, in different domains, such as play, creativity, and work.

Flow is achieved when the challenge of the situation meets one's personal abilities. A mismatch of challenge for someone of low skills results in a state of anxiety; insufficient challenge for someone highly skilled results in boredom. The effect of challenging situations means that flow is often temporarily exciting and variously stressful, but this is considered eustress, which is also known as "good" stress. Eustress is arguably less harmful than chronic stress, although the pathways of stress-related systems are similar. Both can create a "wear and tear" effect; however, the differing physiological elements and added psychological benefits of eustress might well balance any wear and tear experienced.

Csikszentmihalyi identified nine indicator elements of flow:

1. Clear goals exist every step of the way, 2. Immediate feedback guides one's action, 3. There is a balance between challenges and abilities, 4. Action and awareness are merged, 5. Distractions are excluded from consciousness, 6. Failure is not worrisome, 7. Self-consciousness disappears, 8. Sense of time is distorted, and 9. The activity becomes "autotelic" (an end in itself, done for its own sake){{cite web |title="In the zone": enjoyment, creativity, and the nine elements of "flow" |publisher=MeaningandHappiness.com|url=http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/zone-enjoyment-creativity-elements-flow/26/|access-date=2010-11-11}} His studies also show that flow is greater during work while happiness is greater during leisure activities.Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R. The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 200.

Arguably, some people pursue ineffective shortcuts to feeling good. These shortcuts create positive feelings, but are problematic, in part because of the lack of effort involved. Some examples of these shortcuts include shopping, drugs, chocolate, loveless sex, and TV. These are problematic pursuits because all of these examples have the ability to become addictive. When happiness comes to us so easily, it comes with a price we may not realize. This price comes when taking these shortcuts is the only way to become happy, otherwise viewed as an addiction.{{cite journal | vauthors = Krentzman AR | title = Review of the application of positive psychology to substance use, addiction, and recovery research | journal = Psychology of Addictive Behaviors | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages = 151–65 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 22985057 | pmc = 3531570 | doi = 10.1037/a0029897 }} (Date is for advance online publication. The final form was published in March 2013.) A review by Amy Krentzman on the Application of Positive Psychology to Substance Use, Addiction, and Recovery Research, identified, in the field of positive psychology, three domains that allow an individual to thrive and contribute to society.

One of these, A Pleasant Life, involves good feelings about the past, present, and future. To tie this with addiction, they chose an example of alcoholism. Research on positive affect and alcohol showed a majority of the population associates drinking with pleasure. The pleasure one feels from alcohol is known as somatic pleasure, which is immediate but a short lived sensory delight. The researchers wanted to make clear pleasure alone does not amount to a life well lived; there is more to life than pleasure. Secondly, the Engaged Life is associated with positive traits such as strength of character. A few examples of character strength according to Character Strength and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification by Seligman and Peterson (2004) are bravery, integrity, citizenship, humility, prudence, gratitude, and hope, all of which are shown in the rise to recovery. To descend into an addiction shows a lack of character strength; however, rising to recovery shows the reinstatement of character strengths, including the examples mentioned above. Thirdly, the Meaningful Life is service and membership to positive organizations. Examples of positive organizations include family, workplace, social groups, and society in general. Membership of these groups fosters positive affect, while also promoting character strengths, which as seen in the Engaged Life, can aid in beating addiction.

Researcher Dianne Hales described an emotionally healthy person as someone who exhibits flexibility and adaptability to different circumstances, a sense of meaning and affirmation in life, an "understanding that the self is not the center of the universe", compassion and the ability to be unselfish, an increased depth and satisfaction in intimate relationships, and a sense of control over the mind and body.{{cite news | first = Dianne | last = Hales | name-list-style = vanc |title= An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010–2011 Edition | publisher = Wadsworth Cengage Learning |page=26 |year= 2010 | isbn = 9780495391920 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oP91HVIMPRIC&pg=PA26 }}

Layard and others show that the most important influence on happiness is mental health.

L.M. Keyes and Shane Lopez illustrate the four typologies of mental health functioning: flourishing, struggling, floundering and languishing. However, complete mental health is a combination of high emotional well-being, high psychological well-being, and high social well-being, along with low mental illness.Keyes, C.L.M., & Lopez, S.J. (2002). Toward a science of mental health: Positive directions in diagnosis and interventions. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 45–59). London: Oxford University Press.

Although health is part of well-being, some people are able to maintain satisfactory wellbeing despite the presence of psychological symptoms.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bos EH, Snippe E, de Jonge P, Jeronimus BF | title = Preserving Subjective Wellbeing in the Face of Psychopathology: Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = e0150867 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26963923 | pmc = 4786317 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0150867 | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1150867B | doi-access = free }}

Meta-analyses published between 2013 and 2017 show that exercise is associated with reductions in depressive symptoms, fatigue and QoL plus improvements in attention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, social functioning, schizophrenic symptoms, and verbal fluency in various special populations. However, aerobic exercise has no significant effect on anxiety disorders.{{cite web|url=https://kspope.com/ethics/exercise-meta-analyses.php|title=Meta-Analyses: Exercise's Psychological & Physical Effects on Health, Disorders, & Quality of Life|website=kspope.com}}

In 2005 a study conducted by Andrew Steptow and Michael Marmot at University College London, found that happiness is related to biological markers that play an important role in health.{{cite journal | vauthors = Steptoe A, Wardle J, Marmot M | title = Positive affect and health-related neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and inflammatory processes | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 102 | issue = 18 | pages = 6508–12 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15840727 | pmc = 1088362 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0409174102 | bibcode = 2005PNAS..102.6508S | doi-access = free }} The researchers aimed to analyze whether there was any association between well-being and three biological markers: heart rate, cortisol levels, and plasma fibrinogen levels. The participants who rated themselves the least happy had cortisol levels that were 48% higher than those who rated themselves as the most happy. The least happy subjects also had a large plasma fibrinogen response to two stress-inducing tasks: the Stroop test, and tracing a star seen in a mirror image. Repeating their studies three years later Steptow and Marmot found that participants who scored high in positive emotion continued to have lower levels of cortisol and fibrinogen, as well as a lower heart rate.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}

In Happy People Live Longer (2011),{{cite journal | vauthors = Frey BS | title = Psychology. Happy people live longer | journal = Science | volume = 331 | issue = 6017 | pages = 542–3 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21292959 | doi = 10.1126/science.1201060 | bibcode = 2011Sci...331..542F | s2cid = 39481763 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/2a47cc30dcd32a5725c0779f43624b7c65a1826e }} Bruno Frey reported that happy people live 14% longer, increasing longevity 7.5 to 10 years and Richard Davidson's bestseller (2012) The Emotional Life of Your Brain argues that positive emotion and happiness benefit long-term health.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}

However, in 2015 a study building on earlier research found that happiness has no effect on mortality.{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu B, Floud S, Pirie K, Green J, Peto R, Beral V | title = Does happiness itself directly affect mortality? The prospective UK Million Women Study | journal = Lancet | volume = 387 | issue = 10021 | pages = 874–81 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26684609 | pmc = 5075047 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01087-9 }} "This "basic belief that if you're happier you're going to live longer. That's just not true."{{cite news |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/health/unsw-research-finds-happy-people-do-not-live-longer-when-ill-health-is-removed-from-equation-20151209-glj3rl.html |title=UNSW research finds happy people do not live longer when ill health is removed from equation |last=Alexander |first=Harriet | name-list-style = vanc |date=13 December 2015 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=15 December 2015 }} Consistent results are that "apart from good health, happy people were more likely to be older, not smoke, have fewer educational qualifications, do strenuous exercise, live with a partner, do religious or group activities and sleep for eight hours a night."

Happiness does however seem to have a protective impact on immunity. The tendency to experience positive emotions was associated with greater resistance to colds and flu in interventional studies irrespective of other factors such as smoking, drinking, exercise, and sleep.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen S, Doyle WJ, Turner RB, Alper CM, Skoner DP | title = Emotional style and susceptibility to the common cold | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 4 | pages = 652–7 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12883117 | doi = 10.1097/01.PSY.0000077508.57784.DA | s2cid = 14162473 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen S, Alper CM, Doyle WJ, Treanor JJ, Turner RB | title = Positive emotional style predicts resistance to illness after experimental exposure to rhinovirus or influenza a virus | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 68 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–15 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17101814 | doi = 10.1097/01.psy.0000245867.92364.3c | s2cid = 14291816 }}

Positive emotional states have a favorable effect on mortality and survival in both healthy and diseased populations. Even at the same level of smoking, drinking, exercise, and sleep, happier people seem to live longer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chida Y, Steptoe A | title = Positive psychological well-being and mortality: a quantitative review of prospective observational studies | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 70 | issue = 7 | pages = 741–56 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18725425 | doi = 10.1097/PSY.0b013e31818105ba | s2cid = 1784174 }} Interventional trials conducted to establish a cause-effect relationship indicate positive emotions to be associated with greater resistance to objectively verifiable colds and flu.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen S, Doyle WJ, Turner RB, Alper CM, Skoner DP | title = Emotional style and susceptibility to the common cold | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 4 | pages = 652–7 | date = 2003-08-01 | pmid = 12883117 | doi = 10.1097/01.psy.0000077508.57784.da | s2cid = 14162473 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen S, Alper CM, Doyle WJ, Treanor JJ, Turner RB | title = Positive emotional style predicts resistance to illness after experimental exposure to rhinovirus or influenza a virus | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 68 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–15 | date = 2006-12-01 | pmid = 17101814 | doi = 10.1097/01.psy.0000245867.92364.3c | s2cid = 14291816 }}

Health consumers sometimes confuse the terms "wellness" and "well-being". Wellness is a term more commonly associated with alternative medicine which may or may not coincide with gains in subjective well-being. In 2014,{{cite web|url=https://www.tga.gov.au/australian-government-response-review-medicines-and-medical-devices-regulation|title=Australian Government Response to the Review of Medicines and Medical Devices Regulation| publisher = Australian Government Department of Health. Therapeutic Goods Administration|date=15 September 2016 }} the Australian Government reviewed the effectiveness of numerous complementary therapies: they found low-moderate quality evidence that the Alexander technique, Buteyko, massage therapy (remedial massage{{cite web|url=http://www.amt.org.au/downloads/submissions/Evidence-Based-Massage-2009.pdf |title=Evidence based massage |website=www.amt.org.au }}), tai chi and yoga are helpful for certain health conditions. On the other hand, the balance of evidence indicates that homeopathy, aromatherapy, bowen therapy, Feldenkrais, herbalism, iridology, kinesiology, pilates, reflexology and rolfing shiatsu were classed as ineffective.

There is growing evidence that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is related to greater happiness, life satisfaction, and positive mood as well. This evidence cannot be entirely explained by demographic or health variables including socio-economic status, exercise, smoking, and body mass index, suggesting a causal link.{{cite journal | vauthors = Conner TS, Brookie KL, Richardson AC, Polak MA | title = On carrots and curiosity: eating fruit and vegetables is associated with greater flourishing in daily life | journal = British Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 413–27 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25080035 | doi = 10.1111/bjhp.12113 | s2cid = 31788198 }} Further studies have found that fruit and vegetable consumption predicted improvements in positive mood the next day, not vice versa. On days when people ate more fruits and vegetables, they reported feeling calmer, happier, and more energetic than normal, and they also felt more positive the next day.{{cite journal | vauthors = White BA, Horwath CC, Conner TS | title = Many apples a day keep the blues away--daily experiences of negative and positive affect and food consumption in young adults | journal = British Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 782–98 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 23347122 | doi = 10.1111/bjhp.12021 | s2cid = 13148591 }}

Cross-sectional studies worldwide support a relationship between happiness and fruit and vegetable intake. Those eating fruits and vegetables each day have a higher likelihood of being classified as “very happy,” suggesting a strong and positive correlation between fruit and vegetable consumption and happiness.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rooney C, McKinley MC, Woodside JV | title = The potential role of fruit and vegetables in aspects of psychological well-being: a review of the literature and future directions | journal = The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society | volume = 72 | issue = 4 | pages = 420–32 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24020691 | doi = 10.1017/S0029665113003388 | doi-access = free }} Whether it be in South Korea,{{cite journal | vauthors = Kye SY, Park K | title = Health-related determinants of happiness in Korean adults | journal = International Journal of Public Health | volume = 59 | issue = 5 | pages = 731–8 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25033934 | doi = 10.1007/s00038-014-0588-0 | s2cid = 25150763 }} Iran,{{cite journal | vauthors = Fararouei M, Brown IJ, Akbartabar Toori M, Estakhrian Haghighi R, Jafari J | title = Happiness and health behaviour in Iranian adolescent girls | journal = Journal of Adolescence | volume = 36 | issue = 6 | pages = 1187–92 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24215965 | doi = 10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.09.006 }} Chile,{{cite journal | vauthors = Piqueras JA, Kuhne W, Vera-Villarroel P, van Straten A, Cuijpers P | title = Happiness and health behaviours in Chilean college students: a cross-sectional survey | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 11 | pages = 443 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21649907 | pmc = 3125376 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-11-443 | doi-access = free }} USA,{{cite journal |author5-link=Laura Kubzansky | vauthors = Boehm JK, Williams DR, Rimm EB, Ryff C, Kubzansky LD | title = Association between optimism and serum antioxidants in the midlife in the United States study | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 75 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–10 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23257932 | pmc = 3539819 | doi = 10.1097/PSY.0b013e31827c08a9 }} or UK,{{cite journal |last1=Blanchflower |first1=David G. |last2=Oswald |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Stewart-Brown |first3=Sarah | name-list-style = vanc |title=Is Psychological Well-Being Linked to the Consumption of Fruit and Vegetables? |journal=Social Indicators Research |volume=114 |issue=3 |year=2012 |pages=785–801 |doi=10.1007/s11205-012-0173-y |hdl=1893/10167 |s2cid=142779424 |url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/270627 |hdl-access=free }} greater fruit and vegetable consumption had a positive association with greater happiness, independent of factors such as smoking, exercise, body mass index, and socio-economic factors. This could be due to the protective benefits from chronic diseases and a greater intake of nutrients important for psychological health.

Other food and drink practices associated with well-being are probiotics,{{cite journal | vauthors = Wallace CJ, Milev R | title = The effects of probiotics on depressive symptoms in humans: a systematic review | journal = Annals of General Psychiatry | volume = 16 | pages = 14 | year = 2017 | pmid = 28239408 | pmc = 5319175 | doi = 10.1186/s12991-017-0138-2 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang R, Wang K, Hu J | title = Effect of Probiotics on Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | journal = Nutrients | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = 483 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27509521 | pmc = 4997396 | doi = 10.3390/nu8080483 | doi-access = free }} alcohol,{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/2010/07/08/ABS27vC_page.html|title=Scientists have figured out exactly how much fun it is to get drunk - The Washington Post|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=30 April 2012}} and binge{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120820090848.htm |title=Binge drinking|website=www.sciencedaily.com}} drinking. Gluten and FODMAPs can{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolutionary-psychiatry/201410/is-gluten-causing-your-depression|title=Is Gluten Causing Your Depression?|website=Psychology Today}} negatively impact mood in some people. Bupa{{cite web |url=https://theblueroom.bupa.com.au/healthier/healthy-eating/food-for-happiness |title=The Happiness Diet |website=theblueroom.bupa.com.au |access-date=2018-05-04 |archive-date=2018-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504225413/https://theblueroom.bupa.com.au/healthier/healthy-eating/food-for-happiness |url-status=dead }} recommends oily fish, food with tryptophan such as milk, nuts, lentils, whole grain breads, cereals, pasta, soy and chocolate, dark chocolate, the Mediterranean diet overall including vegetables, fruits, whole grains, nuts and olive oil for wellbeing.

The documentary ‘food matters’ includes claims of well-being benefits of raw foods, which has been disputed as pseudoscience.{{cite web|url=http://www.beyondveg.com/tu-j-l/raw-cooked/raw-cooked-1i.shtml |title=Digestive Leukocytosis-What a Close Reading of Kouchakoff Reveals |publisher=Beyondveg.com |access-date=2018-05-04}}

Eudaimonic well-being has been found to be empirically distinguishable from hedonic well-being.{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10902-015-9683-z |title=Revisiting the Empirical Distinction Between Hedonic and Eudaimonic Aspects of Well-Being Using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |volume=17 |issue=5 |page=2023 |year=2015 |last1=Joshanloo |first1=Mohsen |s2cid=16022037 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Joshanloo M | title = A New Look at the Factor Structure of the MHC-SF in Iran and the United States Using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling | journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume = 72 | issue = 7 | pages = 701–13 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 26990960 | doi = 10.1002/jclp.22287 | hdl = 11343/291078 | hdl-access = free }}

Individual roles play a part in cognitive well-being. Not only does having social ties improve cognitive well-being, it also improves psychological health.{{cite journal|last=Thoits|first=Peggy | name-list-style = vanc |title=Identity Structures and Psychological Well-Being: Gender and Marital Status Comparisons|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-psychology-quarterly_1992-09_55_3/page/237|journal=Social Psychology Quarterly|date=September 1992|volume=55|issue=3|page=237|doi=10.2307/2786794|jstor=2786794}}

Having multiple identities and roles helps individuals to relate to their society and provide the opportunity for each to contribute more as they increase their roles, therefore creating enhanced levels of cognitive well-being. Each individual role is ranked internally within a hierarchy of salience. Salience is “...the subjective importance that a person attaches to each identity”.

Different roles an individual has have a different impact on their well-being. Within this hierarchy, higher roles offer more of a source to their well-being and define more meaningfulness to their overall role as a human being.

Ethnic identity may play a role in an individual's cognitive well-being. Studies have shown that “...both social psychological and developmental perspectives suggest that a strong, secure ethnic identity makes a positive contribution to cognitive well-being”.{{cite journal | last1 = Phinney | first1 = Jean S. | last2 = Horenczyk | first2 = Gabriel | last3 = Liebkind | first3 = Karmela | last4 = Vedder | first4 = Paul | name-list-style = vanc | title = Ethnic Identity, Immigration, and Well-Being: An Interactional Perspective | journal = Journal of Social Issues |date=September 2001|volume=57|issue=3|pages=493–510|doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00225| hdl = 1887/16666 | hdl-access = free }} Those in an acculturated society may feel more equal as a human being within their culture, therefore experiencing increased well-being.

File:Fluorescent Lamp.jpg recommended taking full responsibility for one small, but clear improvement for the world (the way energy-saving activists did by promoting a new kind of lamp). Inspired by sociological research, MacKinnon said "vertical agitation" helps reduce feelings of helplessness.]]

Learned optimism refers to development of one's potential for a sanguine outlook.{{clarify|date=May 2018}} Optimism is learned as personal efforts and abilities are linked to personally desired outcomes. In short, it is the belief one can influence the future in tangible and meaningful ways. Learned optimism contrasts with learned helplessness, which consists of a belief, or beliefs, one has no control over what occurs, and that something external dictates outcomes, e.g., success. Optimism is learned by consciously challenging negative self talk. This includes self talk on any event viewed as a personal failure that permanently affects all areas of the person's life.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.004 |title=Great expectations: A meta-analytic examination of optimism and hope |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=54 |issue=7 |page=821 |year=2013 |last1=Alarcon |first1=Gene M |last2=Bowling |first2=Nathan A |last3=Khazon |first3=Steven | name-list-style = vanc }}

Intrapersonal, or internal, dialogues influence one's feelings. In fact, reports of happiness are correlated with the general ability to "rationalize or explain" social and economic inequalities.{{cite web | title=Conservatives Happier Than Liberals | first = Jeanna

| last = Bryner | name-list-style = vanc |work=LiveScience.com| date = 7 May 2008

|url=http://www.livescience.com/health/080507-liberal-conservative.html|access-date=2008-06-18}} Hope is a powerful positive feeling, linked to a learned style of goal-directed thinking. Hope is fostered when a person utilizes both pathways thinking (the perceived capacity to find routes to desired goals) and agency thinking (the requisite motivations to use those routes).{{cite book | veditors = Snyder CR | year = 2000 | title = Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications. | location = San Diego, CA | publisher = Academic Press }}

Author and journalist J.B. MacKinnon suggested the cognitive tool of "Vertical Agitation" can assist in avoiding helplessness (e.g., paralysis in the face of Earth's many problems). The concept stemmed from research on denial by sociologist Stanley Cohen. Cohen explained: in the face of massive problems people tend towards learned helplessness rather than confronting the dissonant facts of the matter. Vertical Agitation involves focusing on one part of a problem at a time, while holding oneself accountable for solving the problem – all the way to the highest level of government, business and society (such as advocating strongly for something: eco-friendly lightbulbs). This allows each individual in society to make vital "trivial" (read: small) changes, without being intimidated by the work needed to be done as a whole. Mackinnon added: a piecemeal approach also keeps individuals from becoming too 'holier than thou' (harassing friends and family about every possible improvement), where widespread practice of Vertical Agitation would lead to much improvement.{{cite web|url=http://www.utne.com/environment/Eco-Uncertainty-JB-MacKinnon-Explore.aspx |title=In an Age of Eco-Uncertainty: Vertical Agitation, Eco-Douchebags, Cohen' s Rule, and Lifestyle as Social Change |date=31 August 2010 |publisher=Utne.com |access-date=2011-02-07}}

{{see also|Happiness at work#Employee salary|Social determinants of mental health|Socioeconomic status and mental health}}

File:Niavaranpalacemirror.jpg

Well-being has traditionally focused on improving physical, emotional and mental quality of life with little understanding of how dependent they all are on financial health.{{cite journal | last1=de Chavez|first1=Anna Cronin|last2=Backett-Milburn|first2=Kathryn|last3=Parry|first3=Odette|last4=Platt|first4=Stephen | name-list-style = vanc |title=Understanding and researching wellbeing: Its usage in different disciplines and potential for health research and health promotion|journal=Health Education Journal|date=27 July 2016|volume=64|issue=1|pages=70–87|doi=10.1177/001789690506400108|s2cid=144795868}} However, financial stress often manifests itself in physical and emotional difficulties that lead to increased healthcare costs and reduced productivity.{{cite web |author = Main E | date = 2 March 2010 | title = Why financial stress is the costliest for your health | url = http://www.rodalenews.com/stress-health-problems | work = Rodale Wellness }}{{cite web | work = PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) | date = April 2014 | title = Employee financial wellness survey: 2014 results. | url = http://www.pwc.com/en_US/us/private-company-services/publications/assets/pwc-employee-financial-wellness-survey-2014-results.pdf }} A more inclusive paradigm for well-being would acknowledge money as a source of empowerment that maximizes physical and emotional health by reducing financial stress.{{cite web | first1 = Alyssa | last1 = Brown | first2 = Lindsey | last2 = Sharpe | date = 7 July 2014 | name-list-style = vanc | work = Gallup | title = Americans' financial well-being is lowest, social highest. | url = http://www.gallup.com/poll/172109/americans-financial-lowest-social-highest.aspx }}{{cite web | vauthors = Taylor M, Jenkins S, Sacker A | year = 2009 | title = Financial capability and wellbeing: Evidence from the BHPS. | publisher = UK Financial Services Authority | url = http://hb.betterregulation.com/external/OP34.pdf | access-date = 2017-06-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093247/http://hb.betterregulation.com/external/OP34.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | url-status = dead }} Such a model would provide individuals with the financial knowledge they need, as well as enable them to gain valuable insight and understanding regarding their financial habits, as well as their thoughts, feelings, fears and attitudes about money. Through this work, individuals would be better equipped to manage their money and achieve the financial wellness that is essential for their overall well-being.{{cite web | vauthors = Vitt L | year = 2009 | title = Values centered financial education: Understanding cultural influences on learners' financial behaviors. | location = Denver | publisher = National Endowment for Financial Education | url = http://www.smartaboutmoney.org/Portals/0/lifevalue/financialeducation.pdf }}

It has been argued that money cannot effectively "buy" much happiness unless it is used in certain ways, and that "Beyond the point at which people have enough to comfortably feed, clothe, and house themselves, having more money – even a lot more money – makes them only a little bit happier."{{cite news |last1=Bennett|first1=Drake | name-list-style = vanc | title = Happiness: A buyer's guide | url = http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/08/23/happiness_a_buyers_guide/ |access-date=1 April 2017|work=The Boston Globe|date=23 August 2009|language=en}} In his book Stumbling on Happiness, psychologist Daniel Gilbert described research suggesting money makes a significant difference to the poor (where basic needs are not yet met), but has a greatly diminished effect once one reaches middle class (i.e. the Easterlin paradox).{{cite journal | vauthors = Easterlin RA, McVey LA, Switek M, Sawangfa O, Zweig JS | title = The happiness-income paradox revisited | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = 52 | pages = 22463–8 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21149705 | pmc = 3012515 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1015962107 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..10722463E | doi-access = free }} Every dollar earned is just as valuable to happiness up to a $75,000 annual income,{{Cite web|url=https://80000hours.org/articles/money-and-happiness/|title=Everything you need to know about whether money makes you happy|website=80,000 Hours}} thereafter, the value of each additional dollar earns a diminishing amount of happiness. According to the latest{{cite web|url=https://www.iei.liu.se/nek/730g80/artiklar/1.421852/Happywhatmakesus.pdf|title=Linköping University|website=www.iei.liu.se|access-date=2018-04-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612150849/https://www.iei.liu.se/nek/730g80/artiklar/1.421852/Happywhatmakesus.pdf|archive-date=2018-06-12|url-status=dead}} systematic review of the economic literature on life satisfaction, one's perception of their financial circumstances fully mediates the effects of objective circumstances on one's well-being. People overestimate the influence of wealth by 100%.{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/17439760903271421 |title=From wealth to well-being? Money matters, but less than people think |journal=The Journal of Positive Psychology |volume=4 |issue=6 |page=523 |year=2009 |last1=Aknin |first1=Lara B |last2=Norton |first2=Michael I |last3=Dunn |first3=Elizabeth W |s2cid=9911004 | name-list-style = vanc }}

Professor of Economics Richard Easterlin noted that job satisfaction does not depend on salary. In other words, having extra money for luxuries does not increase happiness as much as enjoying one's job or social network.{{cite journal | vauthors = Easterlin R |year=2008|title=Income and happiness: towards a unified theory|journal=The Economic Journal|volume=11|issue=473|pages=465–484|doi= 10.1111/1468-0297.00646|url=http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/everything/easterlin2001a.pdf}} Gilbert is thus adamant, people should go to great lengths to figure out which jobs they would enjoy, and to find a way to do one of those jobs for a living (that is, provided one is also attentive to social ties).

Unemployment is detrimental to individual well-being. However, that does not hold true in countries where unemployment is widespread. Psychology Today{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-mindful-self-express/201110/preserving-mental-health-during-unemployment|title=Preserving Mental Health During Unemployment|website=Psychology Today}} reports that the impact of unemployment is dampened in those for whom work is less central to their identity, those who receive less criticism and less negative judgments from others, those who can meet their immediate financial obligations and those who do not see their unemployment as high stress and negative. Other protective factors include the expectation of reemployment, routines that structure one's time and evaluating oneself as worthy, competent and successful. According to the latest systematic review of the economic literature on life satisfaction, unemployment is worse for wellbeing for those that are right wing or live in high income countries. Not all unemployment is bad, however: international data from sixteen Western countries indicates that retirement at any age yields large increases in subjective well-being that returns to trend by age 70.{{cite journal|title=Subjective Well-Being and Retirement: Analysis and Policy Recommendations | first = Elizabeth Mokyr | last = Horner | name-list-style = vanc |date=1 February 2014|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=15|issue=1|pages=125–144|doi=10.1007/s10902-012-9399-2| s2cid = 144741985 }}

Executive coaching, a workplace intervention for well-being and performance, is proven to work in certain contexts, according to a 2013 independent quantitative scientific summary synthesising high quality scientific research on coaching.{{cite web |url=http://leadingchangenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Structuring-and-Understanding-the-Coaching-Industry.pdf |title=Structure and understanding |website=leadingchangenetwork.org |access-date=2018-04-25 |archive-date=2018-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504225804/http://leadingchangenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Structuring-and-Understanding-the-Coaching-Industry.pdf |url-status=dead }} It tells us that standard effect sizes for the outcomes of performance/skills, well-being, coping, goal-attainment and work/career attitudes range from 0.43 to 0.74.

A more recent study has challenged the Easterlin paradox. Using recent data from a broader collection of countries, a positive link was found between GDP and well-being; and there was no point at which wealthier countries' subjective well-being ceased to increase. It was concluded economic growth does indeed increase happiness.{{cite journal|author=Stevenson, B. |author2=Wolfers, J.|year=2008|title=Economic growth and subjective well-being: Reassessing the Easterlin paradox|journal=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity|volume=39|issue=1|pages=1–102|doi=10.3386/w14282|url=http://users.nber.org/~jwolfers/papers/EasterlinParadox.pdf}}

Wealth is strongly correlated with life satisfaction but the correlation between money and emotional well-being is weak.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kahneman D, Deaton A | title = High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = 38 | pages = 16489–93 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20823223 | pmc = 2944762 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1011492107 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..10716489K | doi-access = free }} The pursuit of money may lead people to ignore leisure time and relationships, both of which may cause and contribute to happiness. The pursuit of money at the risk of jeopardizing one's personal relationships and sacrificing enjoyment from one's leisure activities seems an unwise approach to finding happiness.

Money, or its hectic pursuit, has been shown to hinder people's savoring ability, or the act of enjoying everyday positive experiences and emotions. In a study looking at working adults, wealthy individuals reported lower levels of savoring ability (the ability to prolong positive emotion) relative to their poorer peers.{{cite journal | vauthors = Quoidbach J, Dunn EW, Petrides KV, Mikolajczak M | title = Money giveth, money taketh away: the dual effect of wealth on happiness | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 21 | issue = 6 | pages = 759–63 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20483819 | doi = 10.1177/0956797610371963 | s2cid = 16369647 }}

Studies have routinely shown that nations are happier when people's needs are met.{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/2010/07/14/world-happiest-countries-lifestyle-realestate-gallup-table.html |title=Forbes article "Table: The World's Happiest Countries" |magazine=Forbes.com |date=2010-07-14 |access-date=2011-11-12 |first=Francesca |last=Levy | name-list-style = vanc }}

Some studies suggest, however, that people are happier after spending money on experiences, rather than physical things,{{cite journal | vauthors = Dunn EW, Aknin LB, Norton MI | title = Spending money on others promotes happiness | journal = Science | volume = 319 | issue = 5870 | pages = 1687–8 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18356530 | doi = 10.1126/science.1150952 | bibcode = 2008Sci...319.1687D | s2cid = 29589887 }} and after spending money on others, rather than themselves. However, purchases that buy ‘time’, for instance, cleaners or cooks typically increase individual well-being.{{cite journal | vauthors = Whillans AV, Dunn EW, Smeets P, Bekkers R, Norton MI | title = Buying time promotes happiness | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 114 | issue = 32 | pages = 8523–8527 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28739889 | pmc = 5559044 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1706541114 | bibcode = 2017PNAS..114.8523W | doi-access = free }}

Lottery winners report higher levels of happiness immediately following the event. But research shows winner's happiness levels drop and return to normal baseline rates within months to years. This finding suggests money does not cause long-term happiness (1978).{{cite journal | vauthors = Brickman P, Coates D, Janoff-Bulman R | title = Lottery winners and accident victims: is happiness relative? | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 36 | issue = 8 | pages = 917–27 | date = August 1978 | pmid = 690806 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.36.8.917 | s2cid = 10199675 }} However, in a more recent British study on lottery prizes between £1,000 and £120,000, a positive effect even two years after the event was found, the return to normal being only partial and varying.

One{{cite journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1877163 |title=The American Dream or the American Delusion? The Private and External Benefits of Homeownership for Women |year=2011 |last1=Bucchianeri |first1=Grace Wong |s2cid=7624147 }} 600 women strong 2011 study shows that house owners are no happier than renters. Degree of ownership also matter:

“...housing property rights matter for subjective well-being. Specifically, using subjective well-being data from China, the authors find that homeownership is associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, although this happiness premium is larger for people who have full ownership compared to those who have only a minor ownership stake in their home.”{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2016.10.001 |title=Institutions and well-being |journal=European Journal of Political Economy |volume=45 |page=1 |year=2016 |last1=Bennett |first1=Daniel L |last2=Nikolaev |first2=Boris |last3=Aidt |first3=Toke S | name-list-style = vanc |doi-access=free }}

According to the latest systematic review of the economic literature on life satisfaction, living in rural areas seems to have some association with well-being, because the included studies tend to control for income and rural areas tend to be poor. Income has a high effect on happiness and incomes are higher in urban areas, so chasing a rural lifestyle at the expense of income may be a ‘grass is always greener’ move.

Adults who live with parents also tend to have{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/living-at-home-with-your-parents/8135918|title=Adults living with their parents are Australia's least happy, survey finds|first=Ange|last=McCormack |website=Australian Broadcasting Corporation| name-list-style = vanc |date=20 December 2016}} poorer levels of well-being.

{{Main|Mindfulness (psychology)}}

File:Rollercoaster Tornado Avonturenpark Hellendoorn Netherlands.jpg

Mindfulness is an intentionally focused awareness of one's immediate experience. "Focused awareness" is a conscious moment-by-moment attention to situational elements of an experience: i.e., thoughts, emotions, physical sensations, and surroundings. An aim of mindfulness is to become grounded in the present moment; one learns to observe the arising and passing of experience. One does not judge the experiences and thoughts, nor do they try to "figure things out" and draw conclusions, or change anything – the challenge during mindfulness is to simply observe.Goldstein, J. (2003) Insight Meditation: The Practice of Freedom, Shambala, 2003{{cite book | vauthors = Gunaratana H | year=1992|title=Mindfulness in Plain English| url = https://archive.org/details/mindfulnessinpla00guna | url-access = registration |publisher=Wisdom Publications| isbn=9780861710645|quote=mindfulness is not an evolving term. It has a very distinct longstanding meaning that has remained the same since it was introduced over 2500 years ago. The practice is challenging and requires determination and dedication, particularly when one is starting out. As time passes, the practice becomes more natural.}} Benefits of mindfulness practice include reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown KW, Ryan RM, Creswell JD | year = 2007 | title = Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf590e9b9fd6ea01aac340d99f392ad52de7371b| journal = Psychological Inquiry | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 211–237 | doi=10.1080/10478400701598298| s2cid = 2755919 }} See also Reverence (emotion).

Ellen J. Langer argued people slip into a state of "mindlessness" by engaging in rote behavior, performing familiar, scripted actions without much cognition, as if on autopilot.{{cite book | first1 = Wayne | last1 = Weiten | first2 = Dana S. | last2 = Dunn | first3 = Elizabeth Yost | last3 = Hammer | name-list-style = vanc |title=Psychology Applied to Modern Life|year=2009|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|page=521}}

Advocates of focusing on present experiences also mention research by Psychologist Daniel Gilbert, who suggested daydreaming, instead of a focus on the present, may impede happiness.{{cite journal | vauthors = Killingsworth MA, Gilbert DT | title = A wandering mind is an unhappy mind | journal = Science | volume = 330 | issue = 6006 | pages = 932 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 21071660 | doi = 10.1126/science.1192439 | bibcode = 2010Sci...330..932K | s2cid = 24060648 | url = http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33431727 | url-access = subscription }}{{cite news | title=When the Mind Wanders, Happiness Also Strays | first = John | last = Tierney | name-list-style = vanc | work = The New York Times | date = 2010-11-15|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/science/16tier.html?_r=1&hp|access-date=2010-11-16}} Fellow researcher, Matt Killingsworth, found evidence to support the harm of daydreaming. Fifteen thousand participants from around the world provided over 650 000 reports (using an online application on their phones that requested data at random times). Killingsworth found people who reported daydreaming soon reported less happiness; daydreaming is extremely common.{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/matt_killingsworth_want_to_be_happier_stay_in_the_moment.html|title=Matt Killingsworth: Want to be happier? Stay in the moment|work=ted.com|date=November 2012|access-date=2017-06-14|archive-date=2014-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222143932/http://www.ted.com/talks/matt_killingsworth_want_to_be_happier_stay_in_the_moment.html|url-status=dead}} Zimbardo (see "Time Perspectives" above) bestowed the merits of a present-focus, and recommended occasional recall of past positive experiences. Reflecting on past positive experiences can influence current mood, and assist in building positive expectations for the future.

There is research that suggests a person's focus influences level of happiness, where thinking too much about happiness can be counter-productive. Rather than asking: "Am I happy?" – which when posed just 4 times a day, starts to decrease happiness, it might well be better to reflect on one's values (e.g., "Can I muster any hope?").{{cite AV media|url=http://www.cbc.ca/ideas/episodes/2011/06/20/say-no-to-happiness/|publisher=CBC Ideas|title=Say no to happiness|time=about 10 minutes in| first = Todd | last = Kashdan | name-list-style = vanc }} Asking different questions can assist in redirecting personal thoughts, and perhaps, lead to taking steps to better apply one's energies. The personal answer to any particular question can lead to positive actions, and hopefulness, which is a very powerful, and positive feeling. Hopefulness is more likely to foster happiness, while feelings of hopelessness tend to undermine happiness.

Todd Kashdan, researcher and author of "Designing Positive Psychology", explained early science's findings should not be overgeneralized or adopted too uncritically. Mindfulness to Kashdan is very resource-intensive processing; he warned it is not simply better at all times. To illustrate, when a task is best performed with very little conscious thought (e.g., a paramedic performing practiced, emergency maneuvers). Nevertheless, development of the skill lends to its application at certain times, which can be useful for the reasons just described; Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry Richard J. Davidson highly recommends "mindfulness meditation" for use in the accurate identification and management of emotions.{{cite web|url=http://www.samharris.org/blog/item/training-the-emotional-brain|title=Training the Emotional Brain – An Interview with Richard J. Davidson|date=May 2, 2012|work=Sam Harris Blog|access-date=June 14, 2017|archive-date=August 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816011558/https://www.samharris.org/blog/item/training-the-emotional-brain|url-status=dead}}{{cite book | first1 = Richard J. | last1 = Davidson | first2 = Sharon | last2 = Begley | name-list-style = vanc |title=The Emotional Life of Your Brain: How Its Unique Patterns Affect the Way You Think, Feel, and Live—and How You Can Change Them| url = https://archive.org/details/emotionallifeofy00davi | url-access = registration |year=2012|publisher=Hudson Street Press|isbn=978-0452298880}}

The modifiable personality traits which might cause greater well-being have yet to be critically synthesised. However, there is evidence that certain traits are beneficial for individual happiness or performance: locus of control,{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-attraction-doctor/201106/how-reduce-dating-anxiety|title=How to Reduce Dating Anxiety|website=Psychology Today}} curiosity, religiousness, spirituality,{{cite journal |title=Assessing Spirituality Through Personal Goals: Implications for Research on Religion and Subjective Well-Being |doi=10.1023/A:1006926720976 |jstor=27522349 |year=1998 |last1=Emmons |first1=Robert A |journal=Social Indicators Research |volume=45 |issue=1/3 |pages=391–422 |last2=Cheung |first2=Chi |last3=Tehrani |first3=Keivan |s2cid=145269404 | name-list-style = vanc }} spiritual striving,{{cite web|url=http://www.lifeoptimizer.org/2008/02/14/the-common-trait-of-highly-productive-people-companies-and-countries/|title=Sense of Urgency: The Common Trait of Highly Productive People, Companies, and Countries|date=14 February 2008}} sense of urgency, self-compassion,{{cite web|url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/healthy-living/wellbeing/news/a26065/how-to-be-happy-more-authentic/|title=Why 'authenticity' is the real key to happiness|date=4 January 2016}} authenticity, growth mindset, positive mental attitudes,{{cite web|url=https://lifelabs.psychologies.co.uk/users/3881-maxine-harley/posts/3225-how-to-build-mental-grit-the-importance-of-resilience-and-self-reliance|title=How To Build Mental Grit - The importance of resilience and self-reliance|author=Life Labs|date=5 October 2015|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414233910/https://lifelabs.psychologies.co.uk/users/3881-maxine-harley/posts/3225-how-to-build-mental-grit-the-importance-of-resilience-and-self-reliance|url-status=dead}} grit, goal orientation with a{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jshs.2013.12.004 |title=A meta-analytic review of the approach-avoidance achievement goals and performance relationships in the sport psychology literature |journal=Journal of Sport and Health Science |volume=4 |issue=2 |page=164 |year=2015 |last1=Lochbaum |first1=Marc |last2=Gottardy |first2=Jarrett | name-list-style = vanc |doi-access=free |hdl=2346/87328 |hdl-access=free }} meta-analysis concluding that approach rather than avoidance goals are superior for performance;{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.ch/search?ei=fvI3WLOmKorSvASNiISwBg&gws_rd=cr&q=isbn:9781433101960&tbs=bks:1|title=isbn:9781433101960 - Google Search|website=www.google.ch}} as well as prosocial rather than zero-sum goals.

Researchers{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10902-012-9331-9 |title=Testing Strengths-Based Interventions: A Preliminary Study on the Effectiveness of a Program Targeting Curiosity, Gratitude, Hope, Humor, and Zest for Enhancing Life Satisfaction |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |volume=14 |page=275 |year=2012 |last1=Proyer |first1=René T |last2=Ruch |first2=Willibald |last3=Buschor |first3=Claudia |s2cid=51373283 | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/61433/1/188_m_2013_ProyerRuchBuschor.pdf }} who have reported on the character traits of people with high and low life satisfaction found that character strengths which predict life satisfaction are zest, curiosity, hope, and humour. Character strengths that do not predict life satisfaction include appreciation of beauty and excellence, creativity, kindness, love of learning, and perspective. Meanwhile, research{{cite book | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226476882 |title=The Human Pursuit of Well-Being|first1=Ingrid|last1=Brdar|first2=Petra|last2=Anić|first3=Majda|last3=Rijavec | name-list-style = vanc |date=19 May 2011|pages=145–156|via=ResearchGate}} on character strengths that is separated by gender indicates the character strengths that predict life satisfaction in men are humour, fairness, perspective, and creativity, while the character strengths that predict life satisfaction in women are zest, gratitude, hope, appreciation of beauty, and love.

Certain traits are specifically beneficial to those with certain health issues.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bandura A | title = Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 191–215 | date = March 1977 | pmid = 847061 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191 | s2cid = 7742072 }} Believing in yourself (high self efficacy) matters for eating disorders, immune response, stress management, pain management and healthy living.

In literature the positive psychological approach to personality is correlated often with the concepts of personal/psychosocial developmentErikson, E.H., Erikson, J.M. (1998) "The Life Cycle Completed", W W Norton & Co Inc. and human development,Seligman, M.E., Csikszentmihalzi, P. (2000) "Positive psychology: An introduction", in American Psychologist, vol. LV, nr. 1, pp. 5-15. balanced, strong, mature and proactive personality,DuBrin, A.J. (2013) "Proactive Personality and Behaviour for Individual and Organizational Productivity", Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. character strengths and virtues,Peterson, C. & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004) "Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification", Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Lopez, Shane J. (2015) “Positive Psychology. The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths”, Sage Publications. p. 66 (2nd ed.). {{ISBN|9781452276434}}. evidenced by traits like optimism and energy, pragmatism, active consciousness, assertiveness, free and powerful will, self-determination and self-realization, personal and social autonomy, social adaptability, personal and social efficiency, interpersonal development and professional development, proactive and positive thinking, humanity, empathy and love, emotional intelligence, subjective/psychological well-being, extraversion, happiness, positive emotions.Seligman, M. (2006). Learned Optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York: Pocket Book.Stefaroi, P. (2015) "The Humanistic Approach in Psychology & Psychotherapy, Sociology & Social Work, Pedagogy & Education, Management and Art: Personal Development and Community Development", Charleston SC, USA: CreateSpace, {{ISBN|9781535271646}}.

Many tools for psychological wellness have entered popular culture via the personal development and self help industry. Positive music,{{cite web|url=http://www.emedexpert.com/tips/music.shtml|title=Surprising Effects Of Music|website=www.emedexpert.com}} will lower distress and pain,{{cite web|url=http://evidencebasedliving.human.cornell.edu/2013/07/29/the-evidence-on-music-therapy/|title=The evidence on music therapy|website=evidencebasedliving.human.cornell.edu}} but news media consumption is detrimental for happiness.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2013/apr/12/news-is-bad-rolf-dobelli|title=News is bad for you – and giving up reading it will make you happier|first=Rolf|last=Dobelli| name-list-style = vanc |date=12 April 2013|website=the Guardian}} One exception is motivational media, for it has been found that{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/spc3.12127 |title=The Psychology of Inspiration |journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass |volume=8 |issue=9 |page=495 |year=2014 |last1=Thrash |first1=Todd M |last2=Moldovan |first2=Emil G |last3=Oleynick |first3=Victoria C |last4=Maruskin |first4=Laura A | name-list-style = vanc }} inspiration helps with creativity, productivity and happiness.{{Cite web|url=https://portlandpsychotherapy.com/resources/self_help_books/|title=Evidence-Based Self-Help Books|website=Portland Psychotherapy}} Reading self help books is associated with higher well-being, however, there is{{cite web |url=http://ijebcm.brookes.ac.uk/documents/vol14issue1-paper-03.pdf |title=What is life coaching? An integrative review of the evidence-based literature |website=ijebcm.brookes.ac.uk |access-date=2018-04-14 |archive-date=2017-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809233354/http://ijebcm.brookes.ac.uk/documents/vol14issue1-paper-03.pdf |url-status=dead }} poor evidence on life coaching. Proactive laughter as in laughter yoga increases mood and improves pain tolerance.{{cite web|url=https://espressoscience.com/2016/11/16/smiley-face/|title=Smiley face|date=15 November 2016}} Smiling increases attractiveness, calmness in stressful situations, retrieval of positive memories, likeability, happiness, perceived happiness (by others), perceived politeness/relaxedness/carefreeness, and perceived honesty but also perceived stupidity. However, proactively smiling only increases happiness among those who believe smiling is a reaction to feeling happy, rather than a positive intervention.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2014.03.001 |title=Not always the best medicine: Why frequent smiling can reduce wellbeing |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=53 |page=156 |year=2014 |last1=Labroo |first1=Aparna A |last2=Mukhopadhyay |first2=Anirban |last3=Dong |first3=Ping | name-list-style = vanc }}

Ed Diener et al. (1999) suggested this equation: positive emotion – negative emotion = subjective well-being. Since tendency to positive emotion has a correlation of 0.8 with extroversion and tendency towards negative emotion is indistinguishable from neuroticism, the above equation could also be written as extroversion – neuroticism = happiness. These two traits could account for between 50% and 75% of happiness.{{cite journal | last1 = Diener | first1 = Ed | last2 = Suh | first2 = Eunkook M. | last3 = Lucas | first3 = Richard E. | last4 = Smith | first4 = Heidi L. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|date=1 January 1999 |volume=125|issue=2|pages=276–302|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276| s2cid = 16344988 }} These are all referring to the Big Five personality traits model of personality.

An emotionally stable (the opposite of Neurotic) personality correlates well with happiness. Not only does emotional stability make one less prone to negative emotions, it also predicts higher social intelligence – which helps to manage relationships with others (an important part of being happy, discussed below).

Cultivating an extroverted temperament may correlate with happiness for the same reason: it builds relationships and support groups. Some people may be fortunate, from the standpoint of personality theories that suggest individuals have control over their long-term behaviors and cognitions. Genetic studies indicate genes for personality (specifically extroversion, neuroticism and conscientiousness), and a general factor linking all 5 traits, account for the heritability of subjective well-being.{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiss A, Bates TC, Luciano M | title = Happiness is a personal(ity) thing: the genetics of personality and well-being in a representative sample | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 205–10 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18315789 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02068.x | hdl = 20.500.11820/a343050c-5c67-4314-b859-09c56aa10d3b | s2cid = 13081589 | url = https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/16424671/WEISS_A_Happiness_is_a_personality_thing_postprint.pdf }} Recent research suggests there is a happiness gene, the 5-HTT gene.{{cite news|last=Nordqvist|first=Christian| name-list-style = vanc |title=Happiness Gene Located | url = http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/224536.php | work=Medical News Today}}

Purpose in life refers broadly to the pursuit of life satisfaction. It has also been found that those with high purpose in life scores have strong goals and sense of direction. They feel there is meaning to their past and present life, and hold beliefs that continue to give their life purpose. Research in the past has focused on purpose in the face of adversity (what is awful, difficult, or absurd in life). Recently, research has shifted to include a focus on the role of purpose in personal fulfillment and self-actualization.

The self-control approach, as expounded by C. R. Snyder, focusses on exercising self-control to achieve self-esteem by fulfilling goals and feeling in control of our own success. This is further reinforced by a sense of intentionality in both efforts and outcomes.{{cite journal|last1=Feldman|first1=David B.|last2=Snyder|first2=C. R. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Hope and the Meaningful Life: Theoretical and Empirical Associations Between Goal–Directed Thinking and Life Meaning|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-and-clinical-psychology_2005-05_24_3/page/401|journal=Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology|volume=24|issue=3|year=2005|pages=401–421|issn=0736-7236|doi=10.1521/jscp.24.3.401.65616}}

The intrinsic motivation approach of Viktor Frankl emphasized finding value in three main areas: creative, experiential, and attitudinal. Creative values are expressed in acts of creating or producing something. Experiential values are actualized through the senses, and may overlap the hedonistic view of happiness. Attitudinal values are prominent for individuals who are unable to pursue the preceding two classes of values. Attitudinal values are believed to be primarily responsible for allowing individuals to endure suffering with dignity.

A personal sense of responsibility is required for the pursuit of the values that give life meaning, but it is the realization that one holds sole responsibility for rendering life meaningful that allows the values to be actualized and life to be given true purpose. Determining what is meaningful for one's self provides a sense of autonomy and control which promotes self-esteem.

Purpose in life is positively correlated with education level and volunteerism. However, it has also been found to decrease with age.

Purpose in life is both highly individual, and what specifically provides purpose will change over the course of one's lifetime.{{cite journal|last1=Ryff|first1=Carol D.|last2=Singer|first2=Burton H. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Know Thyself and Become What You Are: A Eudaimonic Approach to Psychological Well-Being|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=9|issue=1|year=2006|pages=13–39|issn=1389-4978|doi=10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0|s2cid=5677286}}

All three of the above theories have self-esteem at their core. Self-esteem is often viewed as the most significant measure of psychological well-being, and highly correlated with many life-regulating skills. Purpose in life promotes and is a source of self-esteem; it is not a by-product of self-esteem.

Self-efficacy refers to a belief that one's ability to accomplish a task is a function of personal effort. Low self-efficacy, or a disconnect between ability and personal effort, is associated with depression; by comparison, high self-efficacy is associated with positive change, including overcoming abuse, overcoming eating disorders, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle. High self-efficacy also has positive benefits for one's immune system, aids in stress management, and decreases pain. A related concept, Personal effectiveness, is primarily concerned with planning and the implementation of methods of accomplishment.

According to Bloodworth and McNamee sports and physical activities are a key contributor to the development of people's well-being. The influence of sports on well-being is conceptualized within a framework which includes impermanence, its hedonistic shallowness and its epistemological inadequacy.{{clarify|date=February 2015}} Researching the effect of sport on well-being is difficult as some societies are unable to access sports, a deficiency in studying this phenomenon.{{cite journal | last1 = Bloodworth | first1 = Andrew | first2 = Mike | last2 = McNamee | name-list-style = vanc |title=Sport, physical activity and well-being: An objectivist account|journal=Sport, Education and Society|date=August 2012|volume=17|issue=4|page=18|doi=10.1080/13573322.2011.608948| s2cid = 143825197 }}

{{Quote box|align=left|width=30%| quoted=1 |quote= Research has shown it is possible to help suffering people by building their strengths. In addition, prevention researchers have discovered strengths act as buffers against mental illness. The strengths that represent major strides in prevention include: courage, future mindedness, optimism, faith, work ethic, hope, honesty, perseverance, and the capacity for flow and insight.}}

Suffering can indicate behavior worthy of change, as well as ideas that require a person's careful attention and consideration.{{cite journal|url=http://www.mendeley.com/research/role-suffering-human-flourishing-contributions-positive-psychology-theology-philosophy/ |publisher=Mendeley.com |doi=10.1177/009164711003800204 |s2cid=141153922 |access-date=2012-04-07|title=The Role of Suffering in Human Flourishing: Contributions from Positive Psychology, Theology, and Philosophy |year=2010 |last1=Hall |first1=M. Elizabeth Lewis |last2=Langer |first2=Richard |last3=McMartin |first3=Jason |journal=Journal of Psychology and Theology |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=111–121 |url-access=subscription }} Generally, psychology acknowledges suffering can not be completely eliminated, but it is possible to successfully manage and reduce suffering. The University of Pennsylvania's Positive Psychology Center explains: "Psychology's concern with remedying human problems is understandable and should certainly not be abandoned. Human suffering demands scientifically informed solutions. Suffering and well being, however, are both part of the human condition, and psychologists should be concerned with both."{{cite web |url=http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/faqs.htm |title=University of Pennsylvania. Positive Psychology Centre. Frequently Asked Questions. |publisher=Ppc.sas.upenn.edu |access-date=2012-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414090434/http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/faqs.htm |archive-date=2012-04-14 |url-status=dead }} Positive psychology, inspired by empirical evidence, focuses on productive approaches to pain and suffering, as well the importance of cultivating strengths and virtues to keep suffering to a minimum{{cite journal | vauthors = Masten AS | title = Ordinary magic. Resilience processes in development | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–38 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11315249 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227 | s2cid = 19940228 | url = http://content.apa.org/journals/amp/56/3/227 | url-access = subscription }} (see also Character strengths and virtues (book)).

File:Dalai Lama and Seattle Mayor Norm Rice, 1993.jpg

In reference to the Buddhist saying "Life is suffering", researcher and clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson suggested this view as realistic, not pessimistic, where acceptance of the reality life is harsh, provides a freedom from the expectation one should always be happy. This realization can assist in the management of inevitable suffering. To Peterson, virtues are important because they provide people with essential tools to escape suffering (e.g., the strength to admit dissonant truths to themselves). Peterson maintained suffering is made worse by false philosophy (i.e., denial that natural suffering is inevitable).{{cite web |url=http://www.tvo.org/TVO/WebObjects/TVO.woa?videoid%3F713852509001 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130113075555/http://www.tvo.org/TVO/WebObjects/TVO.woa?videoid%3F713852509001 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-01-13 |title=TVO.ORG | Video | TVO – Jordan Peterson on The Necessity of Virtue |publisher=TVO |date=2011-01-14 |access-date=2011-02-07 }}

Similarly, Seligman believes positive psychology is "not a luxury", saying "most of Positive Psychology is for all of us, troubled or untroubled, privileged or in privation, suffering or carefree. The pleasures of a good conversation, the strength of gratitude, the benefits of kindness or wisdom or spirituality or humility, the search for meaning and the antidote to "fidgeting until we die" are the birthrights of us all."{{cite web|url=http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/newsletter.aspx?id=52 |title=Martin P Seligman. "Does Suffering Trump Happiness?" (2003). Authentic Happiness Website. Pennsylvania University. Retrieved April 3, 2012 |publisher=Authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu |access-date=2012-04-07}}

Positive coping is defined as "a response aimed at diminishing the physical, emotional, and psychological burden that is linked to stressful life events and daily hassles"Snyder, C. R., & Dinoff, B. L. (1999). Coping: Where have you been? In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 3–19). New York: Oxford University Press. It is found that proper coping strategies will reduce the burden of short-term stress and will help relieve long-term stress. Stress can be reduced by building resources that inhibit or buffer future challenges. For some people, these effective resources could be physiological, psychological or social.

Terror management theory maintains that people suffer cognitive dissonance (anxiety) when they are reminded of their inevitable death. Through terror management, individuals are motivated to seek consonant elements – symbols which make sense of mortality and death in satisfactory ways (i.e. boosting self-esteem).

Research has found that strong belief in religious or secular meaning systems affords psychological security and hope. It is moderates (e.g. agnostics, slightly religious individuals) who likely suffer the most anxiety from their meaning systems. Religious meaning systems are especially adapted to manage anxiety about death or dying because they are unlikely to be disconfirmed (for various reasons), they are all encompassing, and they promise literal immortality.{{cite journal | vauthors = Vail KE, Rothschild ZK, Weise DR, Solomon S, Pyszczynski T, Greenberg J | title = A terror management analysis of the psychological functions of religion | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 84–94 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 19940284 | doi = 10.1177/1088868309351165 | s2cid = 33540126 }}{{cite web|url=http://doubtreligion.blogspot.com/2011/03/episode-81-sacrificial-lambs.html|title=Reasonable Doubts: Episode 81 Sacrificial Lambs|author=Fletcher|work=doubtreligion.blogspot.com|date=7 March 2011}}{{self-published inline|date=August 2016}}

Whether emotional effects are beneficial or adverse seems to vary with the nature of the belief. Belief in a benevolent God is associated with lower incidence of general anxiety, social anxiety, paranoia, obsession, and compulsion whereas belief in a punitive God is associated with greater symptoms. (An alternative explanation is that people seek out beliefs that fit their psychological and emotional states.){{cite journal | vauthors = Silton NR, Flannelly KJ, Galek K, Ellison CG | title = Beliefs about God and mental health among American adults | journal = Journal of Religion and Health | volume = 53 | issue = 5 | pages = 1285–96 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 23572240 | doi = 10.1007/s10943-013-9712-3 | s2cid = 34453437 }}

Citizens of the world's poorest countries are the most likely to be religious, and researchers suggest this is because of religion's powerful coping abilities.[http://www.gallup.com/poll/142727/religiosity-highest-world-poorest-nations.aspx Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations], Gallup Global Reports, August 31, 2010.[http://www.gallup.com/poll/116449/Religion-Provides-Emotional-Boost-World-Poor.aspx Religion Provides Emotional Boost to World's Poor], Gallup Global Reports, March 6, 2009. Luke Galen also supports terror management theory as a partial explanation of the above findings. Galen describes evidence (including his own research) that the benefits of religion are due to strong convictions and membership in a social group.{{cite journal |last1=Galen |first1=Luke W. |last2=Kloet |first2=Jim | name-list-style = vanc |title=Personality and Social Integration Factors Distinguishing Nonreligious from Religious Groups: The Importance of Controlling for Attendance and Demographics |journal=Archive for the Psychology of Religion |volume=33 |issue=2 |year=2011 |pages=205–28 |doi=10.1163/157361211X570047 |s2cid=144212441 }}{{cite web|url=http://doubtreligion.blogspot.com/2010/06/rd-extra-denying-death.html|title=Reasonable Doubts: RD Extra: Denying Death |author=Jeremy |work=doubtreligion.blogspot.com|date=30 June 2010 }}{{self-published inline|date=August 2016}}

The capacity for loving attachments and relationships, especially with parents, is the strongest predictor of well-being later in life.{{cite book|last1=Vaillant|first1=George E. | name-list-style = vanc |author-link1=George Eman Vaillant|title=Triumphs of Experience|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674067424|page=191|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPobx78zuj8C&pg=PA191|access-date=1 April 2017|language=en|date=2012-10-30}}

Seligman writes: "Unlike money, which has at most a small effect, marriage is robustly related to happiness... In my opinion, the jury is still out on what causes the proven fact married people are happier than unmarried people." (pp. 55–56). Married persons report higher levels of happiness and well-being than single people.{{cite journal |vauthors=Orden SR, Bradburn NM |title=Dimensions of Marriage Happiness |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-sociology_1968-05_73_6/page/715 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=73 |issue=6 |pages=715–731 |date=May 1968 |jstor=2775777 |doi=10.1086/224565|pmid=5695021 |s2cid=35480026 }} Other data has shown a spouse's happiness depends on the happiness of their partner. When asked, spouses reported similar happiness levels to each other. The data also shows the spouses' happiness level fluctuates similarly to one another. If the husband is having a bad week, the wife will similarly report she had a bad week.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoppmann CA, Gerstorf D, Willis SL, Schaie KW | title = Spousal interrelations in happiness in the Seattle Longitudinal Study: considerable similarities in levels and change over time | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 47 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21038942 | pmc = 3133667 | doi = 10.1037/a0020788 }}

There is little data on alternatives like polyamory, although one study stated wife order in polygyny did not have a substantial effect on life or marital satisfaction over all.{{cite journal |vauthors=Gwanfogbe PN, Schumm WR, Smith M, Furrow JL |title=Polygyny and marital/life satisfaction: An exploratory study from rural Cameroon |journal=Journal of Comparative Family Studies |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=55–71 |date=January 1997|jstor=41603479|doi=10.3138/jcfs.28.1.55 }} This study also found younger wives were happier than older wives.

On the other hand, at least one large study in Germany found no difference in happiness between married and unmarried people.{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200303/marriage-is-not-the-key-happiness|title=Marriage Is Not the Key to Happiness| first = Anne | last = Becker | name-list-style = vanc |work=Psychology Today|date=March 18, 2003}}

Studies have shown that married couples are consistently happier and more satisfied with their life than those who are single.{{cite book | vauthors = Diener E, Suh EM |year=2000|title=Culture and subjective well-being| url = https://archive.org/details/culturesubjectiv0000unse |location= Cambridge, MA|publisher=MIT Press}} Some research findings have indicated that marriage is the only real significant bottom-up predictor of life satisfaction for men and women, and that those people who have a higher life satisfaction prior to marriage, tend to have a happier marriage.{{cite book |author=Diener, M. |author2=Diener McGavran, M. B.|year=2008|contribution=What makes people happy? A developmental approach to the literature on family relationships and well-being |editor=M. Eid |editor2=R. Larsen|title=The science of subjective well-being|url=https://archive.org/details/sciencesubjectiv00eidm |url-access=limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sciencesubjectiv00eidm/page/n360 347]–375|location=New York|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=9781593855819}}

Self-reported satisfaction typically drops as the years of marriage roll on, particularly for couples who have children compared to those who do not.{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/meet-catch-and-keep/201710/defy-the-odds-heres-how-keep-your-relationship-happy|title=Defy the Odds: Here's How to Keep Your Relationship Happy|website=Psychology Today}} The reasons for this decline include a drop in affectionate behaviour. One team of researcher from Northwestern University who summarised the literature in 2013, identifies that this trend does not reverse throughout the marital period.{{cite web|url=http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/eli-finkel/documents/InPress_FinkelSlotterLuchiesWaltonGross_PSci_000.pdf |title=A Brief Intervention to Promote Conflict Reappraisal Preserves Marital Quality Over Time |website=faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu }}

Surprisingly, there has been a steady decline in the positive relationship between marriage and well-being in the United States since the 1970s. This decline is due to women reporting being less happy than previously and single men reporting being happier than previously.{{cite journal | vauthors = Glenn ND, Weaver CN | year = 1988 | title = The changing relationship of marital status to reported happiness | journal = Journal of Marriage and the Family | volume = 50 | issue = 2| pages = 317–324 | doi=10.2307/351999| jstor = 351999 }} Research does exist, however, suggesting that compared to single people, married people have better physical and psychological health and tend to live longer.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.socec.2005.11.043 |title=Does marriage make people happy, or do happy people get married? |journal=The Journal of Socio-Economics |volume=35 |issue=2 |page=326 |year=2006 |last1=Stutzer |first1=Alois |last2=Frey |first2=Bruno S |name-list-style=vanc |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/2430/2/2006_FreyB_The-Journal-o_Does-marriageV.pdf |access-date=2019-07-13 |archive-date=2017-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924054829/http://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/2430/2/2006_FreyB_The-Journal-o_Does-marriageV.pdf |url-status=dead }}

With this, a two-factor theory of love was developed by Barnes and Sternberg. This theory is composed of two components: passionate love and companionate love. Passionate love is considered to be an intense longing for a loved one. This love is often experienced through joy and sexual fulfillment, or even through rejection. On the other hand, companionate love is associated with affection, friendship and commitment. Stutzer and Frey (2006) found that the absence of loneliness and the emotional support that promotes self-esteem are both important aspects that contribute to individual well-being within marriage. Both passionate and companionate love are the foundations for every variety of love that one may experience.{{cite book | vauthors = Barnes ML, Sternberg RJ | year=1997|contribution=A hierarchical model of love and its prediction of satisfaction in close relationships|editor=R. J. Sternberg |editor2=M. Hojjatt|title=Satisfaction in close relationships|pages=79–101|location=New York|publisher=Guilford Press}} When passionate and companionate love are compromised in a marital relationship, satisfaction is decreased and the likelihood of divorce increases.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sullivan KT, Pasch LA, Lawrence E, Bradbury TN | title = Physical aggression, compromised social support, and 10-year marital outcomes: Testing a relational spillover model | journal = Journal of Family Psychology | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 931–7 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26168263 | doi = 10.1037/fam0000125 | url = https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1113&context=psych | url-access = subscription }} In other words, the lack of positive support and validation increases the risk for divorce.

Because of the expansive research done on the significance of social support within a marriage, it is important to understand that this research was inspired by a theory called the attachment theory perspective. Attachment theory stresses the importance of support and care giving in a relationship for the development of trust and security. Attachment theory, as conceptualized by Collins and Feeney (2000) is an interpersonal, transactional process that involves one partners caregiving responses.{{cite journal | vauthors = Collins NL, Feeney BC | title = A safe haven: an attachment theory perspective on support seeking and caregiving in intimate relationships | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 78 | issue = 6 | pages = 1053–73 | date = June 2000 | pmid = 10870908 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1053 | s2cid = 12169364 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/0c9fd4a951bd93e44ea8c1b6b699496f9c51d983 }}

While the mantle of parenting is sometimes held as the necessary path of adulthood, study findings are actually mixed as to whether parents report higher levels of happiness relative to non-parents. Folk wisdom suggests a child brings partners closer; research has found couples actually become less satisfied after the birth of the first child.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00574.x |title=Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction: A Meta-Analytic Review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-marriage-and-family_2003-08_65_3/page/574 |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=65 |issue=3 |page=574 |year=2003 |last1=Twenge |first1=Jean M |last2=Campbell |first2=W. Keith |last3=Foster |first3=Craig A |name-list-style = vanc }} The joys of having a child are overshadowed by the responsibilities of parenthood.{{cite journal | vauthors = Evenson RJ, Simon RW | title = Clarifying the relationship between parenthood and depression | journal = Journal of Health and Social Behavior | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 341–58 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16433280 | doi = 10.1177/002214650504600403 | s2cid = 374645 }} Based on quantitative self-reports, researchers found parents prefer doing almost anything else to looking after their children. By contrast, parents' self-report levels of happiness are higher than those of non-parents. This may be due to already happy people having more children than unhappy people. In addition, it might also be that, in the long-term, having children gives more meaning to life.{{cite news

| url = http://www.economist.com/world/na/PrinterFriendly.cfm?story_id=10924082

| title = The joys of parenthood

| newspaper = The Economist

| date = 2008-03-27

}}{{cite book

| first = Arthur C.

| last = Brooks

| title = Gross National Happiness: Why Happiness Matters for America – and How We Can Get More of It

| publisher = Basic Books

| year = 2008

| isbn = 978-0-465-00278-8

| url = https://archive.org/details/grossnationalhap00broo

}} One study found having up to three children increased happiness among married couples, but not among other groups with children.{{Cite journal | last1 = Angeles | first1 = L. | title = Children and Life Satisfaction | doi = 10.1007/s10902-009-9168-z | journal = Journal of Happiness Studies | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 523–538 | year = 2009 | s2cid = 55599365 }} Proponents of Childfreedom maintain this is because one can enjoy a happy, productive life without the trouble of ever being a parent. In a research study by Pollmann-Schult (2014) on 13,093 Germans, it was found that when finances and time costs are held constant, parents are happier and show increased life satisfaction than non-parents.{{cite journal|last1=Pollmann-Schult|first1=Matthias|title=Parenthood and Life Satisfaction: Why Don't Children Make People Happy?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-marriage-and-family_2014-04_76_2/page/319|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|volume=76|issue=2|year=2014|pages=319–336|issn=0022-2445|doi=10.1111/jomf.12095}}

By contrast, many studies found having children makes parents less happy. Compared with non-parents, parents with children have lower levels of well-being and life satisfaction until children move out of the household, at which point parents have higher well-being and satisfaction.{{cite journal | vauthors = Umberson D, Gove W |title=Parenthood and psychological well-being: theory, measurement, and stage in the family life course | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-issues_1989-12_10_4/page/440 |journal=Journal of Family Issues |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=440–462 |year=1989 |doi=10.1177/019251389010004002 |s2cid=145457226 }} In addition, parents report more feelings of depression and anxiety{{cite journal | vauthors = McLanahan S, Adams J |title=Parenthood and psychological well-being | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-sociology_1987_13/page/237 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=13 |pages=237–257 |year=1987 |jstor=2083248 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.13.1.237}} than non-parents. However, when adults without children are compared to empty nest parents, parenthood is positively associated with emotional well-being. People found parenthood to be more stressful in the 1970s than they did in the 1950s. This is thought to be because of social changes in regards to employment and marital status.

Males apparently become less happy after the birth of a child due to added economic pressure and taking on the role of being a parent. A conflict between partners can arise when the couple does not desire traditional roles, or has an increasing number of roles. Unequal responsibilities of child-rearing between men and women account for this difference in satisfaction. Fathers who worked and shared an equal part in child-raising responsibilities were found to be the least satisfied.Ferri, E., Smith, K. (1996). Parenting in the 1990s. London: Family Policy Studies Centre. Research shows that single parents have higher levels of distress and report more mental health problems than married persons.

Researchers implemented the Huta & Ryan Scale: Four Eudaimonic Measurement Questionnaire to analyze the participants eudaimonic motives, through motivation towards activities. The investigation was conducted on Canadian university undergraduates. The four eudaimonic pursuits as described by Huta & Ryan are:

1. "Seeking to pursue excellence or a personal ideal"
2. "Seeking to use the best in yourself"
3. "Seeking to develop a skill, learn, or gain insight into something"
4. "Seeking to do what you believe in".{{cite journal|last1=Huta|first1=Veronika|title=Huta, Veronika. "Linking Peoples' Pursuit of Eudaimonia and Hedonia with Characteristics of Their Parents: Parenting Styles, Verbally Endorsed Values, and Role Modeling. |journal=Journal of Happiness|date=2011|volume=13|issue=1}}

The study determined that participants derived well-being from eudaimonic pursuits only if their parents had role modeled eudaimonia, but not if their parents had merely verbally endorsed eudaimonia.

Studies were also conducted on responsiveness and demandingness. The studies participants were American university undergraduates. The terms are described as follows; responsiveness satisfies the basic psychological need for autonomy. This is relevant to eudaimonia because it supports and implements the values of initiative, effort, and persistence, and integration of one's behaviour's values, and true-self. Autonomy is an important psychological factor because it provides the individual with independence. Demandingness cultivates many of the qualities needed for eudaimonia, including structure, self-discipline, responsibility, and vision. Responsiveness and demandingness are reported to be good aspects of parenting. The studies report both of these qualities as important factors to well-being.

The study addressed parenting style by assessing and using adaptions of Baumrind's Parent Behaviour Rating Interview. Adaptions of this interview were made into a seventy-five question based survey; participants answered questions organized into fifteen subscales. The study determined that eudaimonically oriented participants reported their parents had been both demanding and responsive towards them. A multiple regression showed that demandingness and responsiveness together explained as much as twenty-eight percent of the variance in eudaimonia, this suggests parenting played a major role in the development of this pursuit. This supported the expectation that eudaimonia is cultivated when parents encourage internal structure, self-discipline, responsibility, and vision, and simultaneously fulfill a child's needs for autonomy. The research concludes that parents who want their children to experience eudaimonia must firstly themselves "mentor" their children in the approaches to attain eudaimonia. To encourage eudaimonia verbally is not sufficient to suffice eudaimonia into adulthood. Parents must clearly role model eudaimonia for it to truly be present in the child's life.

In the article "Finding Happiness after Harvard", George Vaillant concluded a study on what aspects of life are important for "successful living". In the 1940s, Arlie Bock, while in charge of the Harvard Health Services, started a study, selecting 268 Harvard students from graduating classes of 1942, '43, and '44. He sought to identify the aspects of life contributing to "successful living". In 1967, the psychiatrist George Vaillant continued the study, undertaking follow-up interviews to gauge the lives of many of the students. In 2000, Vaillant again interviewed these students as to their progress in life. Vaillant observed: health, close relationships, and how participants dealt with their troubles. Vaillant found a key aspect to successful living is healthy and strong relationships.{{cite journal |vauthors=Shenk J |title=Finding happiness After Harvard |journal=Wilson Quarterly |volume=33 |pages=73–74 |date=Autumn 2009 |url=http://www.wilsonquarterly.com/article.cfm?AT=0&AID=1501 |access-date=2017-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027190526/http://www.wilsonquarterly.com/article.cfm?AT=0&AID=1501 |archive-date=2012-10-27 |url-status=dead }}{{Cite news|last=Washington Post|date=2017-04-17|title=All you need is love — and funding: 79-year-old Harvard study of human happiness may lose grant money|url=https://nationalpost.com/health/researchers-say-there-is-more-to-learn-about-happiness|access-date=2020-12-03|newspaper=National Post|language=en-CA}}

A widely publicized study from 2008 in the British Medical Journal reported happiness in social networks may spread from person to person.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fowler JH, Christakis NA | title = Dynamic spread of happiness in a large social network: longitudinal analysis over 20 years in the Framingham Heart Study | journal = BMJ | volume = 337 | issue = 768 | pages = a2338 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 19056788 | pmc = 2600606 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.a2338 | author1-link = James H. Fowler }} Researchers followed nearly 5000 individuals for 20 years in the long-standing Framingham Heart Study and found clusters of happiness and unhappiness that spread up to 3 degrees of separation on average. Happiness tended to spread through close relationships like friends, siblings, spouses, and next-door neighbors; researchers reported happiness spread more consistently than unhappiness through the network. Moreover, the structure of the social network appeared to affect happiness, as people who were very central (with many friends, and friends of friends) were significantly happier than those on the network periphery. People closer with others are more likely to be happy themselves. Overall, the results suggest happiness can spread through a population like a virus.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/health/05happy-web.html|title=Strangers May Cheer You Up, Study Says |work=New York Times|date=December 5, 2008 | first=Pam | last=Belluck | name-list-style = vanc |access-date=2010-04-10}}Rob Stein,[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/04/AR2008120403537.html "Happiness Can Spread Among People Like a Contagion, Study Indicates,"] The Washington Post, December 5, 2008, Page A08 Having a best friend buffers one's negative life experiences. When one's best friend is present Cortisol levels are decreased and feelings of self-worth increase.{{cite journal | vauthors = Adams RE, Santo JB, Bukowski WM | title = The presence of a best friend buffers the effects of negative experiences | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 1786–91 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 21895364 | doi = 10.1037/a0025401 | s2cid = 20748479 }}

Neuroeconomist Paul Zak studies morality, oxytocin, and trust, among other variables. Based on research findings, Zak recommends: people hug others more often to get into the habit of feeling trust. He explains "eight hugs a day, you'll be happier, and the world will be a better place".{{Cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/paul_zak_trust_morality_and_oxytocin.html|title=Trust, morality -- and oxytocin?|access-date=2017-06-14|archive-date=2012-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601091437/http://www.ted.com/talks/paul_zak_trust_morality_and_oxytocin.html|url-status=dead}}

Recently, Anderson et al. found that sociometric status (the amount of respect one has from face-to-face peer group) is significantly and causally related to happiness as measured by subjective well-being.{{cite journal | vauthors = Anderson C, Kraus MW, Galinsky AD, Keltner D | title = The local-ladder effect: social status and subjective well-being | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 23 | issue = 7 | pages = 764–71 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22653798 | doi = 10.1177/0956797611434537 | s2cid = 8406753 }}

Research suggests neither a good education nor a high IQ reliably increases happiness.{{cite magazine |last=Wallis |first=Claudia | name-list-style = vanc | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015902-1,00.html |title=Science of Happiness: New Research on Mood, Satisfaction |magazine=TIME |date=2005-01-09 |access-date=2011-02-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115020515/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1015902-1%2C00.html |archive-date=2010-11-15 }}

Anders Ericsson argued an IQ above 120 has a decreasing influence on success. Presumably, IQs above 120 do not additionally cause other happiness indicators like success (with the exception of careers like Theoretical physics, where high IQs are more predictive of success). Above that IQ level, other factors, like social skills and a good mentor, matter more.{{cite web|title=The Making of an Expert

|url=http://www.coachingmanagement.nl/The%20Making%20of%20an%20Expert.pdf|work=Harvard Business Review|author=K. Anders Ericsson, Michael J. Prietula, and Edward T. Cokely|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224161037/http://www.coachingmanagement.nl/The%20Making%20of%20an%20Expert.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2012|url-status=dead}} As these relate to happiness, intelligence and education may simply allow one to reach a middle-class level of need satisfaction (as mentioned above, being richer than this seems to hardly affect happiness).{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17722557 |title=Comparing countries: The rich, the poor and Bulgaria |newspaper=The Economist |date=2010-12-16 |access-date=2011-02-07}} According to the findings of the study, Using Theatrical Concepts for Role-plays with Educational Agents by Klesen, she expresses how role- playing embeds information and educational goals and causes people to learn unintentionally. Studies have shown that enjoyment in things as simple as role playing increases a person's IQ and their happiness.{{cite journal|last1=Klesen|first1=M|title=Using Theatrical Concepts for Role-plays with Educational Agents|date=2005|doi=10.1080/08839510590910237|volume=19|issue=3–4|journal=Applied Artificial Intelligence|pages=413–431|s2cid=13562212}}

Martin Seligman has said: "As a professor, I don't like this, but the cerebral virtues—curiosity, love of learning—are less strongly tied to happiness than interpersonal virtues like kindness, gratitude and capacity for love."

John White (2013) investigated the educational goals at public schools in Britain. School-education involves both cognitive and conceptual learning, but also the development social skills and personal development. Ideally, children develop self-confidence, and create purpose for themselves. According to White, in the past schools only focused on knowledge and education but now Britain has moved to a broader direction. White's Every Child Matters initiative seeks to enhance children's well-being across the range of children's services.{{cite journal|last=White|first=John| name-list-style = vanc |title=Education in Well-Being|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Happiness|pages=540–550}}

As a basic building block to a better existence, positive psychology aims to improve the quality of experiences. Within its framework, students could learn to become excited about physical activity. Playing comes natural to children; positive psychology seeks to preserve this zest (a sense of excitement and motivation for life){{cite web|url = http://www.positive-living-now.com/increase-your-happiness-add-some-zest-to-your-life/|title = Increase your happiness: add some zest to your life|date = January 18, 2013|access-date = April 6, 2015|website = Positive-Living-Now|last = Minarik|first = Susan K.|archive-date = March 26, 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220326065202/http://www.positive-living-now.com/increase-your-happiness-add-some-zest-to-your-life/|url-status = dead}} for movement in growing and developing children. If offered in an interesting, challenging and pleasurable way physical activity would thus internalize an authentic feeling of happiness in students. Positive psychology's approach to physical activity could give students the means of acquiring an engaged, pleasant and meaningful life.{{cite journal|last=Cherubini|first=Jeffrey| name-list-style = vanc |title=Positive Psychology and Quality Physical Education|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-physical-education-recreation-dance_2009-09_80_7/page/42|journal=Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance|date=September 2009|volume=80|issue=7|pages=42–47, 51|doi=10.1080/07303084.2009.10598356|s2cid=144579472}}

Positive psychology is beneficial to schools and students because it encourages individuals to strive to do their best, whereas scolding has the opposite effect. Clifton and RathClifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47–51 discussed research conducted by Dr. Elizabeth Hurlock in 1925, where fourth, fifth and sixth graders were either praised, criticized or ignored, based on their work on math problems. Praised students improved by 71%, those criticized improved by 19%, and students provided with no feedback improved a mere 5%. Praise seems an effective method of fostering improvement.

According to Clifton and Rath ninety nine out of one hundred people prefer the influence of positive people. The benefits include: increased productivity, and contagious positive emotions, which assists one in working to the best of their abilities. Even a single negative person can ruin the entire positive vibe in an environment. Clifton and Rath cited ‘positive emotions as an essential daily requirement for survival’.

In 2008, in conjunction with the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania, a whole-of-school implementation of Positive Psychology was undertaken by Geelong Grammar School (Victoria, Australia). This involved training of teaching staff in the principles and skills of positive psychology. Ongoing support was provided by The Positive Psychology Center staff, who remained in-residence for the entire year.{{cite journal |vauthors=Seligman M, Ernst R, Gillham J, Reivich K, Links M |title=Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions |journal=Oxford Review of Education |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=293–311 |year=2009 |doi=10.1080/03054980902934563 |s2cid=55148281 }}

Staats, Hupp and Hagley (2008) used positive psychology to explore academic honesty. They identified positive traits displayed by heroes, then determined if the presence of these traits in students predicted future intent to cheat. The results of their research: ‘an effective working model of heroism in the context of the academic environment’ (Staats, Hupp & Hagley, 2008).{{cite journal | vauthors = Staats S, Hupp JM, Hagley AM | title = Honesty and heroes: a positive psychology view of heroism and academic honesty | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-psychology_2008-07_142_4/page/357 | journal = The Journal of Psychology | volume = 142 | issue = 4 | pages = 357–72 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18792648 | doi = 10.3200/JRLP.142.4.357-372 | s2cid = 31959280 }}

According to a study reported in the NY Post newspaper, 48% of parents reward their children's good grades with cash or something else of meaning. Among many families in the United States, this is controversial. Although psychology experts support the offer of reward for good behavior as a better alternative than the use of punishment for bad behavior, in some circumstances, families cannot afford to give their children an average of 16 dollars for every good grade earned. Alternatives for money include allowing a child extra time on a computer or staying up later than usual. Some psychology experts believe the best reward is praise and encouragement because material rewards can cause long-term negative effects for children.

A study, regarding rewards for children, conducted in 1971 by psychologist, Edward L. Deci, at the University of Rochester, is still referenced today. Featured in the New York Times, it focused on the short- and long-term effects of rewards for positive behavior. Deci suggested rewards for positive behavior is an effective incentive for only a short period. At the outset, rewards can support motivation to work hard and strive towards personal goals. However, once rewards cease, children showed less interest in the task relative to participants who never received rewards. Deci pointed out, at a young age, children's natural instinct is to resist people who try to control their behavior, which he cited as support for his conclusion rewards for good behavior have limited effectiveness.

In contrast, the New York Times featured research findings that supported the merits of offering rewards to children for good behavior. Expert economists argued children experiencing trouble with their behavior or schoolwork should have numerous helpful options, including rewards. Although children might well experience an initial attraction to financial or material, a love for learning could develop subsequently. Despite the controversy regarding the use of rewards, some experts believe the best way to motivate a child is to offer rewards at the beginning of the school year, but if unsuccessful they recommend teachers and parents stop using the reward system. Because of individual differences among children, no one method will work for everyone. Some children respond well to the use of rewards for positive behavior, while others evidence negative effects. The results seem to depend on the person.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Positive youth development focuses on the promotion of healthy development rather than viewing youth as prone to problems needing to be addressed. This is accomplished through programs and efforts by communities, schools, and government agencies.{{cite web|title=Positive Youth Development in the U.S.: Research Findings on Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs|date=12 November 1998 |url=https://aspe.hhs.gov/reports/positive-youth-development-united-states-research-findings-evaluations-positive-youth-development-0|access-date=April 9, 2014}}

{{Main|Happiness at work}}

It has been argued that happiness at work is one of the driving forces behind positive outcomes at work, rather than just being a resultant product.{{cite journal | vauthors = Boehm JK, Lyubomirsky S |title=Does Happiness Promote Career Success? |journal=Journal of Career Assessment |volume=16 |issue=1 |year=2008 |pages=101–16 |doi=10.1177/1069072707308140 |s2cid=145371516 }}

Despite a large body of positive psychological research into the relationship between happiness and productivity,Carr, A.: "Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness and Human Strengths" Hove, Brunner-Routledge 2004{{page needed|date=August 2016}}{{cite book |last1=Isen |first1=A. |chapter=Positive Affect and Decision-making |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last=Lewis |editor2-first=Jeannette M. |editor2-last=Haviland-Jones | name-list-style = vanc |title=Handbook of Emotions |edition=2nd |pages=417–36 |location=New York |publisher=Guilford Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-57230-529-8 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Buss DM | title = The evolution of happiness | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–23 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 11392858 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15 | s2cid = 6755845 }} happiness at work has traditionally been seen as a potential by-product of positive outcomes at work, rather than a pathway to success in business. However a growing number of scholars, including Boehm and Lyubomirsky, argue that it should be viewed as one of the major sources of positive outcomes in the workplace.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyubomirsky S, King L, Diener E | title = The benefits of frequent positive affect: does happiness lead to success? | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 131 | issue = 6 | pages = 803–55 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16351326 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803 | s2cid = 684129 | url = https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1k08m32k }}

A practical application of positive psychology is to assist individuals and organizations in identifying strengths so as to increase and sustain well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, various psychological professionals, HR departments, business strategists, and others, are using new methods and techniques to broaden and build upon the strengths of a wide population of individuals. This includes those not suffering from mental illness or disorder.

{{main|Positive psychology in the workplace}}

Positive psychology has been implemented in business management practice, but has faced challenges. Wong & Davey (2007){{cite web|url=https://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2007/wong-davey.pdf |title=Wong & Davey (2007) |access-date=2011-02-07}} noted managers can introduce positive psychology to a workplace, but they might struggle with positive ways to apply it to employees. Furthermore, for employees to welcome and commit to positive psychology, its application within an organization must be transparent.{{cite book |first1=P. Alex |last1=Linley |first2=Susan |last2=Harrington | name-list-style = vanc |title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JR51T4KHf3AC&pg=PA327 |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533544-6 |page=327}} Managers must also understand the implementation of positive psychology will not necessarily combat any commitment challenges that exist. However, with its implementation employees might become more optimistic and open to new concepts or management practices.{{cite web|url=http://pambritton.com/what-is-happiness-psychology-and-why-should-smart-entrepreneurs-care/|title=What Is Happiness Psychology and Why Should Smart Entrepreneurs Care?|last=Britton|first=Pam| name-list-style = vanc |access-date=11 October 2011}}

In their article "The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?",{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyubomirsky S, King L, Diener E | title = The benefits of frequent positive affect: does happiness lead to success? | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 131 | issue = 6 | pages = 803–55 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16351326 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803 | s2cid = 684129 | url = http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-1316803.pdf }} S. Lyubomirsky et al. report: "Study after study shows that happiness precedes important outcomes and indicators of thriving, including fulfilling and productive work".

Positive psychology, when applied correctly, can provide employees with a greater opportunity to use skills and vary work duties. However, changing work conditions and roles can lead to stress among employees if they are improperly supported by management. This is particularly true for employees who must meet the expectations of organizations with unrealistic goals and targets.{{cite book|author=Snyder, C & Lopez, J.|year=2002|title= Handbook of Positive Psychology|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.deakin.eblib.com.au/patron/FullRecord.aspx?p=271581&userid=WEAuOX57P1tMHeNgDQM4dA%3d%3d&tstamp=1273278299&id=9E207671A9591844A5DE424F74A348322954B1F4}} Thomas and Tasker (2010) showed less worker autonomy, fewer opportunities for development, less-enriched work roles, and lower levels of supervisor support reflected the effect of industry growth on job satisfaction.{{cite journal | vauthors = Thomas JC, Tasker TE | year = 2010 | title = Life, liberty, work, and the pursuit of happiness | journal = PsycCRITIQUES | volume = 55 | issue = 51| doi = 10.1037/a0022089 }}

Can an organization implement positive change? Lewis et al. (2007) developed appreciative inquiry (AI), which is an integrated, organizational-level methodology for approaching organizational development. Appreciative inquiry is based on the generation of organizational resourcefulness, which is accomplished by accessing a variety of human psychological processes, such as: positive emotional states, imagination, social cohesion, and the social construction of reality.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lewis S, Passmore J, Cantore S |title=Positive psychology and managing change |journal=The Psychologist |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=932–4 |year=2008 |url=http://www.mendeley.com/research/positive-psychology-managing-change/#}}

A relatively new practice in the workplace is recruiting and developing people based on their strengths (what they love to do, are naturally good at and energises them). Standard Chartered Bank pioneered this approach in the early 2000s. More and more organisations are realising the benefit of recruiting people who are in their element in the job as opposed to simply having the right competencies for the job. Aviva, Morrisons (a large UK supermarket) and Starbucks have all adopted this approach.{{cite web|url=http://engagingminds.co.uk/sbr/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/How-strengths-based-recruitment-transforms-organisations.pdf|title=How Strengths-based Recruitment Transforms Organisations|work=engagingminds.co.uk|year=2013}}

Psychologist Howard Gardner has extensively researched the merit of undertaking good work at one's job. He suggested young generations (particularly in the United States) are taught to focus on the selfish pursuit of money for its own sake, although having money does not engender happiness, and psychological studies show that there is a strong correlation between the wealthy and experience of intensively negative emotions.{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/balance/news/20060630/study-money-wont-make-you-happy|title=Mental Health: Types of Mental Illness}} Gardner's proposed alternatives loosely follow the pleasant/good/meaningful life classifications outlined above; he believes young people should be trained to pursue excellence in their field, as well as engagement (see flow, above) in accordance with their moral belief systems.{{Cite web|url=http://bigideas.tvo.org/episode/129394/howard-gardner|title=Howard Gardner | Big Ideas|date=May 28, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528020419/http://bigideas.tvo.org/episode/129394/howard-gardner |archive-date=2012-05-28 }}

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Traditional work with offenders has focused on their deficits (e.g., with respect to socialization, and schooling) and other "criminogenic" risk-factors. Rehabilitation more often than not has taken the form of forced treatment or training, ostensibly for the good of the offender, and the community. Arguably, this approach has shortcomings, suggesting a need to make available additional positive options to treatment staff so they can best assist offenders, and so that offenders can better find their way forward. Positive psychology has made recent inroads with the advent of the "Good Lives Model", developed by Tony Ward, Shadd Maruna, and others. With respect to rehabilitation: "Individuals take part ... because they think that such activities might either improve the quality of their life (an intrinsic goal) or at least look good to judges, parole boards and family members (an extrinsic goal)."{{cite book | first1 = Tony | last1 = Ward | first2 = Shadd | last2 = Maruna | name-list-style = vanc |title=Rehabilitation|location=London, New York|publisher=Routledge |year=2007|page=120}}

Positive criminology and positive victimology are conceptual approaches, developed by the Israeli criminologist Natti Ronel and his research team, that follow principles of positive psychology and apply them into the fields of criminology and victimology, respectively. Positive criminology and victimology both place an emphasis on social inclusion and on unifying and integrating forces at individual, group, social and spiritual levels that are associated with the limiting of crime and recovery from victimization. In traditional approaches, the study of crime, violence and related behaviors emphasizes the negative aspects in people's lives that are associated with deviance, criminality and victimization. A common understanding is that human relationships are affected more by destructive encounters than by constructive or positive ones. Positive criminology and victimology argue that a different approach is viable, based on three dimensions – social integration, emotional healing and spirituality – that constitute positive direction indicators.

{{main|Happiness economics}}

In economics, the term well-being is used for one or more quantitative measures intended to assess the quality of life of a group, for example, in the capabilities approach and the economics of happiness. As with the related cognate terms 'wealth' and 'welfare', economics sources often contrast the state with its opposite.Journal of Economic Literature Health, education, and welfare JEL: I Subcategories at JEL: I3 - Welfare and Poverty.Adam Smith, 1776. The Wealth of Nations.Partha Dasgupta, 1993. An Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution. [http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780198288350 Description] and review: {{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJM199406163302421 |title=Book Review an Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution by Partha Dasgupta. 661 pp. Oxford, England, Clarendon Press; New York, Oxford University Press, 1993. $45. 0-19-828756-9 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=330 |issue=24 |page=1763 |year=1994 |last1=Wray |first1=Joel D }}David S. Landes, 1998. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. [http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj18n2/cj18n2-9.pdf Review.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011215810/http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj18n2/cj18n2-9.pdf |date=2012-10-11 }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/452452 |title=REVIEWHenry J. Bruton. On the Search for Well-Being. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997. Pp. X+1227. $44.50 (cloth). Yujiro Hayami. Development Economics: From the Poverty to the Wealth of Nations. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Pp. Xx+1316. $75.00 (cloth) |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=48 |page=209 |year=1999 |last1=Streeten |first1=Paul |s2cid=224787467 }} The study of well-being is divided into subjective well-being and objective well-being.

Psychologists in the happiness community feel politics should promote population happiness. Politics should also consider level of human happiness among future generations, concern itself with life expectancy, and focus on the reduction of suffering.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brülde B |title=Happiness, Morality, and Politics |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=567–583 |date=October 2010 |doi=10.1007/s10902-010-9207-9|s2cid=143938712 }} Based on political affiliation, some studies argue conservatives, on average, are happier than liberals. A potential explanation is greater acceptance of income inequalities in society leads to a less worried nature.{{cite journal | vauthors = Napier JL, Jost JT | title = Why are conservatives happier than liberals? | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 19 | issue = 6 | pages = 565–72 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18578846 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02124.x | s2cid = 22998780 }} Luke Galen, Associate Professor of Psychology at Grand Valley State University, mentioned political commitments as important because they are a sort of secular world view that, like religion, can be generally beneficial to coping with death anxiety (see also Terror management theory and religion and happiness).{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforinquiry.net/centerstage/episodes/episode_104_-_profiles_of_the_godless_results_from_the_non-religious_identi/Center |title=Stage Podcast, Episode 104 – Profiles of the Godless: Results from the Non-Religious Identification Survey, Luke Galen |publisher=Centerforinquiry.net |date=2011-12-05 |access-date=2012-04-07}}{{cite web |url=http://doubtreligion.blogspot.com/2010/06/rd-extra-denying-death.html |title=Reasonable Doubts Podcast, Luke Galen, "Terror Management: How Our Worldviews Help Us Deny Death. " |publisher=Doubtreligion.blogspot.com |date=2010-06-30 |access-date=2012-04-07}}

Living in an environment with more green spaces is associated with higher well-being, partly due to the beneficial effects on psychological relaxation, stress alleviation, increased physical activity, and reduced exposure to air pollutants and noise, among others.{{cite journal |author=Egorov|display-authors=etal| year = 2016 | title = Urban green spaces and health: A review of the evidence| journal = World Health Organization | url = http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/321971/Urban-green-spaces-and-health-review-evidence.pdf?ua=1}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Bos EH, van der Meulen L, Wichers M, Jeronimus BF | title = A Primrose Path? Moderating Effects of Age and Gender in the Association between Green Space and Mental Health | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 492| date = May 2016 | pmid = 27187428 | pmc = 4881117 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph13050492 | doi-access = free }} According to the latest systematic review of the economic literature on life satisfaction, pollution is bad for one's well-being. Exposure to outdoor air pollution and chimney smoke fireplaces causes dementia and other-health risks.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-38506735|title=Dementia rates 'higher near busy roads'|first=James|last=Gallagher|work=BBC News| name-list-style = vanc |date=4 May 2018}}{{cite web | url = https://www.samharris.org/blog/item/the-fireplace-delusion/ | title = The Fireplace Delusion | first = Sam | last = Harris | name-list-style = vanc | date = 2 February 2012 | access-date = 25 April 2018 | archive-date = 19 November 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171119020756/https://www.samharris.org/blog/item/the-fireplace-delusion | url-status = dead }} Climate change mitigation measures have mostly positive direct effects on human well-being.{{Cite journal|last1=Creutzig|first1=Felix|author1-link=Felix Creutzig|last2=Niamir|first2=Leila|last3=Bai|first3=Xuemei|last4=Callaghan|first4=Max|last5=Cullen|first5=Jonathan|last6=Díaz-José|first6=Julio|last7=Figueroa|first7=Maria|last8=Grubler|first8=Arnulf|last9=Lamb|first9=William F.|last10=Leip|first10=Adrian|last11=Masanet|first11=Eric|date=2021-11-25|title=Demand-side solutions to climate change mitigation consistent with high levels of well-being|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=12|language=en|pages=36–46|doi=10.1038/s41558-021-01219-y|s2cid=244657251|issn=1758-6798|doi-access=free}}

{{main|Culture and positive psychology}}

People base their own well-being in relation to their environment and the lives of others around them. Well-being is also subject to how one feels other people in their environment perceive them, whether that positively or negatively. Whether or not other cultures are subject to internal culture appraisal is based on that culture's type. According to Diener and Suh,

{{blockquote|Collectivistic cultures are more likely to use norms and the social appraisals of others in evaluating their subjective well-being, whereas those [individualistic] societies are more likely to heavily weight the internal [frame of reference] arising from one's own happiness.{{cite book|last1=Diener|first1=Ed|last2=Suh|first2=Eunkook M. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Culture and subjective well-being|date=2003|publisher=MIT|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0-262-54146-6|page=10}}}}

Various cultures have various perspectives on the nature of positive human functioning. For example, studies on aversion to happiness, or fear of happiness, indicates that some individuals and cultures are averse to the experience of happiness, because they believe happiness may cause bad things to happen.{{cite journal|last1=Joshanloo|first1=Mohsen|last2=Weijers|first2=Dan | name-list-style = vanc |title=Aversion to Happiness Across Cultures: A Review of Where and Why People are Averse to Happiness|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|date=15 December 2013|volume=15|issue=3|pages=717–735|doi=10.1007/s10902-013-9489-9|s2cid=144425713|doi-access=free}} Empirical evidence indicates that there are fundamental differences in the ways well-being is construed in Western and non-Western cultures, including the Islamic and East Asian cultures.{{cite journal|last1=Joshanloo|first1=Mohsen|title=A Comparison of Western and Islamic Conceptions of Happiness|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|date=15 December 2012|volume=14|issue=6|pages=1857–1874|doi=10.1007/s10902-012-9406-7|s2cid=143842547}} Exploring various cultural perspectives on well-being, Joshanloo (2014) identifies and discusses six broad differences between Western and non-Western conceptions of well-being. For example, whereas Western cultures tend to emphasize the absence of negative emotions and autonomy in defining well-being, Eastern cultures tend to emphasize virtuous or religious activity, self-transcendence, and harmony.{{cite journal|last1=Joshanloo|first1=Mohsen|title=Eastern Conceptualizations of Happiness: Fundamental Differences with Western Views|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|date=21 March 2013|volume=15|issue=2|pages=475–493|doi=10.1007/s10902-013-9431-1|s2cid=144149724}}

Eunkook M. Suh (University of California) and Shigehiro Oishi (University of Chicago) examined the differences of happiness on an international level and different cultures' views on what creates well-being and happiness. In a study, of over 6,000 students from 43 nations, to identify mean life satisfaction, on a scale of 1–7, the Chinese ranked lowest at 3.3; and Dutch scored the highest at 5.4. When asked how much subjective well-being was ideal, Chinese ranked lowest at 4.5, and Brazilians highest at 6.2, on a scale of 1–7. The study had three main findings: (1) People living in individualistic, rather than collectivist, societies are happier; (2) Psychological attributes referencing the individual are more relevant to Westerners; (3) Self-evaluating happiness levels depend on different cues, and experiences, from one's culture.{{cite web| vauthors = Eunkook S |year=2002|title=Subjective Well-Being Across Cultures|access-date= November 23, 2012|url=http://free-books-online.org/psychology/cross-cultural-psychology/subjective-well-being-across-cultures/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408081703/http://free-books-online.org/psychology/cross-cultural-psychology/subjective-well-being-across-cultures/|archive-date=April 8, 2011}}

The results of a study by Chang E. C. showed that Asian Americans and Caucasian Americans have similar levels of optimism but Asian Americans are far more pessimistic than Caucasian Americans. However, there were no major differences in depression across cultures. On the other hand, pessimism was positively linked to problem solving behaviors for Asian Americans, but was negatively linked for Caucasian Americans.{{cite book | vauthors = Lopez SJ, Snyder CR | title = The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology | url = https://archive.org/details/handbookpositive00lope | url-access = limited | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2009 | page = [https://archive.org/details/handbookpositive00lope/page/n71 53] | isbn = 978-0-19-518724-3 }}

Religiousness and spirituality are closely related but distinct topics. Religion is any organized, and often institutionalized, system of cultural practices and beliefs pertaining to the meaning of human existence. It occurs within a traditional context such as a formal religious institution.Paloutzian, R. F., & Park, C. L. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality. New York, NY, US: Guilford Press. Spirituality, on the other hand, is a general term applied to the process of finding meaning and a better understanding of one's place in the universe. It is the individual or collective search for that which is sacred or meaningful in life.{{cite journal | vauthors = George LK, Larson DB, Koenig HG, McCullough ME | year = 2000 | title = Spirituality and health: What we know, what we need to know | journal = Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology | volume = 19 | issue = 1| pages = 102–116 | doi=10.1521/jscp.2000.19.1.102| s2cid = 145560349 }} One may therefore be religious but not spiritual, and vice versa.

{{see also|Psychology of religion|}}

There have been some studies of how religion relates to happiness. Causal relationships remain unclear, but more religion is seen in happier people. Consistent with PERMA, religion may provide a sense of meaning and connection to something bigger, beyond the self. Religion may also provide community membership and hence relationships. Another component may have to do with ritual.2009 article in Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience{{full citation needed|date=April 2013}}

Religion and happiness have been studied by a number of researchers, and religion features many elements addressing the components of happiness, as identified by positive psychology. Its association with happiness is facilitated in part by the social connections of organized religion,{{cite web | title = Are Religious People Happier Than Non-religious People?

| url = http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/death-love-sex-magic/201212/are-religious-people-happier-non-religious-people

| year = 2012

| last1= Routledge |first1=Clay

|work = Psychology Today

| access-date = 2014-01-24

}} and by the neuropsychological benefits of prayer{{cite news | first = Grundtvig | last = Tahor | title = Praying for Dopamine | date = 2011-04-01 | url = http://www.labtimes.org/labtimes/issues/lt2009/lt04/lt_2009_04_12_12.pdf | work = Lab Times | page = 12 | access-date = 2014-01-24 | quote = Religious prayer is a form of frequently recurring behaviour capable of stimulating the dopaminergic reward system in practicing individuals | archive-date = 2014-02-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140203205156/http://www.labtimes.org/labtimes/issues/lt2009/lt04/lt_2009_04_12_12.pdf | url-status = dead }} and belief.

File:55-aspetti di vita quotidiana, gioia,Taccuino Sanitatis, Cas.jpg Casanatensis (14th century)]]

There are a number of mechanisms through which religion may make a person happier, including social contact and support that result from religious pursuits, the mental activity that comes with optimism and volunteering, learned coping strategies that enhance one's ability to deal with stress, and psychological factors such as "reason for being." It may also be that religious people engage in behaviors related to good health, such as less substance abuse, since the use of psychotropic substances is sometimes considered abuse.{{cite journal | vauthors = Baetz M, Toews J | title = Clinical implications of research on religion, spirituality, and mental health | journal = Canadian Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 54 | issue = 5 | pages = 292–301 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19497161 | doi = 10.1177/070674370905400503 | s2cid = 34289390 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal |last1=Ellison |first1=Christopher G. |last2=George |first2=Linda K. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Religious Involvement, Social Ties, and Social Support in a Southeastern Community |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-for-the-scientific-study-of-religion_1994-03_33_1/page/46 |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=33 |issue=1 |year=1994 |pages=46–61 |jstor=1386636 |doi=10.2307/1386636 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = McCullough ME, Larson DB | title = Religion and depression: a review of the literature | journal = Twin Research | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 126–36 | date = June 1999 | pmid = 10480747 | doi = 10.1375/136905299320565997 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Strawbridge WJ, Shema SJ, Cohen RD, Kaplan GA | title = Religious attendance increases survival by improving and maintaining good health behaviors, mental health, and social relationships | journal = Annals of Behavioral Medicine | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–74 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11302358 | doi = 10.1207/S15324796ABM2301_10 | s2cid = 3672364 }}{{cite book |last1=Burris |first1=C.T. | name-list-style = vanc |chapter=Religious Orientation Scale |editor1-last=Hill |editor1-first=Peter C. |editor2-last=Hood |editor2-first=Ralph W. |title=Measures of Religiosity |url=https://archive.org/details/measuresofreligi0000unse |location=Birmingham |publisher=Religious Education Press |year=1999 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/measuresofreligi0000unse/page/144 144]–53 |isbn=978-0-89135-106-1 }}{{cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015870,00.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061231130918/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015870,00.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = December 31, 2006 | title = The New Science of Happiness | magazine= Time| first=Pamela| last=Paul | name-list-style = vanc | date=2005-01-09 }}

The Handbook of Religion and Health describes a survey by Feigelman (1992) that examined happiness in Americans who have given up religion, in which it was found that there was little relationship between religious disaffiliation and unhappiness.Koenig. Harold G., Larson, David B., and Mcculloug, Michael E. – Handbook of Religion and Health (see article), p. 122, Oxford University Press (2001), {{ISBN|0-8133-6719-0}}
Feigelman et al. (1992) examined happiness in Americans who have given up religion. Using pooled data from the General Social Surveys conducted between 1972 and 1990, investigators identified more than 20,000 adults for their study. Subjects of particular interest were “disaffiliates”—those who were affiliated with a religion at age 16 but who were not affiliated at the time of the survey (disaffiliates comprised from 4.4% to 6.0% of respondents per year during the 18 years of surveys). “Actives” were defined as persons who reported a religious affiliation at age 16 and a religious affiliation at the time of the survey (these ranged from 84.7% to 79.5% of respondents per year between 1972 and 1990). Happiness was measured by a single question that assessed general happiness (very happy, pretty happy, not too happy). When disaffiliates (n = 1,420) were compared with actives (n = 21,052), 23.9% of disaffiliates indicated they were “very happy, ” as did 34.2% of actives. When the analysis was stratified by marital status, the likelihood of being very happy was about 25% lower (i.e., 10% difference) for married religious disaffiliates compared with married actives. Multiple regression analysis revealed that religious disaffiliation explained only 2% of the variance in overall happiness, after marital status and other covariates were controlled. Investigators concluded that there was little relationship between religious disaffiliation and unhappiness (quality rating 7) A survey by Kosmin & Lachman (1993), also cited in this handbook, indicates that people with no religious affiliation appear to be at greater risk for depressive symptoms than those affiliated with a religion.Koenig. Harold G., Larson, David B., and Mcculloug, Michael E. – Handbook of Religion and Health(see article), p. 111, Oxford University Press (2001)
Currently, approximately 8% of the U.S. population claim no religious affiliation (Kosmin & Lachman, 1993). People with no affiliation appear to be at greater risk for depressive symptoms than those affiliated with a religion. In a sample of 850 medically ill men, Koenig, Cohen, Blazer, Pieper, et al. (1992) examined whether religious affiliation predicted depression after demographics, medical status, and a measure of religious coping were controlled. They found that, when relevant covariates were controlled, men who indicated that they had "no religious affiliation" had higher scores on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (an observer-administered rating scale) than did men who identified themselves as moderate Protestants, Catholics, or nontraditional Christians. A review of studies by 147 independent investigators found, "the correlation between religiousness and depressive symptoms was -.096, indicating that greater religiousness is mildly associated with fewer symptoms."

The Legatum Prosperity Index reflects the repeated finding of research on the science of happiness that there is a positive link between religious engagement and well-being: people who report that God is very important in their lives are on average more satisfied with their lives, after accounting for their income, age and other individual characteristics.The 2008 Legatum Prosperity Index, Summary p. 40.
Research suggests that religious people's happiness is less vulnerable to fluctuations in economic and political uncertainty, personal unemployment and income changes. The Prosperity Index identifies similar effects at the country level, with a number of highly religious countries reporting higher levels of happiness than might be expected based on the standard of living alone: this effect is most pronounced in Mexico, El Salvador, the Dominican republic, Indonesia, Venezuela and Nigeria.

Surveys by Gallup, the National Opinion Research Centre and the Pew Organisation conclude that spiritually committed people are twice as likely to report being "very happy" than the least religiously committed people.Is Religion Dangerous?p156, citing David Myers The Science of Subjective Well-Being Guilford Press 2007 An analysis of over 200 social studies contends that "high religiousness predicts a lower risk of depression and drug abuse and fewer suicide attempts, and more reports of satisfaction with sex life and a sense of well-being.

However, the links between religion and happiness are always very broad in nature, highly reliant on scripture and small sample number. To that extent, there is a much larger connection between religion and suffering (Lincoln 1034)."{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith TB, McCullough ME, Poll J | title = Religiousness and depression: evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 129 | issue = 4 | pages = 614–36 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12848223 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.614 | url = https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3055&context=facpub | url-access = subscription }} And a review of 498 studies published in peer-reviewed journals concluded that a large majority of them showed a positive correlation between religious commitment and higher levels of perceived well-being and self-esteem and lower levels of hypertension, depression, and clinical delinquency.Is Religion Dangerous? cites similar results from theHandbook of Religion and Mental Health Harold Koenig (ed.) {{ISBN|978-0-12-417645-4}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}} A meta-analysis of 34 recent studies published between 1990 and 2001 found that religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, being related to less psychological distress, more life satisfaction, and better self-actualization.{{cite journal |last1=Hackney |first1=Charles H. |last2=Sanders |first2=Glenn S. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Religiosity and Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis of Recent Studies |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=42 |issue=1 |year=2003 |pages=43–55 |doi=10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00160 }} Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that "the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being (life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and with less depression, suicidal thoughts and behaviour, drug/alcohol use/abuse."{{cite journal | vauthors = Moreira-Almeida A, Neto FL, Koenig HG | title = Religiousness and mental health: a review | journal = Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 242–50 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16924349 | doi = 10.1590/S1516-44462006005000006 | doi-access = free }}

However, there remains strong disagreement among scholars about whether the effects of religious observance, particularly attending church or otherwise belonging to religious groups, is due to the spiritual or the social aspects—i.e. those who attend church or belong to similar religious organizations may well be receiving only the effects of the social connections involved. While these benefits are real enough, they may thus be the same one would gain by joining other, secular groups, clubs, or similar organizations.Robert D. Putnam makes this argument in his book (with David Campell) American Grace (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2012).{{page needed|date=August 2016}}

Religiousness has often been found to correlate with positive health attributes. People who are more religious show better emotional well-being and lower rates of delinquency, alcoholism, drug abuse, and other social problems.{{cite journal | vauthors = Donahue MJ, Benson PL | year = 1995 | title = Religion and the well-being of adolescents | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-issues_summer-1995_51_2/page/145 | journal = Journal of Social Issues | volume = 51 | issue = 2| pages = 145–160 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1995.tb01328.x}}

Six separate factors are cited as evidence for religion's effect on well-being: religion (1) provides social support, (2) supports healthy lifestyles, (3) promotes personality integration, (4) promotes generativity and altruism, (5) provides unique coping strategies, and (6) provides a sense of meaning and purpose.Emmons, R. A. (1999) The psychology of ultimate concerns: Motivation and spirituality in personality. New York: Guilford. Many religious individuals experience emotions that create positive connections among people and allow them to express their values and potential. These four emotions are known as "sacred emotions," which are said to be (1) gratitude and appreciation, (2) forgiveness, (3) compassion and empathy, and (4) humility.Emmons, R. A., (2005). Emotion and Religion. In: Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality. Paloutzian, Raymond F. (Ed), Park, Crystal L. (Ed), New York, NY, US: Guilford Press, 2005. pp. 235–252.

Social interaction is necessarily a part of the religious experience. Religiosity has been identified to correlate positively with prosocial behavior in trauma patients, and prosocial behavior is furthermore associated with well-being.{{Cite journal|title = The relation between trauma exposure and prosocial behavior.|last = Frazier|first = Patricia | name-list-style = vanc |date = May 2013|journal = Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy|volume = 5|issue = 3|pages = 286–294|doi = 10.1037/a0027255}} It also has stronger associations with well-being in individuals genetically predisposed towards social sensitivity in environments where religion prioritizes social affiliation.{{Cite journal|title = Religion and Well-being The Moderating Role of Culture and the Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) Gene|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-cross-cultural-psychology_2011-11_42_8/page/1394|journal = Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology|date = 2011-11-01|issn = 0022-0221|pages = 1394–1405|volume = 42|issue = 8|doi = 10.1177/0022022111412526|first1 = Joni Y.|last1 = Sasaki|first2 = Heejung S.|last2 = Kim|first3 = Jun|last3 = Xu |s2cid = 145567198| name-list-style = vanc }} It has also been linked to greater resilience against stress{{Cite journal|title = Religiosity and Spirituality as Resiliency Resources: Moderation, Mediation, or Moderated Mediation?|last1 = Reuter|first1 = Kirby K.|last2 = Bigatti|first2 = Silvia M. | name-list-style = vanc |date = March 2014|journal = Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|doi = 10.1111/jssr.12081| hdl = 1805/14103|volume=53 |pages=56–72|hdl-access = free}} as well as higher measures of self-actualization{{cite journal | vauthors = Graff RW, Ladd CE | title = POI correlates of a religious commitment inventory | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychology_1971-10_27_4/page/502 | journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 502–4 | date = October 1971 | pmid = 5115658 | doi = 10.1002/1097-4679(197110)27:4<502::AID-JCLP2270270431>3.0.CO;2-2 }} and success in romantic relationships and parental responsibilities.{{cite web|title = Religion or spirituality has positive impact on romantic/marital relationships, child development, research shows|url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/12/141208105320.htm|access-date = 2015-04-13}}

These benefits, while being correlational, may come about as a result of becoming more religiously involved. The benefit of having a secure social group likely plays a key part in religion's positive effects. One form of Christian counseling uses religion through talk therapy and assessments to promote mental health.{{Cite journal|title = Clinical Appraisal of Spirituality: In Search of Rapid Assessment Instruments (RAIs) for Christian Counseling|last = Greggo|first = Stephen P | name-list-style = vanc |date = 2012|journal = Journal of Psychology and Christianity|id = {{ProQuest|1268720312}}}} In another instance, people who were not Buddhist, but were exposed to Buddhist concepts, scored higher on measures of outgroup acceptance and prosociality.{{cite web|title = Study finds being exposed to Buddhist concepts reduces prejudice and increases prosociality – The Mirror Post|url = http://www.themirrorpost.com/2015/04/study-finds-being-exposed-to-buddhist.html|website = www.themirrorpost.com|access-date = 2015-04-13}} This effect was found not only in Western countries, but also in places where Buddhism is prevalent, indicating a general association of Buddhism with acceptance. This finding seems to indicate that merely encountering a religious belief system such as Buddhism may allow some of its effects to be transferred to nonbelievers.

However, many disagree that the benefits the religious experience are due to their beliefs, and some find there to be no conclusive psychological benefits of belief at all. For example, the health benefit that the elderly gain from going to church may in fact be the reason they are able to go to church; the less healthy cannot leave their homes. Meta analysis has found that find studies purporting the beneficial results of religiosity often fail to fully represent data correctly due to a number of issues such as self-report bias, the use of inappropriate comparison groups, and the presence of criterion contamination.{{Cite journal|title = Does religious belief promote prosociality? A critical examination | vauthors = Galen LW |date = September 2012|journal = Psychol. Bull.|doi = 10.1037/a0028251|pmid = 22925142|volume=138|issue = 5|pages=876–906| s2cid = 16771250 }} Other studies have disputed the efficacy of intercessory prayer positively affecting the health of those being prayed for. They have shown that, when scientifically rigorous studies are performed (by randomizing the patients and preventing them from knowing that they are being prayed for), there is no discernible effect.{{Cite journal|title = Are there demonstrable effects of distant intercessory prayer? A meta-analytic review|last = Masters|first = KS|date = August 2006|journal = Ann Behav Med|doi = 10.1207/s15324796abm3201_3|pmid = 16827626|volume=32|issue = 1|pages=21–6|s2cid = 3672308}}{{Cite journal|title = A Systematic Review of the Empirical Literature on Intercessory Prayer|journal = Research on Social Work Practice|date =2007-03-01|issn = 1049-7315|pages = 174–187|volume = 17|issue = 2|doi = 10.1177/1049731506296170|first = David R.|last = Hodge|s2cid = 43547918}}

Religion has power as a cohesive social force, and whether or not it is always beneficial is debated. Irrespective of a group's beliefs, many find that simply belonging to a tight social group reduces anxiety and mental health problems. In addition, there may be a degree of self-selectivity amongst the religious; the behavioral benefits they display may simply be common aspects of those who choose to or are able to practice religion. As a result, whether or not religion can be prescribed scientifically as a means of self-betterment is unclear.

While religion is often formalised and community-oriented, spirituality tends to be individually based and not as formalised. In a 2014 study, 320 children, ages 8–12, in both public and private schools, were given a Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire assessing the correlation between spirituality and happiness. Spirituality – and not religious practices (praying, attending church services) – correlated positively with the child's happiness; the more spiritual the child was, the happier the child was. Spirituality accounted for about 3–26% of the variance in happiness.{{cite journal |last1=Holder |first1=Mark D. |last2=Coleman |first2=Ben |last3=Wallace |first3=Judi M. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Spirituality, Religiousness, and Happiness in Children Aged 8–12 Years |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |volume=11 |issue=2 |year=2008 |pages=131–50 |doi=10.1007/s10902-008-9126-1 |s2cid=145120579 }}

Meditation has been found to lead to high activity in the brain's left prefrontal cortex, which in turn has been found to correlate with happiness.{{cite web|last1=Shontell|first1=Alyson|title=A 69-year-old monk who scientists call the 'world's happiest man' says the secret to being happy takes just 15 minutes a day|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/how-to-be-happier-according-to-matthieu-ricard-the-worlds-happiest-man-2016-1|website=Business Insider|access-date=3 December 2017}}

A study using the Oxford happiness questionnaire on Brahma Kumaris Raja yoga meditators showed them having higher happiness than the control group. Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche has said that neuro scientists have found that with meditation, an individual's happiness baseline can change.{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/science-has-proved-that-meditation-can-improve-quality-of-life-buddhist-master/articleshow/58200304.cms|title=Science has proved that meditation can improve quality of life: Buddhist master|work=Times of India}}

Many people describe themselves as both religious and spiritual, but spirituality represents just one particular function of religion. Spirituality as related to positive psychology can be defined as "a search for the sacred".{{cite journal | vauthors = Pargament KI | year = 1999 | title = The psychology of religion and spirituality? Yes and no. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-for-the-psychology-of-religion_1999_9_1/page/3 | journal = International Journal for the Psychology of Religion | volume = 9 | pages = 3–16 | doi=10.1207/s15327582ijpr0901_2}} What is defined as sacred can be related to God, life itself, or almost any other facet of existence. It is viewed {{by whom|date=October 2024}} as having spiritual implications which are transcendent of the individual.{{cite book|author=Snyder, C. R. |author2=Lopez, Shane|year=2002|title=Handbook of Positive Psychology|location= New York|publisher= Oxford University Press}} Spiritual well-being addresses this human need for transcendence and involves social as well as existential well-being. Spiritual well-being is associated with various positive outcomes such as better physical and psychological well-being, lower anxiety, less depression, self-actualization, positive relationships with parents, higher rates of positive personality traits and acceptance.{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=James M. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyreligi00nels|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Springer Science + Business Media, LLC|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyreligi00nels/page/n366 359]}} Researchers have cautioned to differentiate between correlative and causal associations between spirituality and psychology.{{Cite journal | last1 = Schuurmans-Stekhoven | first1 = James | year = 2011 | title = Is it God or just the data that moves in mysterious ways? How wellbeing researchers may be mistaking faith for virtue | journal = Social Indicators Research | volume = 100 | issue = 2 | pages = 313–330 | doi = 10.1007/s11205-010-9630-7| s2cid = 144755003 }}

Reaching the sacred as a personal goal, also called spiritual striving, has been found to correlate highest with well-being compared to other forms of striving. This type of striving can improve a sense of self and relationships and creates a connection to the transcendent Additionally, multiple studies have shown that self-reported spirituality is related to lower rates of mortality and depression and higher rates of happiness.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fehring RJ, Miller JF, Shaw C | title = Spiritual well-being, religiosity, hope, depression, and other mood states in elderly people coping with cancer | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_oncology-nursing-forum_1997-05_24_4/page/663 | journal = Oncology Nursing Forum | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 663–71 | date = May 1997 | pmid = 9159782 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Strawbridge WJ, Cohen RD, Shema SJ, Kaplan GA | title = Frequent attendance at religious services and mortality over 28 years | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 87 | issue = 6 | pages = 957–61 | date = June 1997 | pmid = 9224176 | pmc = 1380930 | doi = 10.2105/ajph.87.6.957 }}

Currently, most research on spirituality examines ways in which spirituality can help in times of crisis. Spirituality has been found to remain constant when experiencing traumatic events and/or life stressors such as accidents, war, sickness, and death of a loved one. When confronted with an obstacle, people might turn to prayer or meditation. Coping mechanisms involving spirituality include meditative meditation, creating boundaries to preserve the sacred, spiritual purification to return to the righteous path, and spiritual reframing which focuses on maintaining belief. One clinical application of spirituality and positive psychology research is the "psychospiritual intervention," which represents the potential that spirituality has to increase well-being.{{Failed verification |date=September 2020 |talk=verification of meditation as coping mechanism |reason=no support for meditation as spiritual coping mechanism}} These coping mechanisms that aim to preserve the sacred have been found by researchers to increase well-being and return the individual back to the sacred.

Overall, spirituality is a process that occurs over a lifetime and includes searching, conserving, and redefining what is sacred in an extremely individualized manner. It does not always have a positive effect and in fact, has been associated with very negative events and life changes. Research is lacking in spirituality but it is necessary because spirituality can assist in enhancing the experiences of the uncontrollable parts of life.{{cite journal |last1=Puchalski |first1=Christina |title=The role of spirituality in health care |journal=Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings |date=October 2001 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=352–357 |doi=10.1080/08998280.2001.11927788 |pmid=16369646 |pmc=1305900 }}

Much research has pointed at the rising rates of depression, leading people to speculate that modernization may be a factor in the growing percentage of depressed people. One study found that women in urban America were much more likely to experience depression than those in rural Nigeria.{{cite journal | vauthors = Colla J, Buka S, Harrington D, Murphy JM | title = Depression and modernization: a cross-cultural study of women | journal = Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 271–9 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16520885 | doi = 10.1007/s00127-006-0032-8 | s2cid = 30475012 }} Other studies have found a positive correlation between a country's GDP per capita, as quantitative measure of modernization, and lifetime risk of a mood disorder trended toward significance (p=0.06).{{cite journal | vauthors = Hidaka BH | title = Depression as a disease of modernity: explanations for increasing prevalence | journal = Journal of Affective Disorders | volume = 140 | issue = 3 | pages = 205–14 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22244375 | pmc = 3330161 | doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.036 }}

Many people{{Who|date=May 2021}} believe it is the increased number of pressures and expectations, increased isolation, increased individualism, and increased inactivity that contribute to higher rates of depression in modern societies.

Some evidence suggests sunnier climates do not predict happiness.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lucas RE, Lawless NM | title = Does life seem better on a sunny day? Examining the association between daily weather conditions and life satisfaction judgments | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 104 | issue = 5 | pages = 872–84 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23607534 | pmc = 3695376 | doi = 10.1037/a0032124 }} In one study, both Californians and Midwesterners expected the former's happiness ratings to be higher due to a sunnier environment. In fact, the Californian and Midwestern happiness ratings did not show a significant difference.{{cite journal|last1=Schkade|first1=David A.|last2=Kahneman|first2=Daniel | name-list-style = vanc |title=Does Living in California Make People Happy? A Focusing Illusion in Judgments of Life Satisfaction|journal=Psychological Science|date=May 2016|volume=9|issue=5|pages=340–346|doi=10.1111/1467-9280.00066|s2cid=14091201}} Other research has found that temperature, wind power, sunlight, precipitation and air temperature has a small impact on mood, but some people appear to be affected in a large way (but it's not 5 factor personality).{{cite journal | vauthors = Denissen JJ, Butalid L, Penke L, van Aken MA | title = The effects of weather on daily mood: a multilevel approach | journal = Emotion | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 662–7 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18837616 | doi = 10.1037/a0013497 | s2cid = 17553711 }} A study of Dutch teenagers identified that the effect of weather on mood depends on whether they were Summer lovers, summer haters, rain haters and unaffected by weather.{{cite journal | vauthors = Klimstra TA, Frijns T, Keijsers L, Denissen JJ, Raaijmakers QA, van Aken MA, Koot HM, van Lier PA, Meeus WH | title = Come rain or come shine: individual differences in how weather affects mood | journal = Emotion | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 1495–9 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 21842988 | doi = 10.1037/a0024649 }} Other researchers say the necessary minimum daily dose of sunlight is as little as 30 minutes.{{cite magazine|last=Aaronson |first=Lauren | name-list-style = vanc |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200512/happiness-is-beach-sometimes |title=Happiness Is a Beach, Sometimes |magazine=Psychology Today |access-date=2011-02-07}}

That is not to say weather is never a factor for happiness. Perhaps the changing norms of sunlight cause seasonal affective disorder, which undermines level of happiness.

Positive psychology research and practice is currently conducted and developed in various countries throughout the world. To illustrate, in Canada, Charles Hackney of Briercrest College applies positive psychology to the topic of personal growth through martial arts training; Paul Wong, president of the International Network on Personal Meaning,{{cite web|url=http://meaning.ca/ |title=International Network on Personal Meaning and Meaning of Life |publisher=Meaning.ca |date=1999-03-15 |access-date=2011-02-07}} is developing an existential approach to positive psychology,{{cite book | vauthors = Wong PT | year = 2009 | chapter = Existential positive psychology | veditors = Lopez SJ | title = Encyclopedia of positive psychology | volume = 1 | pages = 361–368 | location = Oxford, UK | publisher = Wiley Blackwell }}{{cite book | vauthors = Wong PT, Ivtzan I, Lomas T | year = 2016 | chapter = Good work: A meaning-centred approach | veditors = Oades LG, Steger MF, Fave AD, Passmore J | title = The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches at work | location = West Sussex, UK | publisher = Wiley Blackwell }} which is framed in the second wave positive psychology (PP 2.0).{{cite journal | vauthors = Wong PT | year = 2011 | title = Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life | journal = Canadian Psychology | volume = 52 | issue = 2| pages = 69–81 | doi = 10.1037/a0022511}}{{cite book | vauthors = Ivtzan I, Lomas T, Hefferon K, Worth P | year = 2015 | title = Second wave positive psychology: Embracing the dark side of life. | location = London, UK | publisher = Routledge }}

The research program ‘Understanding Positive Emotions’ at Human Science Lab, London, investigates how material well-being and perceptual well-being work as relative determinants in conditioning our mind for positive emotions.{{cite web | url= http://humansciencelab.org.uk| title=Understanding Positive Emotions |publisher=Human Science Lab | access-date=23 February 2017}}

Cognitive and behavioral change, although sometimes slight and complex, can produce an 'intense affect'.

Isen (2009) remarked that further progress requires suitable research methods, and appropriate theories on which to base contemporary research.{{cite book | vauthors = Isen AM |year=2009|contribution=Positive Affect as a Source of Human Strength| veditors = Snyder CR, Lopez SJ |title=Handbook of positive psychology| url = https://archive.org/details/handbookpositive00lope | url-access = limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookpositive00lope/page/n197 179]–195|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518724-3}} Chang (2008) suggested that researchers have a number of paths to pursue regarding the enhancement of emotional intelligence, even though emotional intelligence does not guarantee the development of positive affect; in short, more study is required to track the gradient of positive affect in psychology.{{cite book| vauthors = Chang KB | year=2008|chapter=Can We Improve Emotional Intelligence|title=Emotional Intelligence; Perspectives on Educational and Positive Psychology|publisher=Peter Lang Publishing Inc.|location= New York|pages=25–45|isbn=9781433101960}}

• Better Life Index
• Broad measures of economic progress
• Gross National Happiness
• Gross National Well-being
• Happiness economics
• Human Development Index
• Humanistic economics
• Job satisfaction
• Social determinants of health
• Social determinants of health in poverty
• Social determinants of mental health
• World Values Survey

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• {{cite journal | vauthors = Seligman ME, Csikszentmihalyi M | title = Positive psychology. An introduction | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–14 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 11392865 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.5 | hdl = 10983/26120 | s2cid = 14783574 }}

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Category:Positive psychology

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