Whitebait

The Alboran Sea is the westernmost element of the Mediterranean Sea. Whitebait have been consumed as a favoured element of the diet of peoples living along the northern coasts of the Alboran Sea in Spain, even though sale of these products has been banned.C.Michael Hogan. 2011. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Alboran_Sea?topic=49523 Alboran Sea. eds. P.Saundry & C.J.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC]

In Australia whitebait refers to the juvenile stage of several predominantly galaxias species during their return to freshwater from the marine phase of their lifecycle.

Species referred to as whitebait in Australia include common galaxias G. maculatus, climbing galaxias G. brevipinnis, spotted galaxias G. truttaceus, Tasmanian whitebait Lovettia sealii, Tasmanian mudfish Neochanna cleaveri, and Tasmanian smelt Retropinna tasmanica.

Whitebait were once subject to a substantial commercial fishery but today only recreational fishers are permitted to gather them, under strict conditions and for a limited season.

Chinese whitebait is raised in fish farms and plentiful quantities are produced for export. The frozen product is commonly available in food stores and supermarkets at reasonable prices. The Chinese name for these is often translated as "silver fish" in English.{{cite web |last1=Feng Hui |first1=Hui |title=Taihu Lake Whitebait |url=http://en.chinaculture.org/focus/focus/2010expo_en/2010-04/22/content_377510.htm |website=en.chinaculture.org |access-date=28 November 2023}}

Gianchetti (also bianchetti) are the whitebait of the pesce azzurropesce azzurro ("blue fish") is a term used in Italian cuisine to refer to a range of Mediterranean species (including anchovies, garfish, mackerel, sardines, sprats, swordfish and tuna) which generally have blue or blue-green coloured backs and silvery bellies.[https://www.slowholiday.it/pantelleria-pesce-azzurro/] of the Mediterranean (sardines and anchovies, etc.), caught with special nets named from the Ligurian sciabegottu (similar to the net to sciabica, but with smaller dimensions) in the early months of the year.

A speciality of the Liguria cuisine, gianchetti are generally lightly boiled in salted water and served hot, dressed with oil and lemon juice. Another classic approach is to make fritters of the fish together with an egg and flour batter; finally they may simply be dipped in flour and deep-fried (frittelle di gianchetti/bianchetti). The gianchetti of a red colour (ruscetti, rossetti) are tougher and scaly to the palate; they are largely used to flavour fish-based sauces.

In Sicilian cuisine whitebait are known as ceruses (literally translated as "baby"). Whitebait are the principal ingredient of the Sicilian specialty croquette polpette di neonata; which are a type of rolled meatball of whitebait with parsley, and egg and/or a bit of flour to amalgamate, fried in olive oil or sometimes deep-fried in peanut oil.

In Neapolitan cuisine whitebait are known as cicenielli.

In Brindisian cuisine whitebait are known as chuma (literally "foam of sea").

File:Japanese Whitebait.jpg

In Japan, the {{nihongo|whitebait|しらす/白子|shirasu|}}{{efn|The kana script "しらす/シラス" may be preferred, since the kanji "白子" may also be read as shirako which means the soft roe of any fish.}} fishing industry is concentrated in Shizuoka Prefecture, where the major landing ports for them are situated.{{sfnp|Ikematsu|1986|p=171}} The shirasu boiled in salted hot water is called {{nihongo|kamaage shirasu|釜上げしらす||boiled whitebait}}, and this product retains about 85% or greater water ratio.{{sfnp|Ikematsu|1986|pp=171, 175}}{{sfnp|Kurogi|2014|p=606}}

The boiled whitefish which are subsequently semi-dried are referred to generally as {{nihongo|shirasuboshi|しらす干し||literally 'dried whitebait'}},{{sfnp|Sakata|1989|p=24}} but this is in the wider sense of the term; in the stricter sense shirasuboshi (also known as Kantō boshi, or 'Eastern Japan–style dried') refers to soft-dried products (50–85% water ratio{{sfnp|Kurogi|2014|p=606}}),{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Also the boiling water is saltier at around 15% saline.{{sfnp|Umino|2014|p=22}} Drying time is approximately 30 minutes.{{sfnp|Umino|2014|p=25}}}} and distinguished from {{nihongo|chirimen-jako|縮緬雑魚||}} (aka Kansai boshi or 'Western Japan style dried') which are dried to harder consistency (30% to shy of 50% water content.{{sfnp|Kurogi|2014|p=606}}){{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The boiling water used is a milder 5–6% saline solution.{{sfnp|Umino|2014|p=22}} Drying time is longer at 1.5 hours.{{sfnp|Umino|2014|p=25}}}}

The whitebait used in these shirasu products is generally the larvae of the Japanese anchovy, but in the vernacular Japanese language {{nihongo|anchovy|片口鰯|katakuchi iwashi|}} is called a type of {{nihongo|sardine|鰯|iwashi|}}, thus shirasu may be (somewhat misleadingly) described as sardine fry in some literature, though the larvae of clupeids do occur as bycatch in the shirasu being harvested. The shirasu landed in Shizuoka Prefecture consists of the 2–3 month old, and 1–2 cm length larvae of mostly Japanese anchovy, and a small proportion of {{nihongo|Japanese pilchard|真鰯|ma iwashi|}},{{sfnp|Umino|2014|p=22}} Sardinops sagax melanostictus, a subspecies of sardine.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Also 1% the larvae of {{nihongo||潤目鰯|urume iwashi|}} (Etrumeus teres syn. Etrumeus sadina) or red-eye round herring). Though the Japanese vernacular name suggest it to be a type of sardine (iwashi).}}

One specialty product is the {{nihongo|tatami iwashi|たたみいわし||literally 'tatami sardine'}}, a paper-thin square wafer made from uncooked dry shirasu, spreading the washed fish thinly inside square molds then drying them, which has become an expensive delicacy.{{sfnp|Umino|2014|pp=21, 23}}

File:Whitebaiter on the Hutt River.JPG

New Zealand whitebait are the juveniles of five galaxiid species which live as adults in freshwater rivers and streams.{{cite book|last1=McDowall|first1=R.M.|title=The New Zealand Whitebait Book|date=1984|publisher=Reed|location=Wellington, New Zealand|isbn=0-589-01533-8}} Four of these five species have been classified by the Department of Conservation as endangered.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/the-country/news/article.cfm?c_id=16&objectid=12111436|title=Forest & Bird: Four of five whitebait species endangered|last=Beckman|first=Sadie|date=22 August 2018|work=The New Zealand Herald|access-date=21 July 2019}}{{Cite journal|last1=Goodman|first1=Jane M.|last2=Allibone|first2=Richard M.|last3=Closs|first3=Gerard P.|last4=Crow|first4=Shannan K.|last5=David|first5=Bruno O.|last6=Dunn|first6=Nicholas R.|last7=Griffiths|first7=Marc|last8=Jack|first8=Daniel C.|last9=Ling|first9=Nicholas|date=2017-01-01|title=Conservation status of New Zealand freshwater fishes|journal=New Zealand Threat Classification System|volume=24|pages=1–15}} The whitebait are caught during their migration into freshwater habitats after their larval stage at sea. They are much smaller than Chinese or British whitebait, averaging 45–55 mm in length, and are around 15–22 weeks old.{{cite journal|last1=McDowall|first1=R.M.|last2=Mitchell|first2=C.P.|last3=Brothers|first3=E.B.|title=Age at migration from the sea of juvenile galaxias in New Zealand (Pisces, Galaxiidae)|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|date=1994|volume=54|issue=2|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1994/00000054/00000002/art00004?crawler=true}}

File:Okarito Whitebait MRD.webm, West Coast, New Zealand]]

The most common whitebait species in New Zealand is the common galaxias or inanga, which lays its eggs during the very high spring tides in autumn amongst bankside grasses that are flooded by the tide. The eggs develop out of the water until inundated by the next spring tide which stimulates the eggs to hatch. The larvae are then carried to sea on the outgoing tide where they join the ocean's plankton. After approximately six months, the juvenile fish migrate back into freshwater habitats where they mature to adulthood. The four other galaxiid species in New Zealand whitebait are the kōaro, banded kōkopu, giant kōkopu and shortjaw kōkopu.[http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/whitebait-and-whitebaiting/1 Whitebait and whitebaiting – Whitebait in New Zealand] Carl Walrond in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Updated 1 March 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2011. These species also spawn in bankside vegetation, but their spawning is triggered by autumn floods rather than tides.

New Zealand whitebait are caught in the lower reaches of the rivers using large, open-mouthed, hand-held scoop nets, long sock nets, or rigid, typically wedge-shaped set nets. Whitebaiters must constantly attend the nets in order to lift them as soon as a shoal enters the net; otherwise the whitebait quickly swim back out of the net. Whitebaiters may fish from platforms known as 'stands', which may include screens to direct the fish and systems for raising and lowering nets.

Whitebaiting in New Zealand is a seasonal activity with a legally fixed and limited period{{cite web|title=Department of Conservation whitebait regulations|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/things-to-do/fishing/whitebaiting/}} which spans part of the annual migration. The timing of the allowed fishing season is set to target the more common inanga, while avoiding the less common species that mainly migrate before and after the whitebaiting season. There is strict control over net sizes and rules against blocking the river or channelling the fish into the net; these measures allow some fish to reach the adult habitats. The whitebait themselves are very sensitive to objects in the river and are adept at dodging the nets.

File:Whitebait Fritter.JPG

Whitebait is a traditional food for Māori, and was widely eaten by European settlers in the 19th century. By the 20th century, the price of whitebait rose and it became known as a delicacy.{{cite Q|Q114871191|pp=48-53}} Currently, it commands high prices to the extent that it is the most expensive fish on the market, when available. The wholesale price (NZD) is typically {{Convert|60-70|$/kg}}, but the retail price can be up to {{Convert|140|$/kg}}.{{Cite web|last=Taunton|first=Esther|date=2020-09-25|title=$140 a kilogram: Whitebait back to 'gold-plated' prices|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/122878457/140-a-kilogram-whitebait-back-to-goldplated-prices|access-date=2021-03-16|website=Stuff|language=en}} It is normally sold fresh in small quantities, although some are frozen to extend the sale period. Nevertheless, whitebait can normally only be purchased during or close after the netting season. The most popular way of cooking whitebait in New Zealand is the whitebait fritter, which is essentially an omelette containing whitebait. Purists use only the egg white in order to minimise interfering with the taste of the bait.{{Citation needed|date=January 2017}}

The degradation of waterways through forest clearance, and the impacts of agriculture and urbanisation, have caused the whitebait catch to decline.{{cite book|last1=Richardson|first1=J.|last2=Taylor|first2=M.J.|title=A guide to restoring inanga habitat. NIWA Science and Technology Series No. 50|date=2002|publisher=NIWA|location=Wellington|isbn=978-0-478-23255-4|url=https://www.niwa.co.nz/sites/niwa.co.nz/files/a_guide_to_restoring_inanga_habitat.pdf}} The loss of suitable spawning habitat has been particularly severe, especially for inanga, which rely on dense riparian vegetation lining the tidal portions of waterways. Amongst other factors, a lack of shade over waterways has been shown to kill developing whitebait eggs.{{cite journal|last1=Hickford|first1=Michael|last2=Schiel|first2=David|title=Synergistic interactions within disturbed habitats between temperature, relative humidity and UVB radiation on egg survival in a diadromous fish|journal=PLOS ONE|date=2011|volume=6|issue=9|page=e24318|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0024318|pmid=21931680|pmc=3169581|bibcode=2011PLoSO...624318H|doi-access=free}}

File:Whitebait.JPG

In the United Kingdom today, whitebait principally refers to the fry of Clupeidae fish, young sprats, most commonly herring. They are normally deep-fried, coated in flour or a light batter, and served very hot with sprinkled lemon juice and bread and butter. Whitebait are very hard to buy fresh unless the buyer goes to a fishing harbour early in the morning, as most are frozen on the boat.

Records of whitebait as a food in England date back to 1612. By the 1780s it was fashionable to dine on whitebait. In those days, whitebait was thought to be a species or group on its own right, and the French zoologist Valenciennes proposed that whitebait was a new genus, which he called Rogenia.Fearnley-Whittingstall, Hugh and Fisher, Nick (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=2lBxWxua9H0C&q=whitebait_fry_-cook&pg=PA425 The River Cottage Fish Book] pp. 423–425, Bloomsbury Publishing .{{ISBN|9780747588696}}. In 1903, Dr James Murie, in his 'Report on the sea fisheries and fishing industry of the Thames estuary' conducted studies on the contents of boxes sold as whitebait. He discovered that some boxes of whitebait contained up to 31 species of immature fish, including the fry of eel, plaice, whiting, herring sprat and bass, along with shrimp, crab, octopus and even jellyfish.{{cite book | last = Murie | first = James | author-link = James Murie

| date = 1903

| title = Report on the sea fisheries and fishing industries on the Thames Estuary

| location = London

| publisher = Waterlow Bros. & Layton, Ltd

| pages = 88f

| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/18647735

}}

For Londoners in the 19th century and before, summer excursions down the Thames to Greenwich or Blackwall to dine on whitebait were popular. For instance, the Cabinet undertook such a trip every year shortly before the prorogation of Parliament.{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45275|title=British History Online – The core printed primary and secondary sources for the medieval and modern history of the British Isles|website=www.british-history.ac.uk|access-date=27 August 2018}} An annual whitebait festival takes place in Southend.{{cite web|url=http://www.southendstandard.co.uk/news/southend/9219517.Annual_Southend_Whitebait_Festival_set_to_take_place_next_month/|title=Annual Southend Whitebait Festival set to take place next month|website=Echo|date=26 August 2011 |access-date=27 August 2018}}

Residents of Arecibo, Puerto Rico traditionally fish for whitebait at the mouth of the Río Grande de Arecibo. The fish are known locally as {{lang|es|cetí}} and classified as Pellona bleekeriana{{cite web|url=http://www.ortizal.com/arecibo.html|title=Mejores Aseguranzas de Autos Florida – Ortizal|date=13 April 2018|access-date=27 August 2018}} or Sicydium plumieri.{{cite web|url=http://www.foodiespr.com/2015/02/historia-del-ceti-en-puerto-rico-y-el-caribe/|title=Historia del Cetí en Puerto Rico y el Caribe|date=4 February 2015|access-date=27 August 2018}}{{Cite journal|last=Erdman|first=Donald S.|date=1961-07-01|title=Notes on the Biology of the Gobiid Fish Sicydium plumieri in Puerto Rico|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1961/00000011/00000003/art00005|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|volume=11|issue=3|pages=448–456}}

Elvers are young eels. Traditionally, fishermen consumed elvers as a cheap dish, but environmental changes have reduced eel populations. Similar to whitebait, they are now considered a delicacy and are priced at up to 1 000 euros per kilogram.[http://www.buber.net/Basque/Food/food1.html Basque food: Angulas] Retrieved 14 February 2012.

File:Puntillitas.jpg

Battered and fried baby cephalopods (usually cuttlefish, but sometimes squid or octopus), known as puntillitas or chopitos, are popular in southern Spain and the Balearic Islands and possibly elsewhere.{{CN|date=May 2023}}

{{notelist}}

;Footnotes

{{reflist|33em|refs=

{{citation|last=Iwasa |first=Takahiro |author-link= |chapter=Chirimenjako seibun no seizō jiki ni yoru henka |script-chapter=ja:4)ちりめんじゃこ成分の製造時期による変化 |title=FY Heisei 6 Activity Report |script-title=ja:平成6年度事業報告 |publisher=Hyogo Prefectural Tajima Fisheries Experimental Station |date=1994 |chapter-url=http://jsnfri.fra.affrc.go.jp/pref/hyogo/tajima1994/pdf/96-98.pdf |pages=96–98}}

{{citation|last1=Nagasaki |first1=Fukuzō |author1-link= |last2=Chikuni |first2=Shirō |author2-link= |title=Management of Multispecies Resources and Multi-gear Fisheries |publisher=United Nations Food & Agriculture Org. |date=1989

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YrzOHJesLXAC&pg=PA29 |page=29|isbn=9789251028483 }}

{{citation|author= |author1-link= |title=tatami-iwashi |work=Multilingual Dictionary of Fish and Fish Products |edition=5 |publisher=OECD/Wiley |date=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5AnWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 |page=243|isbn=9789264056473 }}

{{citation|last1=Nii |first1=Yoshitaka |author1-link= |last2=Fukuta |first2=Kazuhiro |author2-link= |last3=Kiyokage |first3=Ryoko |author3-link= |last4=Sakai |first4=Kentaro |author4-link=|last5=Yamamoto |first5=Shigeru |author5-link=|title=Shirasuboshi karushūmu no kayōsei ni oyobosu kankitsu kajū no eikyō: in vitro de no kentō |script-title=ja:しらす干しカルシウムの可溶化に及ぼす柑橘果汁の影響―in vitroでの検討 |trans-title=In vitro Effects of Citrus Fruit Juices on Solubilization of Calcium from Shirasuboshi (Boiled and Semi-dried Whitebaits) |journal=J. Jpn. Soc. Nutr. Food Sci. |volume=50 |number=6 |date=1997|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jsnfs1983/50/6/50_6_439/_pdf/-char/ja |pages=439–443|doi=10.4327/jsnfs.50.439 |doi-access=free }}; [https://books.google.com/books?id=RK5KAAAAYAAJ&q=shirasuboshi text]@Google (abstract in English).

{{cite web|author= |date=|title=Shirasu no miwake-kata |script-title=ja:シラスの見分け方 |trans-title=How to distinguish shirasu |url=https://fish-exp.pref.shizuoka.jp/04library/4-1-shirasu/4-1-7-shirasu.html |publisher=Shizuoka Prefectural Research Institute of Fishery and Ocean |accessdate=2021-03-31}}

{{citation|last1=Tsuji |first1=Shoko |author1-link= |last2=Aoyama |first2=Tsuneo |author2-link= |last3=Kiyokage |title=Daily growth increments in otoliths from of Japanese Anchovy Larvae Engraulis japonica |script-title=ja:カタクチイワシ仔魚の耳石にみられる日輪構造 |trans-title= |journal=Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries |volume=50 |number=7 |date=July 1984 |url=https://agriknowledge.affrc.go.jp/RN/2010292362.pdf |pages=1105–1108 |doi=10.2331/suisan.50.1105 |issn=0021-5392

}}; [https://books.google.com/books?id=m2VRAAAAYAAJ&q=shirasu text]@Google (abstract in English).

}}

;Bibliography

{{refbegin}}

• {{citation|last=Ikematsu |first=Masato |author-link= |title=Shizuoka-ken ni okeru shirasu-gyogyō no seisan to kakōhin shukka ni kansuru kenkyū |script-title=ja:静岡県におけるシラス漁業の生産と加工品出荷に関する研究 |trans-title=Studies on the Production and on the Shipment of Processed Products in the Shirasu (larval anchovy) Fishery of Shizuoka Prefect |journal=Journal of the Faculty of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University |issue=22 |date=January 1986 |url=https://agriknowledge.affrc.go.jp/RN/2010343033.pdf |pages=171–185}}; [https://books.google.com/books?id=diweAQAAMAAJ&q=kamaage text]@Google (abstract in English).
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• {{citation|last=Kurogi |first=Ryūichi |author-link= |title=Shirasuboshi |script-title=ja:しらす干し |trans-title= |journal=Shokuhin to Yōki: Food and Packaging |volume=55 |number=10 |date=2014 |publisher=Kangiken |url=http://kangiken.net/backnumber/5510_bknum.pdf |pages=606–614 |language=ja}}
• {{citation|last=Sakata |first=Yukiko |author-link= |title=Shihan shirasuboshi no hinshitsu chōsa |script-title=ja:市販しらす干しの品質調査 |trans-title=Survey on the quality of "Shirasuboshi" boiled and semidried juvenile fish of Japanese anchovy on the market |journal=Journal of Home Economics of Japan |volume=40 |issue=5 |date=1989|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jhej1987/40/5/40_5_335/_pdf/-char/ja |pages=335–339 |language=ja}}

{{refend}}

{{wiktionary | whitebait}}

• [http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/FishFrogsAndReptiles/WhitebaitAndWhitebaiting/en Whitebait and whitebaiting] in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
• {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Whitebait}}
• {{cite book | last= Williams | first= Roger |year= 2016| title= Whitebait and the Thames Fisheries | location=London | publisher= Bristol Book Publishing | isbn=978-0-9928466-5-7}}

{{commercial fish topics}}

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