enosis

File:Territorial Expansion of Greece from 1832–1947.gif

The boundaries of the Kingdom of Greece were originally established at the London Conference of 1832{{cite web|title=On This Day In History: Independence Of Greece Is Recognized By The Treaty Of London – On May 7, 1832|url=http://www.ancientpages.com/2016/05/07/day-history-independence-greece-recognized-treaty-london-may-7-1832/|website=Ancient Pages|date=7 May 2016}} following the Greek War of Independence.{{cite book|title=Orthodoxy and Islam: Theology and Muslim–Christian Relations in Modern Greece and Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YXCDgAAQBAJ|first= Nikodemos|last=Anagnostopoulos|publisher= Routledge|year=2017|isbn=9781315297910}} The Duke of Wellington wanted the new state to be limited to the Peloponnese{{cite book|title=The New Cultural Atlas of the Greek World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yqUAPUC0CA0C|first=Tim|last=Cooke|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2010|isbn=9780761478782|page=174}} because Britain wished to preserve as much of the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire as possible. The initial Greek state included little more than the Peloponnese, Attica and the Cyclades. Its population amounted to less than one million, with three times as many ethnic Greeks living outside it, mainly in Ottoman territory.{{cite book|title=The Balkans: From Constantinople to Communism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQGIDAAAQBAJ|first=D|last=Hupchick|publisher=Springer|year=2002|isbn=9780312299132|page=223}} Many of them aspired to be incorporated in the kingdom, and movements among them calling for enosis (union) with Greece, often achieved popular support. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Greece expanded with a number of territorial gains.

The Ionian Islands had been placed under British protection as a result of the Treaty of Paris in 1815,{{cite book|title=Constitutionalism, Legitimacy, and Power: Nineteenth-century Experiences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_uKBAAAQBAJ|editor1-first=Kelly L.|editor1-last=Grotke|editor2-first=Markus Josef|editor2-last=Prutsch|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780198723059|page=28}} but once Greek independence had been established after 1830, the islanders began to resent foreign colonial rule and to press for enosis. Britain transferred the islands to Greece in 1864.

Thessaly remained under Ottoman control after the formation of the Kingdom of Greece. Although parts of the territory had participated in the initial uprisings in the Greek War of Independence in 1821, the revolts had been swiftly crushed. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, Greece remained neutral as a result of assurances by the great powers that her territorial claims on the Ottoman Empire would be considered after the war. In 1881, Greece and the Ottoman Empire signed the Convention of Constantinople, which created a new Greco-Turkish border that Incorporated most of Thessaly into Greece.

Crete rebelled against Ottoman rule during the Cretan Revolt of 1866-69 and used the motto "Crete, Enosis, Freedom or Death". The Cretan State was established after the intervention of the Great Powers, and Cretan union with Greece occurred de facto in 1908 and de jure in 1913 by the Treaty of Bucharest.

An unsuccessful Greek uprising in Macedonia against Ottoman rule had taken place during the Greek War of Independence. There was a failed rebellion in 1854 that aimed to unite Macedonia with Greece.{{cite book|title=Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: prelude to collapse, 1839-1878|year=2000|first=James J.|last=Reid|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|isbn=9783515076876|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zgg6c_Ndtu4C|pages=249–252}} The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 after the Russo-Turkish War awarded nearly all of Macedonia to Bulgaria. That resulted in the 1878 Greek Macedonian rebellion and the reversal of the award at the Treaty of Berlin (1878), leaving the territory in Ottoman hands. Then followed the protracted Macedonian Struggle between Greeks and Bulgarians in the region, the resultant guerrilla war not coming to an end until the revolution of Young Turks in July 1908. Bulgarian and Greek rivalries over Macedonia became part of the Balkan Wars of 1912–13, with the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest awarding Greece large parts of Macedonia, including Thessaloniki. The Treaty of London (1913) awarded southern Epirus to Greece, the Epirus region having rebelled against Ottoman rule during the Epirus Revolt of 1854 and the Epirus Revolt of 1878.

In 1821, several parts of Western Thrace rebelled against Ottoman rule and participated in the Greek War of Independence. During the Balkan Wars, Western Thrace was occupied by Bulgarian troops, and in 1913, Bulgaria gained Western Thrace under the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest. After World War I, Western Thrace was withdrawn from Bulgaria under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Neuilly and temporarily managed by the Allies before being it was given to Greece at the San Remo Conference in 1920.

After World War I, Greece began the Occupation of Smyrna and of surrounding areas of Western Anatolia in 1919 at the invitation of the victorious Allies, particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George. The occupation was given official status in the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, with Greece being awarded most of Eastern Thrace and a mandate to govern Smyrna and its hinterland.{{cite book|title=Eastern Europe|volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C|first=Richard|last=Frucht|year=2005|isbn=9781576078006|page=888|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic}} Smyrna was declared a protectorate in 1922, but the attempted enosis failed since the new Turkish Republic prevailed in the resulting Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, when most Anatolian Christians who had not already fled during the war were forced to relocate to Greece in the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.

Most of the Dodecanese Islands were slated to become part of the new Greek state in the London Protocol of 1828, but when Greek independence was recognised in the London Protocol of 1830, the islands were left outside the new Kingdom of Greece. They were occupied by Italy in 1912 and held until World War II, when they became a British military protectorate. The islands were formally united with Greece by the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy, despite objections from Turkey, which also desired them.

The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in 1914 by ethnic Greeks in Northern Epirus, the area having been incorporated into Albania after the Balkan Wars. Greece held the area between 1914 and 1916 and unsuccessfully tried to annex it in March 1916,{{cite book |last1=Konidaris |first1=Gerasimos |editor1-first=Stephanie |editor1-last=Schwandner-Sievers |title=The new Albanian migrations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05Mw4-b9oN0C&q=omonoia+five&pg=PA74 |year=2005 |publisher=Sussex Academic Publishing |isbn=9781903900789 |page=66}} but in 1917 Greek forces were driven from the area by Italy, who took over most of Albania.{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer|last2=Roberts|first2=Priscilla Mary|title=World War I: encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA77|access-date=26 January 2011|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-420-2|page=77}} The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 awarded the area to Greece, but Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War made the area revert to Albanian control.{{cite book |last=Miller |first=William |title=The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801-1927 |publisher=Routledge |year=1966 |pages=543–544 |ref=Miller |isbn=978-0-7146-1974-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HaA18-u7mMMC}} Italy's invasion of Greece from the territory of Albania in 1940 and the successful Greek counterattack let the Greek army briefly hold Northern Epirus for a six-month period until the German invasion of Greece in 1941. Tensions between Greece and Albania remained high during the Cold War, but relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of the official state of war between both countries.

In modern times, apart from Cyprus, the call for enosis is most often heard among part of the Greek community living in southern Albania.{{cite book|last=Stein|first=Jonathan|title=The politics of national minority participation in post-communist Europe : state-building, democracy, and ethnic mobilization|year=2000|publisher=Sharpe|location=Armonk, N.Y.|isbn=9780765605283|pages=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xeFNV40_EUAC&q=%22enosis%22&pg=PA181}}

In 1828, the first President of Greece, Ioannis Kapodistrias, called for the union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place.{{cite book |author= William Mallinson, Bill Mallinson |title= Cyprus: a modern history |url= https://archive.org/details/cyprusmodernhist00mall |url-access= limited |publisher= I.B.Tauris |year= 2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cyprusmodernhist00mall/page/n30 10] |isbn= 9781850435808 | quote= {{ISBN|1-85043-580-4}}" "In 1828, modern Greece’s first president, Count Kapodistria, called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and various minor uprising took place. }} Cyprus was at that time part of the Ottoman Empire. At the 1878 Congress of Berlin the administration of Cyprus was transferred to Britain,{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Cyprus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f82Jn_H4VukC|first=Farid|last=Mirbagheri|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2009|isbn=9780810862982|page=25}} and upon Garnet Wolseley's arrival as the first high-commissioner in July the Archbishop of Kition requested that Britain transfer the administration of Cyprus to Greece.{{sfnp|Mirbagheri|2009|p=57}} Britain annexed Cyprus in 1914.

The death of Limassol–Paphos MP Christodoulos Sozos during the course of the Battle of Bizani during the First Balkan War, left a lasting mark on the Enosis movement and was one of its most important events before the 1931 Cyprus revolt. Greek schools and courts suspended their activities, and a court in Nicosia also raised a flag in honour of Sozos, thus breaking the law since Britain had maintained a neutral stance in the conflict. Mnemosyna were held in dozens of villages across Cyprus, as well as in Cypriot communities in Athens, Egypt and Sudan. Greek Cypriot newspapers were swept with nationalist fervor comparing Sozos with Pavlos Melas. A photo of Sozos was placed in the Hellenic Parliament.{{sfn|Papapolyviou|1996|pp=186–193, 340}}{{sfn|Klapsis|2013|pp=765–767}}

Britain offered to cede the island to Greece in 1915 in return for Greece joining the allies in World War I, but the offer was refused.{{cite book|title=Winding Up the British Empire in the Pacific Islands|first=W. David|last=McIntyre|publisher=OUP|year=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MqzSAgAAQBAJ|series=Oxford History of the British Empire|isbn=9780198702436|page=72}} Turkey relinquished all claims to Cyprus in 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne, and the island became a British Crown colony in 1925.{{cite book|title=Kontaktlinguistik|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cWcxCLjtI0C|editor-first=Hans|editor-last=Goebl|display-editors=etal|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2008|series=Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft|volume=12|isbn=9783110203240|page=1579}} In 1929, a Greek Cypriot delegation was sent to London to request enosis but received a negative response.{{cite book|title=British Foreign Policy Towards Turkey, 1959-1965|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKra_V2GC24C|first=Cihat|last=Goktepe|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9781135294144|page=92}} After anti-British riots in 1931, the desire for self-government within the British Commonwealth developed, but the movement for enosis became dominant.{{cite book|title= The Middle East and North Africa 2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CfBKvsiWeQC|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2002|isbn=9781857431322|series=Regional surveys of the world|edition=49th|pages=242–5}}

Greek Cypriots made up around 80% of the island's population between 1882 and 1960,{{cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-3504.html |title=Cyprus – Population |publisher=Country-data.com |date=January 1991 |access-date=11 November 2024}} and the enosis movement resulted from the nationalist awareness that was developing among them, coupled with the growth of the anticolonial movement throughout the British Empire after World War II. In the minds of Greek Cypriots, the enosis movement was the only natural outcome of the liberation of Cyprus from Ottoman rule and later British rule.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} A string of British proposals for local autonomy under continued British suzerainty were roundly rejected.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}

In the 1950s, the influence of the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus over the education system resulted in the ideas of Greek nationalism and enosis being promoted in Greek Cypriot schools. School textbooks portrayed Turks as the enemies of Greeks, and students took an oath of allegiance to the Greek flag. The British authorities attempted to counter that by publishing an intercommunal periodical for students and by suspending the Cyprus Scouts Association for its Greek nationalist tendencies.{{cite book|last1=Lange|first1=Matthew|title=Educations in Ethnic Violence: Identity, Educational Bubbles, and Resource Mobilization|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139505444|pages=101–5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ac2NRpHoY3EC&pg=101}}

In December 1949, the Cypriot Orthodox Church asked the British colonial government to put the enosis question to a referendum on the basis of the right of the Cypriots' for self-determination. Even though the British had been an ally of Greece during World War II and had recently supported the Greek government during the Greek Civil War, the British colonial government refused.

In 1950, Archbishop Spyridon of Athens led the call for Cypriot enosis in Greece.{{cite book|title=Stirring the Greek Nation: Political Culture, Irredentism and Anti-Americanism in Post-war Greece, 1945-1967|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4x71iWyYNkC|first=Giannēs D.|last=Stephanidēs|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2007|isbn=9780754660590|page=109}} The Church was a strong supporter of enosis and organised a plebiscite, the Cypriot enosis referendum, which was held on 15 and 22 January 1950; only Greek Cypriots could vote. Open books were placed in churches for those over 18 to sign and to indicate whether they supported or opposed enosis. The majority in support of enosis was 95.7%.{{sfn|Goktepe|2013|pp=92–3}}[http://www.sudd.ch/event.php?lang=en&id=cy011950 Zypern, 22. Januar 1950 : Anschluss an Griechenland] Direct Democracy Later, there were accusations that the local Greek Orthodox church had told its congregation that not to vote for enosis would have meant excommunication from the church.{{cite web |url=http://cyprus.novopress.info/?p=62 |title=ΕΝΩΤΙΚΟ ΔΗΜΟΨΗΦΙΣΜΑ 15-22/1/1950 (in Greek, includes image of a signature page) |publisher=Cyprus.novopress.info |access-date=2011-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721225812/http://cyprus.novopress.info/?p=62 |archive-date=2011-07-21 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url=http://www.hellas.org/cyprus/dimopsif.htm |title=Κύπρος: το ενωτικό δημοψήφισμα που έγινε με υπογραφές (in Greek) |publisher=Hellas.org |date=1967-04-21 |access-date=2011-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303150557/http://www.hellas.org/cyprus/dimopsif.htm|archive-date=3 March 2001}}

After the referendum, a Greek Cypriot deputation visited Greece, Britain and the United Nations to make its case, and Turkish Cypriots and student and youth organisations in Turkey protested the plebiscite. In the event, neither Britain nor the UN was persuaded to support enosis.{{sfn|Goktepe|2013|p=93}} In 1951, a report was produced by the British government's Smaller Territories Enquiry into the future of the British Empire's smaller territories, including Cyprus. It concluded that Cyprus should never be independent from Britain. That view was strengthened by Britain's withdrawal of its Suez Canal base in 1954 and the transfer of its Middle East Headquarters to Cyprus. In 1954, Greece made its first formal request to the UN for the implementation of "the principle of equal rights and of self-determination of the peoples", in the case of the Cypriot population. Until 1958, four other requests to the United Nations were made unsuccessfully by the Greek government.Emis i Ellines- Polemiki istoria tis Synhronis Elladas ("Greeks- War History of Modern Greece"), Skai Vivlio press, 2008, chapter by nikos Papanastasiou "The Cypriot Issue", p. 125, 142

In 1955, the resistance organisation EOKA started a campaign against British rule to bring about enosis with Greece. The campaign lasted until 1959,{{sfn|Goktepe|2013|p=93}} when many argued that enosis was politically unfeasible because of the strong minority of Turkish Cypriots and their increasing assertiveness. Instead, the creation of an independent state with elaborate powersharing arrangements among both communities was agreed upon in 1960, and the fragile Republic of Cyprus was born.

The idea of union with Greece was not immediately abandoned, however. During the campaign for the 1968 presidential elections, Cypriot President Makarios III said that enosis was "desirable" but that independence was "possible".{{citation needed|date=June 2011}}

In the early 1970s, the idea of enosis remained attractive to many Greek Cypriots, and Greek Cypriot students condemned Makarios's support for an independent unitary state. In 1971 the pro-enosis paramilitary group EOKA B was formed, and Makarios declared his opposition to the use of violence to achieve enosis. EOKA B began a series of attacks against the Makarios government, and in 1974, the Cypriot National Guard organised a military coup against Makarios that was supported by the Greek government under the control of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974. Rauf Denktaş, the Turkish Cypriot leader, called for military intervention by the United Kingdom and Turkey to prevent enosis. Turkey acted unilaterally, and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus began. Turkey has since occupied Northern Cyprus.

The events of 1974 caused the geographic partition of Cyprus and massive population transfers. The subsequent events seriously undermined the enosis movement. The departure of Turkish Cypriots from the areas that remained under effective control of Cyprus resulted in a homogeneous Greek Cypriot society in the southern two thirds of the island. The remaining third of the island is majority Turkish Cypriot, and increasing numbers of Turkish nationals have been migrating there from Turkey.

In 2017 the Cypriot Parliament passed a law to allow for the celebration of the 1950 Cypriot enosis referendum in Greek Cypriot government schools.{{cite news|title=Turkey slams Greek Cyprus' Enosis move|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-slams-greek-cyprus-enosis-move-109772|newspaper=Hürriyet Daily News|date=15 February 2017|access-date=10 January 2018}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2021}}

File:Albania declared Greeks census 2011.png

The history of Northern Epirus in the period 1913–1921 was marked by the desire of the local Greek element for union with the Kingdom of Greece, as well as the redemptive desire of Greek politics to annex this region, which was eventually awarded to the Albanian Principality.

During the First Balkan War, Northern Epirus, which hosted a significant minority of Orthodox speakers who spoke either Greek or Albanian, was, at the same time as South Epirus, under the control of the Greek army, which had previously repelled Ottoman forces. Greece wanted to annex these territories. However, Italy and Austria-Hungary opposed this, while the Treaty of Florence of 1913 granted Northern Epirus to Albania's newly formed Principality, the majority of whose inhabitants were Muslims. Thus, the Greek army withdrew from the area, but the Christians of Epirus, denying the international situation, decided, with the secret support of the Greek state, to create an autonomous regime, based in Argyrokastro (Albanian: Gjirokastër).

Given Albania's political instability, the autonomy of Northern Epirus was finally ratified by the Great Powers with the signing of the Protocol of Corfu on May 17, 1914. The agreement did recognize the special status of the Epirotes and their right to self-determination. under the legal authority of Albania. However, the agreement never materialized, as the Albanian government collapsed in August, and Prince William of Wied, who was appointed leader of the country in February, returned to Germany in September.

Shortly after the outbreak of World War I, in October 1914, the Kingdom of Greece recaptured the region. However, the ambiguous attitude of the Central Powers on Greek issues during the Great War, led France and Italy to the joint occupation of Epirus in September 1916. At the end of World War I, however, the Agreement of Tittoni with Venizelos foresaw the annexation of the region to Greece. Eventually, Greece's military involvement with Mustafa Kemal's Turkey worked in the interest of Albania, which permanently annexed the region on 9 November 1920.

{{Further|Armistice of Mudros|Occupation of Istanbul|Partition of the Ottoman Empire}}

{{Overly detailed|section|date=March 2021}}

File:Occupation of Constantinople 3.jpg]]

File:Treaty of Sèvres 1920.svg according to the Treaty of Sèvres]]

At the end of World War I (1914–1918), attention of the Allied Powers (Entente Powers) focused on the partition of the territory of the Ottoman Empire. As part of the Treaty of London (1915), by which Italy left the Triple Alliance (with Germany and Austria-Hungary) and joined France, Great Britain and Russia in the Triple Entente, Italy was promised the Dodecanese and, if the partition of the Ottoman Empire were to occur, land in Anatolia including Antalya and surrounding provinces presumably including Smyrna.{{cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Peter Kincaid|title=The Greco-Turkish War, 1920–1922|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|year=1979|volume=10|series=4|issue=4|pages=553–565|doi=10.1017/s0020743800051333|s2cid=163086095 }} But in later 1915, as an inducement to enter the war, British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey in private discussion with Eleftherios Venizelos, the Greek Prime Minister at the time, promised large parts of the Anatolian coast to Greece, including Smyrna. Venizelos resigned from his position shortly after this communication, but when he had formally returned to power in June 1917, Greece entered the war on the side of the Entente.{{cite journal|last=Finefrock|first=Michael M.|title=Atatürk, Lloyd George and the Megali Idea: Cause and Consequence of the Greek Plan to Seize Constantinople from the Allies, June–August 1922|journal=The Journal of Modern History|year=1980|volume=53|issue=1|pages=1047–1066|doi=10.1086/242238|s2cid=144330013}}

On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Entente powers and the Ottoman Empire ending the Ottoman front of World War I. Great Britain, Greece, Italy, France, and the United States began discussing what the treaty provisions regarding the partition of Ottoman territory would be, negotiations which resulted in the Treaty of Sèvres. These negotiations began in February 1919 and each country had distinct negotiating preferences about Smyrna. The French, who had large investments in the region, took a position for territorial integrity of a Turkish state that would include the zone of Smyrna. The British were at loggerheads over the issue with the War Office and India Office promoting the territorial integrity idea and Prime Minister David Lloyd George and the Foreign Office, headed by Lord Curzon, opposed to this suggestion and wanting Smyrna to be under separate administration.{{cite journal|last=Montgomery|first=A. E.|title=The Making of the Treaty of Sèvres of 10 August 1920|journal=The Historical Journal|year=1972|volume=15|issue=4|pages=775–787|doi=10.1017/S0018246X0000354X|s2cid=159577598 }} The Italian position was that Smyrna was rightfully their possession and so the diplomats would refuse to make any comments when Greek control over the area was discussed.{{cite book|last=Llewellyn-Smith|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Llewellyn-Smith|title=Ionian Vision : Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922.|year=1999|publisher=C. Hurst|location=London|isbn=9781850653684|pages=92|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4OuoSFztt8C&q=stergiadis+smyrna&pg=PA97|edition=New edition, 2nd impression}} The Greek government, pursuing Venizelos' support for the Megali Idea (to bring areas with a majority Greek population or with historical or religious ties to Greece under the control of the Greek state) and supported by Lloyd George, began a large propaganda effort to promote their claim to Smyrna including establishing a mission under the foreign minister in the city. Moreover, the Greek claim over the Smyrna area (which appeared to have a clear Greek majority, although exact percentages varied depending on the sources) were supported by Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points which emphasized the right to autonomous development for minorities in Anatolia.{{cite book|last=Myhill|first=John|title=Language, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East : a historical study|year=2006|publisher=Benjamins|location=Amsterdam [u.a.]|isbn=9789027227119|pages=243|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dJK3YxI1NM8C&q=smyrna+greeks+majority&pg=PT252}} In negotiations, despite French and Italian objections, by the middle of February 1919 Lloyd George shifted the discussion to how Greek administration would work and not whether Greek administration would happen. To further this aim, he brought in a set of experts, including Arnold J. Toynbee, to discuss how the zone of Smyrna would operate and what its impacts would be on the population. Following this discussion, in late February 1919, Venezilos appointed Aristeidis Stergiadis, a close political ally, the High Commissioner of Smyrna (appointed over political riser Themistoklis Sofoulis).

In April 1919, the Italians landed and took over Antalya and began showing signs of moving troops towards Smyrna. During the negotiations at about the same time, the Italian delegation walked out when it became clear that Fiume (Rijeka) would not be given to them in the peace outcome. Lloyd George saw an opportunity to break the impasse over Smyrna with the absence of the Italian delegation and, according to Jensen, he "concocted a report that an armed uprising of Turkish guerrillas in the Smyrna area was seriously endangering the Greek and other Christian minorities." Both to protect local Christians and also to limit increasing Italian action in Anatolia, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson supported a Greek military occupation of Smyrna. Although Smyrna would be occupied by Greek troops, authorized by the Allies, the Allies did not agree that Greece would take sovereignty over the territory until further negotiations settled this issue. The Italian delegation acquiesced to this outcome and the Greek occupation was authorized.

{{Further|Great Fire of Smyrna|Treaty of Lausanne |On the Quai at Smyrna}}

File:Great Fire of Smyrna.jpg (1922)]]

Greek troops evacuated Smyrna on 9 September 1922 and a small allied force of British entered the city to prevent looting and violence. The next day, Mustafa Kemal, leading a number of troops, entered the city and was greeted by enthusiastic Turkish crowds. Atrocities by Turkish troops and irregulars against the Greek and Armenian population occurred immediately after the takeover.{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring |author2=Noelle Watson |author3=Paul Schellinger |title=Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134259588|page=351|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qcr9AQAAQBAJ&q=%22Kemal%27s+triumphant+entry+into+Izmir+on+September+9%2C+1922%2C+was+fol%E2%80%94+lowed+by+three+days+of+atrocities%2C+as+Greek+and+Armenian+inhabitants+were+raped%2C+mutilate%2C+and+murdered%22%22&pg=PA351 |access-date=23 February 2014|quote=Kemal's triumphant entry into Smyrna... as Greek and Armenian inhabitants were raped, mutilated, and murdered.}}{{cite book|last=Abulafia|first=David|title=The Great Sea : A Human History of the Mediterranean|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780195323344|page=287|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKcQPBV0UdQC&q=smyrna+1922+september+irregulars&pg=PA587|access-date=23 February 2014|quote=As the refugees crowded into the city, massacres, rape and looting, mainly but not exclusively by the irregulars, became the unspoken order of the day... Finally, the streets and houses of Smyrna were soaked in petrol... and on 13 September the city was set alight.}} Most notably, Chrysostomos, the Orthodox bishop, was lynched by a mob of Turkish citizens. A few days afterward, a fire destroyed the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city, while the Turkish and Jewish quarters remained undamaged.{{cite journal | last = Stewart | first = Matthew| title = It Was All a Pleasant Business: The Historical Context of 'On the Quai at Smyrna'|journal=The Hemingway Review|date=2003-01-01|volume=23|issue=1|pages=58–71|doi=10.1353/hem.2004.0014| s2cid = 153449331}} Culpability for the fire is blamed on all ethnic groups and clear blame remains elusive. On the Turkish side—but not among Greeks—the events are known as the "Liberation of İzmir".

The evacuation of Smyrna by Greek troops ended most of the large scale fighting in the Greco-Turkish war which was formally ended with an Armistice and a final treaty on 24 July 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne. Much of the Greek population was included in the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulting in migration to Greece and elsewhere.

Under the Treaty between Great Britain and [Austria, Prussia and] Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815), Britain obtained a protectorate over the Ionian Islands, and under Article VIII of the treaty the Austrian Empire was granted the same trading privileges with the Islands as Britain.{{cite book|last=Hammond |first=Richard James |year=1966 |title=Portugal and Africa, 1815–1910 : a study in uneconomic imperialism|url=https://archive.org/details/portugalafrica180000hamm |url-access=registration |publisher=Stanford University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/portugalafrica180000hamm/page/2 2] |isbn=0-8047-0296-9}} As agreed in Article IV of the treaty a "New Constitutional Charter for the State" was drawn up and was formalised with the ratification of the "Maitland constitution" on 26 August 1817, which created a federation of the seven islands, with Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Maitland its first "Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands".{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

A few years later Greek nationalist groups started to form. Although their energy in the early years was directed to supporting their fellow Greek revolutionaries in the revolution against the Ottoman Empire, they switched their focus to enosis with Greece following their independence. The Party of Radicals (Greek: Κόμμα των Ριζοσπαστών) founded in 1848 as a pro-enosis political party. In September 1848 there were skirmishes with the British garrison in Argostoli and Lixouri on Kefalonia, which led to a certain level relaxation in the enforcement of the protectorate's laws, and freedom of the press as well. The island's populace did not hide their growing demands for enosis, and newspapers on the islands frequently published articles criticising British policies in the protectorate. On 15 August in 1849, another rebellion broke out, which was quashed by Henry George Ward, who proceeded to temporarily impose martial law.{{Cite web|url=http://www.ionion.com/english/kefalonia/culture/history/british.htm|title=The English in the Ionian Islands|website=www.ionion.com|accessdate=25 February 2024}}

On 26 November 1850, the Radical MP John Detoratos Typaldos proposed in the Ionian parliament the resolution for the enosis of the Ionian Islands with Greece which was signed by Gerasimos Livadas, Nadalis Domeneginis, George Typaldos, Frangiskos Domeneginis, Ilias Zervos Iakovatos, Iosif Momferatos, Telemachus Paizis, Ioannis Typaldos, Aggelos Sigouros-Dessyllas, Christodoulos Tofanis. In 1862, the party split into two factions, the "United Radical Party" and the "Real Radical Party". During the period of British rule, William Ewart Gladstone visited the islands and recommended their reunion with Greece, to the chagrin of the British government.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

On 29 March 1864, representatives of Great Britain, Greece, France, and Russia signed the Treaty of London, pledging the transfer of sovereignty to Greece upon ratification; this was meant to bolster the reign of the newly installed King George I of Greece. Thus, on 28 May, by proclamation of the Lord High Commissioner, the Ionian Islands were united with Greece.{{cite book | last = Hertslet | first = Edward | author-link= Edward Hertslet | title = The map of Europe by treaty | url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k960368/f31 | format = PDF | access-date = 21 July 2006 | page = 1609 }}

File:GrikoSpeakingCommunitiesTodayV4.png

File:Koenigreich beider Sizilien.jpg

Since the beginning of the 2010s, an online social movement has been launched to awaken the Greek consciousness of the inhabitants of Southern Italy and also to express an opinion that highlights the desire of a part of the inhabitants of the south for secession from the state of Italy, its union with the Hellenism of the Mediterranean Sea (and re-establishment of Magna Graecia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies).{{cite web | url=https://www.newsbomb.gr/synenteyxeis/story/1448121/oi-katoikoi-tis-notias-italias-theloun-na-ksana-ginoun-megali-ellada | title=Οι κάτοικοι της Νότιας Ιταλίας θέλουν να (ξανα)γίνουν Μεγάλη Ελλάδα! | date=14 July 2023 }}

Through pages mainly on Facebook, historical issues are highlighted that have more to do with the Greek presence in Italy that begins with the migration of the Greek diaspora in the 8th century BC., the linguistic minority, known as Griko in Calabria, Apulia and Messina, the modern day Greeks of Italy and in general the inhabitants of the south who call themselves Great-Greeks (MagnoGreci).{{Cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/en-US/Policy/Geographic+Regions/Europe/Relationships+with+EU+Member+States/Italy/ |title=Greek MFA: Greek community in Italy |access-date=April 4, 2008 |archive-date=July 17, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060717183746/http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/en-US/Policy/Geographic+Regions/Europe/Relationships+with+EU+Member+States/Italy/ |url-status=dead }}

The largest Facebook page highlighting the specific issues called "Stato Magna Grecia - Due Sicilie", has over 270,000 followers, mainly Italians but also several Greeks and Griko, expressing the need for the secession of Sicily and the whole of Southern Italy, the so-called Mezzogiorno and its enosis with Greece and Cyprus. This page and other pages based in Italy highlight the achievements of ancient Magna Graecia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies as well as the close relations that the people of Southern Italy have with Greece.{{cite web | url=https://www.reader.gr/kosmos/anypotakto-horio-sto-facebook-poy-oneireyetai-tin-enosi-italias-kai-elladas/525747 | title=Το ανυπότακτο «χωριό» στο Facebook που ονειρεύεται την ένωση Ιταλίας και Ελλάδας | date=22 July 2023 }}

According to the administrators of these Facebook pages, the unification of Italy, in which Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily in 1860 played a decisive role, for many inhabitants of southern Italy more represents the beginning of a form of colonialism while for them the union was made on the terms of the Italian north, which essentially imposed its own powers, its language, its culture, the Italian South was more economically developed than the North, but this trend was reversed after unification. Thus emerge views interwoven with neo-bourbonism (Italian: Neoborbonismo) which is a form of nostalgia for the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a term coined in 1960 and born with the creation of the separatist movements in Italy while experiencing a significant increase in popularity around 2011 during the celebrations of the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy, the same decade of prominence of the movement of the re-Hellenization and independence of Greater Greece. The Neo-Bourbonist movement is supported by small political movements, amateur websites, leading the Italian newspaper Corriere del Mezzogiorno to report that "Neo-Bourbon revanchism is in vogue in recent years..."{{cite news|author=A. Leogrande|title=Neoborbonici a cinque stelle|journal=Corriere del Mezzogiorno|date=6 July 2017|url=http://corrieredelmezzogiorno.corriere.it/bari/politica/17_luglio_06/neoborbonici-cinque-stelle-72afbb2c-6223-11e7-9295-7f1167187369.shtml}}

On a political level, the administrators of the said Magna Graecia - Two Sicilies pages urged followers during the 2023 national elections in Greece to vote for political parties supporting the demand for independence of South

Italy and union with Greece.

According to Italian media, the Italian political party Insorgenza Magnogreca led by Luigi Lista and based in Naples presents itself as a movement that represents, among others, the Greek identity of Southern Italy.{{cite web | url=https://www.corriereditaranto.it/2022/12/20/nasce-il-movimento-insorgenza/ | title=Nasce il movimento 'Insorgenza' | date=20 December 2022 }}{{cite web | url=https://www.lidentitario.com/2024/07/04/insorgenza-magnogreca-un-movimento-per-lautodeterminazione-dei-popoli-del-mediterraneo/?amp=1 | title=Insorgenza Magnogreca: Un Movimento per l'Autodeterminazione dei Popoli del Mediterraneo - | date=4 July 2024 }} The association "Comitato provincia della Magna Graecia" chaired by Domenico Mazza was created with the aim of promoting the union of all the regions of South Italy into a new separate great region of Italy and developing a stronger connection with Greece.{{cite web | url=https://informazionecomunicazione.it/il-comitato-per-la-baia-della-magna-graecia-un-progetto-di-rinascita-territoriale/ | title=Il Comitato per la Baia della Magna Graecia: Un progetto di rinascita territoriale | date=30 September 2023 }}

In Greece, the far-right party "Hellenic world empire" (Ελληνική Κοσμοκρατορία), which officially seeks the secession of the Italian south, participated in the 2019 European elections in a joint descent with the Popular Orthodox Rally party and the Patriotic Radical Union party of the independent MEP, elected with the Golden Dawn of Eleftherios Synadinos gathered the 1.23%.{{Cite web|url=https://akromolio.gr/2019/04/%CE%AD%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BD-%CE%BF%CE%B9-%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82-%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AD%CF%82-%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1-%CF%84%CE%B7/|title=Έπεσαν οι τελικές 'υπογραφές' για την κοινή πορεία του Γ. Καρατζαφέρη και του Ελ. Συναδινού στις Ευρωεκλογές|date=21 April 2019|accessdate=25 February 2024}}

According to Greek media, the inhabitants of South Italy already have their own flag with the emblem of the ancient Greek triskelion symbolizing the oracle of Delphi by Pythia that determined where the Greek colonies should be established in Italy, as well as an informal national anthem, created by the Greek soprano Sonia Theodoridou.{{cite web | url=https://verianet.gr/sti-napoli-o-neos-imnos-ellados-theodoridou/ | title=Στη Νάπολη ο νέος Ύμνος της Μεγάλης Ελλάδας σε σύνθεση Σόνιας Θεοδωρίδου (27/5/23) - Verianet | date=26 May 2023 }}

File:Greek minority of Sicily flag.svg|Greek minority flag of Sicily

Image:Croton AR SNGANS 398ff.jpg|An ancient Greek coin c. 330–300 BC. found in Croton, South Italy with the head of Apollo (left) and ornate tripod (right)

• Anti-Turkism
• Greek nationalism
• Miatsum
• Taksim

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• {{Cite journal |last=Klapsis |first=Antonis |date=2009 |title=Between the Hammer and the Anvil. The Cyprus Question and the Greek Foreign Policy from the Treaty of Lausanne to the 1931 Revolt|url=https://hephaestus.nup.ac.cy/handle/11728/7388|journal=Modern Greek Studies Yearbook|publisher=University of Minnesota |volume=24 |pages=127–140|access-date=26 May 2017}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Klapsis |first=Antonis |date=2013 |title=The Strategic Importance of Cyprus and the Prospect of Union with Greece, 1919–1931: The Greek Perspective |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=765–782 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2013.789275 |s2cid=161803453 }}
• {{Cite thesis |last=Papapolyviou|first=Petros|date=1996|title=Η Κύπρος και οι Βαλκανικοί Πόλεμοι: Συμβολή στην Ιστορία του Κυπριακού Εθελοντισμού |trans-title=Cyprus and the Balkan Wars: A Contribution to the History of Cypriot Volunteerism |url=https://www.didaktorika.gr/eadd/handle/10442/8976 |publisher=Aristotle University of Thessaloniki|language=el|pages=1–407|doi=10.12681/eadd/8976|hdl=10442/hedi/8976|access-date=6 September 2017|type=Doctoral dissertation|url-access=subscription}}

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