genocide of Indigenous Australians

{{See|History of Indigenous Australians}}When Britain established its first Australian colony in 1788, the Aboriginal population is estimated to have been 300,000 to more than one million people[https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/bfc28642d31c215cca256b350010b3f4!OpenDocument "1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 2002"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116012204/https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/bfc28642d31c215cca256b350010b3f4!OpenDocument|date=16 January 2022}}. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 25 January 2002.{{sfn|McCalman|Kippen|2013|p=294}}{{sfn|Flood|2019|pp=30–35}} whose ancestors had inhabited the land for 50,000 to 65,000 years.{{bulleted list|

| {{harvnb|Veth|O'Connor|2013|p=19}}

| {{harvnb|Clarkson et al.|2017}}

| {{harvnb|Williams|Spooner|McDonnell|O'Connell|2021}}

| {{harvnb|McCutchan|Campbell|2023}}

}} They were complex hunter-gatherers with diverse economies and societies. There were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 languages with various dialects.{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=21–22, 37}}{{Sfn|Broome|2019|p=12}} In the 150 years that followed, the number of Aboriginal Australians fell sharply due to introduced diseases and violent conflict with the colonists that many scholars argue included acts of genocide.{{Sfn|Ryan|2023|p=480}} When the Australian colonies federated in 1901 and the Commonwealth of Australia was established, the Aboriginal population had fallen to just over 90,000 people.

The Torres Strait Islands were progressively annexed to the British colony of Queensland from 1872. The Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands around 2,500 years ago. Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. They developed agriculture on some islands and established villages by the 14th century.{{Sfn|Veth|O'Connor|2013|pp=34–35}}{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=198–199}}

Following federation, Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By then the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established and Church groups ran missions providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people.{{Sfn|Haebich|Kinnane|2013|pp=333–334}}

Some officials argued that the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage was inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers.{{Sfn|Broome|2019|pp=195–198}} The policy of forced removal of Aboriginal children from their parents created the "stolen generations", and the Australian Human Rights Commission concluded in 1997 that this policy constituted genocide.{{Cite web |date=April 1997 |title=Bringing them Home Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families |url=https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/bringing-them-home-chapter-2 |access-date=27 June 2021 |website=humanrights.gov.au}}

{{clear}}

File:Aboriginals fighting against the europeans invading their natural homes.png, 1838.{{cite web|url=https://explore.moadoph.gov.au/timelines/equal-rights#milestone=myall-creek-massacre |title=Exploring Democracy. Myall Creek massacre |website=Museum of Australian Democracy |date=9 June 2021}}]]

File:Mounted police and blacks.jpg of 1838]]

File:In chain native australians.jpg prison, 1902{{cite web |url=https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/australian-aborigines-chains-1902/ |title=Australian Aborigines in chains at Wyndham prison, 1902 |website=Rare Historical Photos|date=28 December 2015 }}]]

Scholars have used various definitions of genocide to argue that acts of genocide against Indigenous Australians occurred after 1788. The most widely used definition of genocide is that of the 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention. Under the convention, genocide requires the perpetrator to commit acts with the intention to destroy, wholly or partly, "a national, ethnical, racial or religious group".{{Sfn|Kiernan|Madley|Taylor|2023|pp=1–3}} Genocidal acts include killing members of the group, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, inflicting conditions on them calculated to destroy them, taking measures to prevent the group bearing children, and forcibly transferring their children to other groups.{{Sfn|Kiernan|Madley|Taylor|2023|pp=1–3}}

Some scholars have used different definitions of genocide{{Sfn|Kiernan|Madley|Taylor|2023|pp=1–3}} or have argued that colonist committed acts not captured by the UN convention which they variously describe as cultural genocide,{{Sfn|Reynolds|2022|p=156}} genocidal massacres, ethnocide or Indigenocide.{{Sfn|Evans|2023|p=511}}

Scholars have argued that acts of genocide against Indigenous Australians included:

1. Massacres.{{cite web |date=1 January 2020 |title=New evidence reveals Aboriginal massacres committed on extensive scale |url=https://www.newcastle.edu.au/newsroom/featured/new-evidence-reveals-aboriginal-massacres-committed-on-extensive-scale |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=University of Newcastle, Australia |archive-url= |archive-date=}}{{Sfn|Ryan|2023|p=480}} Particularly in the frontier wars, there were numerous recorded and unrecorded massacres of Indigenous Australians by colonists, government authorities and militias.{{sfn|Kociumbas|2012|p=90}} These acts were often carried out pre-emptively or in retaliation against violent resistance by Indigenous Australians against the occupation of their lands.{{sfn|Moses|2012|pp=13–14}}
2. Dispersal campaigns. Some scholars have described campaigns undertaken in the 1800s aimed at dispersing and displacing indigenous Australians from their lands as a form of genocide.{{harvnb|Crook|Short|2019|p=145}}: "This chapter examines the full range of literature on aboriginal participation in the Australian economy. Most of the scholarly works that consider the question of genocide in Australia focus on the "dispersal" extermination campaigns of the 1800s and/or the issue of the "Stolen Generations." While writers like Tony Barta and Patrick Wolfe imply that genocidal structuring dynamics are at work in Australia, theirs is a distinct minority opinion in genocide scholarship and popular discourse." Haebich argues that an example of this was a collaboration between white settlers and government officials in Western Australia to erase the presence of Indigenous Australians from the southwest of the state between 1900 and 1940.{{sfn|Haebich|2012|p=267}}
3. Forced removals of children. Some scholars have described various colonial government, state government and federal government policies involving the removal of Indigenous children from their families as genocidal.{{sfn|Cassidy|2009|p=114}} This practice has been acknowledged by the term "Stolen Generations",{{sfn|Perry|1997}} whereby Indigenous children of mixed heritage were placed in institutions or forcibly adopted by non-Indigenous families with the intent of assimilating them into white society and discouraging indigenous languages and culture.{{sfn|Manne|2012|p=218}}{{sfn|Haebich|2012|p=274}}{{sfn|Cruickshank|McKinnon|2023|pp=93–94}} These policies were sometimes undertaken by eugenicists such as A. O. Neville who argued that children of mixed ancestry would be better off if raised in white households.{{sfn|Haebich|2023|p=558}} In the early 20th century it was commonly thought that Indigenous Australians were dying out.{{sfn|Manne|2012|pp=219–220}} In 1937, Neville asked:{{Cite journal |last=Savage |first=Rowan |date=2013 |title=The Political Uses of Death-as-Finality in Genocide Denial: The Stolen Generations and the Holocaust |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48782488 |journal=Borderlands e-Journal |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |jstor=48782488 |issn=1447-0810}}
   {{blockquote|"Are we going to have a population of 1,000,000 blacks in the Commonwealth, or are we going to merge them into our white community and eventually forget that there ever were any aborigines in Australia?"}}
4. Assimilation policies. Other policies were designed to assimilate Indigenous Australians into majority Australian society.{{sfn|Moses|2012|p=8}} In many schools, children were punished for speaking their native language. Additional restrictions were placed on movement, marriage, employment, and the practice of traditional ceremonies and legal systems.{{sfn|Haebich|2012|pp=271–272}} Some scholars have argued that these policies, collectively, were an act of cultural genocide. Others have argued that after 1945 these policies were not genocidal in intent but were intended to ensure the survival of indigenous peoples.{{sfn|McGregor|2012|p=290|ps=: "This chapter contests recent characterizations of post–1945 Aboriginal assimilation policies as genocidal.¹ Far from seeking elimination of the Aborigines, these policies of sociocultural assimilation were the first in more than a century to seriously envisage Aboriginal survival, to seek to ensure survival, and to prescribe strategies predicated upon their survival. Precisely because it envisaged Aboriginal survival, the postwar state turned more resolutely to their governance."}}
5. Ongoing cultural genocidal policies. Some scholars have argued that genocide against Indigenous Australians continues, especially through contemporary cultural destructive policies.{{sfn|Short|2010|p=}}{{sfn|Klein|2019|p=}} These scholars are part of a minority opinion in both formal academic scholarship on genocide and in popular discourse.

{{clear}}

{{main|Black War}}

File:The avengers NLA.jpg

The near-destruction of Tasmania's Aboriginal population{{sfn|Taylor|2023|pp=481–484}} has been described as an act of genocide by scholars including Robert Hughes, James Boyce, Lyndall Ryan, Tom Lawson, Mohamed Adhikari, Benjamin Madley, Ashley Riley Sousa, Rebe Taylor, and Tony Barta.{{harvnb|Hughes|1987|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Boyce|2010|p=296}}; {{harvnb|Ryan|2012|pp=xix, 215}}; {{harvnb|Lawson|2014|pp=xvii, 2, 20}}; {{harvnb|Adhikari|2022|p=xxix}}; {{harvnb|Madley|2004}}; {{harvnb|Sousa|2004}}; {{harvnb|Taylor|2023|p=484}}; {{harvnb|Barta|2023|p=51}}{{sfn|Shipway|2017|pp=4–6}} The author of the concept of genocide, Raphael Lemkin, considered Tasmania the site of one of the world's clear cases of genocide{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=50}} and Hughes has described the loss of Aboriginal Tasmanians as "the only true genocide in English colonial history".{{sfn|Hughes|1987|p=120}} However, other historians{{snd}}including Henry Reynolds, Richard Broome, and Nicholas Clements{{snd}}do not agree that the colonial authorities pursued a policy of destroying the Indigenous population, although they do acknowledge that some settlers supported extermination.{{sfn|Broome|2019|p=44}}{{sfn|Clements|2013|pp=110–112}}

As early as 1852 John West's History of Tasmania portrayed the obliteration of Tasmania's Aboriginal people as an example of "systematic massacre"{{sfn|Lawson|2014|p=8}} and in the 1979 High Court case of Coe v Commonwealth of Australia, judge Lionel Murphy observed that Aboriginal people did not give up their land peacefully and that they were killed or forcibly removed from their land "in what amounted to attempted (and in Tasmania almost complete) genocide".{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=29}}

Boyce has claimed that the April 1828 "Proclamation Separating the Aborigines from the White Inhabitants" sanctioned force against Aboriginal people "for no other reason than that they were Aboriginal". However, as Reynolds, Broome and Clements point out, there was open warfare at the time.{{sfn|Broome|2019|p=44}}{{sfn|Clements|2013|pp=110–112}} Boyce describes the decision to remove all Aboriginal Tasmanians after 1832—by which time they had given up their fight against white colonists—as an extreme policy position. He concludes: "The colonial government from 1832 to 1838 ethnically cleansed the western half of Van Diemen's Land and then callously left the exiled people to their fate."{{sfn|Boyce|2010|pp=264, 296}}

Historian Henry Reynolds says there was a widespread call from settlers during the frontier wars for the "extirpation" or "extermination" of the Aboriginal people.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=52–54}} But he has contended that the British government acted as a source of restraint on settlers' actions. Reynolds says there is no evidence the British government deliberately planned the wholesale destruction of indigenous Tasmanians—a November 1830 letter to Arthur by Sir George Murray warned that the extinction of the race would leave "an indelible stain upon the character of the British Government"{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=59}}—and therefore what eventuated does not meet the definition of genocide codified in the 1948 United Nations convention. He says Arthur was determined to defeat the Aboriginal people and take their land, but believes there is little evidence he had aims beyond that objective and wished to destroy the Tasmanian race.{{sfn|Lawson|2014|pp=15, 78, 85}} In contrast to Reynolds' argument, historian Lyndall Ryan, based on a sample of massacres taking place in the Meander River region in June 1827, concludes that massacres of Aboriginal Tasmanians by white settlers were likely part of an organised process and were sanctioned by government authorities.{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Lyndall |author1-link=Lyndall Ryan |date=6 November 2008 |title=Massacre in the Black War in Tasmania 1823–34: a case study of the Meander River Region, June 1827 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520802447834 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=479–499 |doi=10.1080/14623520802447834 |s2cid=145287373 |access-date=8 March 2022}}

Clements accepts Reynolds' argument but also exonerates the colonists themselves of the charge of genocide. He says that unlike genocidal determinations by Nazis against Jews in World War II, Hutus against Tutsis in Rwanda and Ottomans against Armenians in present-day Turkey, which were carried out for ideological reasons, Tasmanian settlers participated in violence largely out of revenge and self-preservation. He adds: "Even those who were motivated by sex or morbid thrillseeking lacked any ideological impetus to exterminate the natives." He also argues that while genocides are inflicted on defeated, captive or otherwise vulnerable minorities, Tasmanian natives appeared as a "capable and terrifying enemy" to colonists and were killed in the context of a war in which both sides killed noncombatants.{{sfn|Clements|2014|pp=56–58}}

Lawson, in a critique of Reynolds' stand, argues that genocide was the inevitable outcome of a set of British policies to colonise Van Diemen's Land.{{sfn|Lawson|2014|p=14}} He says the British government endorsed the use of partitioning and "absolute force" against Tasmanians, approved Robinson's "Friendly Mission" and colluded in transforming that mission into a campaign of ethnic cleansing from 1832. He says that once on Flinders Island, indigenous peoples were taught to farmland like Europeans and worship God like Europeans and concludes: "The campaign of transformation enacted on Flinders Island amounted to cultural genocide."{{sfn|Lawson|2014|pp=51, 205}}

{{main|Australian frontier wars#Queensland}}

Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia.{{cite thesis |last=Loos |first=Noel |title=Frontier conflict in the Bowen district 1861–1874 |date=1970 |publisher=James Cook University of North Queensland |doi=10.25903/mmrc-5e46 |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/1136/ |access-date=11 September 2019 |type=other |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709071610/https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/1136/ |archive-date=9 July 2024}}{{cite thesis |last=Loos |first=Noel |title=Aboriginal-European relations in North Queensland, 1861–1897 |date=1976 |publisher=James Cook University |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/10414/ |access-date=11 September 2019 |type=PhD |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606144817/https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/10414/ |archive-date=6 June 2024}} Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of indigenous people and the most disreputable frontier police force.{{sfn|Ørsted-Jensen|2011}} Thus some sources have characterised these events as a "Queensland Aboriginal genocide".{{bulleted list|

|{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/12016000 |title=The Partial Case for Queensland Genocide |first=Ray |last=Gibbons |website=Academia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227112736/https://www.academia.edu/12016000 |archive-date=27 December 2023}}

|{{harvnb|Baldry|McKeon|McDougal|2015|pp=}}{{pn|date=March 2025}}

|{{cite journal |title=Colonial and modern genocide: explanations and categories |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=21 |pages=89–115 |first=Alison |last=Palmer |doi=10.1080/014198798330115 |year=1998}}

}}{{cite book |last=Tatz |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Tatz |date=2006 |chapter=Confronting Australian Genocide |editor1-first=Roger |editor1-last=Maaka |editor2-first=Chris |editor2-last=Andersen |title=The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives |publisher=Canadian Scholars Press |isbn=978-1551303000}} In 2009 professor Raymond Evans calculated the Indigenous fatalities caused by the Queensland Native Police Force alone as no less than 24,000.{{sfn|Evans|2011|p=}}

{{See|Australian history wars#Genocide debate}}

There is an ongoing scholarly debate about whether there were acts of genocide in Australia and, if so, the form they took.{{sfn|Reynolds|2022|p=148}} Robert van Krieken argues that the debate often involves how broadly the concept of genocide ought to be understood. Narrow conceptions of genocide, such as that in the UN convention, are restricted to killing and other forms of physical elimination, whereas the broader definition includes other ways a human group can be destroyed, including the destruction of cultural identity.{{Sfn|van Krieken|2008|p=128}}

Scholars are also divided over whether colonists and Australian governments acted with an intention to destroy Indigenous peoples in whole or in part and therefore committed genocide as defined by the UN convention. Reynolds argues that while some settlers and colonial officials talked of extermination of Aboriginal people in the context of the frontier wars, this was not official policy and killing of Aboriginal groups ended once their violent resistance to colonisation ended.{{Sfn|Reynolds|2022|pp=29, 117–118, 142, 149–155}} Barta, however, argues that conflict between an expanding settlement and traditional owners of the land established "relations of genocide" and that a genocidal intent can be inferred from the actions of government agents which were contrary to declared policy.{{Sfn|Barta|2023|pp=48, 62–65}}

Many scholars argue that the actions taken against Indigenous Australians were not systematic or intentional like other genocidal events.{{cite journal |last=Dirk Moses |first=A. |date=2003 |title=Genocide and Holocaust Consciousness in Australia |journal=History Compass |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1111/1478-0542.028 |issn=1478-0542}} Others also argue that the high death toll among Indigenous Australians following colonisation was mainly a result of the introduction of diseases, and that deliberate acts of violence and the effects of dispossession did not meet the legal definition of genocide.{{sfn|Moses|2004|pp=15, 16}}{{sfn|Havemann|2003}} Lawyer Michael Legge, however, concludes: "Australia's record on Indigenous Australians is at best ambiguous, and at worst an example of genocide by eugenics".{{cite journal |last=Legg |first=Michael |date=2002 |title=Indigenous Australians and International Law: Racial Discrimination, Genocide and Reparations |journal=Berkeley Journal of International Law |doi=10.15779/Z38KM0Q |s2cid=152433767}}

{{See|Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples#Australia}}

The publication of the Bringing Them Home report in 1997 and Keith Windschuttle's The Fabrication of Aboriginal History (2002) led to a heated public debate on genocide and frontier violence.{{Sfn|Broome|2019|pp=310–316}}{{cite journal |last=Attwood |first=Bain |title=The Stolen Generations and genocide: Robert Manne's |journal=Aboriginal History |publisher=ANU Press |volume=25 |year=2001 |issn=0314-8769 |jstor=45135477 |pages=163–172 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/45135477 |access-date=10 November 2024}} Historians and commentators such as Windschuttle accused those who argued that Indigenous Australians had survived genocide of fabricating evidence and writing "black armband" history that claimed that "much of Australian history was a disgrace".{{Cite web |last=McKenna |first=Mark |date=10 November 1997 |title=Different Perspectives on Black Armband History |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/RP9798/98RP05 |access-date=11 May 2021 |website=Parliament of Australia, Parliamentary Library}}{{Sfn|Broome|2019|pp=310–316}} Others argue that since the violence and dispossession happened in the past, it has no relevance to the current state of affairs.{{cite web |last=Davidson |first=Helen |date=September 22, 2014 |title=John Howard: there was no genocide against Indigenous Australians |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/22/john-howard-there-was-no-genocide-against-indigenous-australians |access-date=November 10, 2024 |website=the Guardian}}{{sfn|Tatz|1999|pp=315–352}} Proponents of the genocide thesis, in turn, often accused their critics of denialism and ignoring the evidence of frontier massacres, the violent dispossession of Indigenous Australians of their land, and the systematic removal of Aboriginal children from their families.{{Sfn|Broome|2019|pp=310–316}}{{sfn|Tatz|1999|p=}}{{Sfn|Ryan|2023|pp=469–474}}

File:RuddSorry.jpg Kevin Rudd on screen in Federation Square, Melbourne, apologising to the stolen generations in 2008.]]

The recognition of historical injustices in Australia has been relatively slow.{{sfn|Vines|2023|p=}}{{sfn|Falls|Anderson|2022|p=}} A watershed moment was the Bringing Them Home report, which contained the findings of the federal government inquiry into the removal of thousands of Aboriginal children.{{sfn|Perry|1997}} The report argued that the Commonwealth Government was guilty of the crime of genocide; under the UN Convention defining genocide as "intentional destruction of a racial, religious, national, or ethnic group".{{sfn|Manne|2012|p=217|ps=: "Bringing Them Home, the findings of the federal government inquiry into the removal of thousands of Aboriginal children from their mothers, families, and communities in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century, was published in 1997. It argued that the Commonwealth government and the governments of several Australian states were guilty of the crime of genocide."}}

Since 1998 Australia has acknowledged the harms caused to Indigenous Australians in a National Sorry Day on May 26.{{sfn|Carlson|2022}} In 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, on behalf of the Australian Parliament, deliver an apology to the stolen generations and to all Indigenous Australians who had suffered because of the unjust government policies of the past. However, the apology did not specifically acknowledge genocide.{{Sfn|Broome|2019|pp=347–349}}

• Karuwali
• List of massacres of Indigenous Australians
• Mass poisonings of Aboriginal Australians

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}

• {{cite book |last=Adhikari |first=Mohamed |author-link=Mohamed Adhikari |date=25 July 2022 |title=Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ht9dEAAAQBAJ |location=Indianapolis |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-1647920548}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Baldry |first1=Hannah |last2=McKeon |first2=Alisa |last3=McDougal |first3=Scott |date=2015 |title=Queensland's Frontier Killing Times{{Snd}} Facing Up to Genocide |url=https://lr.law.qut.edu.au/article/view/583/564 |journal=QUT Law Review |issn=2201-7275 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=92–113|doi=10.5204/qutlr.v15i1.583 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Barta |first1=Tony |title=Sorry, and not sorry, in Australia: how the apology to the stolen generations buried a history of genocide |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2008 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=201–214 |doi=10.1080/14623520802065438 |s2cid=73078524}}
• {{cite book |last1=Barta |first1=Tony |date=2023 |chapter=A Very British Genocide: Acknowledgement of Indigenous Destruction in the Founding of Australia and New Zealand |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Ned |editor2-last=Blackhawk |editor2-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor3-last=Madley |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48643-9 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480 |pages=46–68}}
• {{cite book |last=Boyce |first=James |title=Van Diemen's Land |publisher=Black Inc |year=2010 |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-1-86395-491-4 |author-link=James Boyce (author)}}
• {{Cite book |last=Broome |first=Richard |title=Aboriginal Australians: a history since 1788 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2019 |isbn=9781760528218 |edition=5th |location=Crows Nest, NSW}}

• {{Cite web |last=Carlson |first=Bronwyn |date=26 May 2022 |title=National Sorry Day is a day to commemorate those taken. But 'sorry' is not enough – we need action |url=https://theconversation.com/national-sorry-day-is-a-day-to-commemorate-those-taken-but-sorry-is-not-enough-we-need-action-183618 |access-date=11 November 2024 |website=The Conversation |archive-url= |archive-date=}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Cassidy |first1=Julie |title=Unhelpful and inappropriate?: The question of genocide and the stolen generations |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AUIndigLawRw/2009/7.pdf |date=2009 |volume=13 |issue=1 |journal=Australian Indigenous Law Review |access-date=22 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705065325/https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AUIndigLawRw/2009/7.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2024}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Clarkson |first1=Chris |last2=Jacobs |first2=Zenobia |last3=Marwick |first3=Ben |last4=Fullagar |first4=Richard |last5=Wallis |first5=Lynley |last6=Smith |first6=Mike |last7=Roberts |first7=Richard G. |last8=Hayes |first8=Elspeth |last9=Lowe |first9=Kelsey |last10=Carah |first10=Xavier |last11=Florin |first11=S. Anna |last12=McNeil |first12=Jessica |last13=Cox |first13=Delyth |last14=Arnold |first14=Lee J. |last15=Hua |first15=Quan |display-authors=2 |date=19 July 2017 |title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago |url=https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/107043/2/hdl_107043.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=547 |issue=7663 |pages=306–310 |bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C |doi=10.1038/nature22968 |pmid=28726833 |s2cid=205257212 |hdl-access=free |last16=Huntley |first16=Jillian |last17=Brand |first17=Helen E. A. |last18=Manne |first18=Tiina |last19=Fairbairn |first19=Andrew |last20=Shulmeister |first20=James |last21=Lyle |first21=Lindsey |last22=Salinas |first22=Makiah |last23=Page |first23=Mara |last24=Connell |first24=Kate |last25=Park |first25=Gayoung |last26=Norman |first26=Kasih |last27=Murphy |first27=Tessa |last28=Pardoe |first28=Colin |hdl=2440/107043 |ref={{harvid|Clarkson et al.|2017}} }}
• {{Cite thesis |last=Clements |first=Nicholas |title=Frontier Conflict in Van Diemen's Land |type=PhD |year=2013 |publisher=University of Tasmania |url=http://eprints.utas.edu.au/17070/2/Whole-Clements-thesis.pdf}}
• {{Cite book |last=Clements |first=Nicholas |title=The Black War |publisher=University of Queensland Press |year=2014 |location=Brisbane |isbn=978-0-70225-006-4}}
• {{cite book |last1=Crook |first1=Martin |last2=Short |first2=Damien |author2-link=Damien Short |date=2019 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9781351214100-7/political-economy-genocide-australia-martin-crook-damien-short |title=Cultural Genocide: Law, Politics, and Global Manifestations |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21410-0 |chapter=A political economy of genocide in Australia: The architecture of dispossession then and now |doi=10.4324/9781351214100-7}}
• {{cite book |last1=Cruickshank |first1=Joanna |last2=McKinnon |first2=Crystal |date=2023 |chapter=Australia's Stolen Generations, 1914–2021 |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=III: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020 |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Wendy |editor2-last=Lower |editor2-link=Wendy Lower |editor3-first=Norman |editor3-last=Naimark |editor3-link=Norman Naimark |editor4-first=Scott |editor4-last=Straus |editor4-link=Scott Straus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48707-8 |doi=10.1017/9781108767118 |pages=93–117}}

• {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Raymond |date=3 October 2011 |chapter=The country has another past: Queensland and the History Wars |editor1-last=Peters-Little |editor1-first=Frances |editor2-last=Curthoys |editor2-first=Ann |editor2-link=Ann Curthoys |editor3-last=Docker |editor3-first=John |title=Passionate Histories: Myth, memory and Indigenous Australia |series=Aboriginal History Monograph |volume=21 |publisher=ANU Press |doi=10.22459/PH.09.2010 |isbn=978-1-921666-64-3 |url=http://press.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Passionate+Histories%3A+Myth%2C+Memory+and+Indigenous+Australia/8271/Text/upfront.html |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Raymond |date=2012 |chapter="Pigmentia": Racial Fears and White Australia |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |volume=6 |editor-last=Moses |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |publisher=Berghahn Books |pages=103–124 |isbn=9781782381693 |jstor=j.ctt9qdg7m.9 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.9}}
• {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Raymond |date=2023 |chapter=Genocide in Northern Australia, 1824-1928 |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Ned |editor2-last=Blackhawk |editor2-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor3-last=Madley |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48643-9 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480 |pages=}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Falls |first1=Thomas |last2=Anderson |first2=Joel |date=6 March 2022 |title=Attitudes towards Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Australia: a systematic review |journal=Australian Journal of Psychology |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=74 |issue=1 |page= |doi=10.1080/00049530.2022.2039043 |issn=0004-9530 |doi-access=free}}
• {{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Josephine |title=The Original Australians: The Story of the Aboriginal People |date=2019 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=9781760527075 |edition=2nd |location=Crows Nest, NSW}}

• {{cite book |last=Haebich |first=Anna |date=1992 |title=For Their Own Good: Aborigines and Government in the South West of Western Australia, 1900–1940 |edition=2nd |location=Nedlands, Western Australia}}
• {{cite book |last=Haebich |first=Anna |date=2012 |chapter="Clearing the Wheat Belt": Erasing the Indigenous Presence in the Southwest of Western Australia |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |volume=6 |editor-last=Moses |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |pages=267–289 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=9781782381693 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.16 |jstor=j.ctt9qdg7m.16}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Haebich |first1=Anna |last2=Kinnane |first2=Steve |chapter=Indigenous Australia |title=The Cambridge History of Australia |volume=2: The Commonwealth of Australia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9781107011540 |editor1-last=Bashford |editor1-first=Alison |location=Port Melbourne |editor2-last=Macintyre |editor2-first=Stuart}}
• {{cite book |last1=Haebich |first1=Anna |date=2023 |chapter=Genocide and the Forcible Removal of Aboriginal Children in Australia, 1800–1920 |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Ned |editor2-last=Blackhawk |editor2-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor3-last=Madley |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48643-9 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480 |pages=537–561}}
• {{cite web |last=Havemann |first=Paul |date=8 August 2003 |title=Denial, Modernity and Exclusion: Indigenous Placelessness in Australia" [2005] MqLawJl 4; (2005) 5 Maquarie Law Journal 57 |url=https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MqLawJl/2005/4.html |access-date=10 November 2024 |website=Australasian Legal Information Institute (AustLII)}}
• {{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Hughes (critic) |title=The Fatal Shore |publisher=Pan |year=1987 |location=London |isbn=0-330-29892-5}}

• {{cite book |last1=Kiernan |first1=Ben |date=2023 |chapter=Introduction to Volume II |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Ned |editor2-last=Blackhawk |editor2-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor3-last=Madley |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48643-9 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480 |pages=|last2=Madley|first2=Benjamin|last3=Taylor|first3=Rebe}}
• {{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Elise |year=2019 |title=Settler colonialism in Australia and the cashless debit card |journal=Social Policy & Administration |volume=54 |pages=265–277 |doi=10.1111/spol.12576 |number=2}}
• {{cite book |last=Kociumbas |first=Jan |date=2012 |chapter=Genocide and Modernity in Colonial Australia, 1788-1850 |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |volume=6 |editor-last=Moses |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |publisher=Berghahn Books |pages=77–102 |isbn=9781782381693 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.8 |jstor=j.ctt9qdg7m.8}}

• {{cite book |last=Lawson |first=Tom |title=The Last Man: A British Genocide in Tasmania |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2014 |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rP1fAwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-78076-626-3}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Madley |first1=Benjamin |title=Patterns of frontier genocide 1803–1910: the aboriginal Tasmanians, the Yuki of California, and the Herero of Namibia |year=2004 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1462352042000225930 |pages=167–192 |volume=6 |issue=2 |doi=10.1080/1462352042000225930 |s2cid=145079658}}
• {{cite book |last=Manne |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Manne |date=2012 |chapter=Aboriginal Child Removal and the Question of Genocide, 1900–1940 |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |volume=6 |editor-last=Moses |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |publisher=Berghahn Books |pages=217–243 |isbn=9781782381693 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.14 |jstor=j.ctt9qdg7m.14}}
• {{cite book |last1=McCalman |first1=Janet |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |last2=Kippen |first2=Rebecca |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=Population and health |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart}}
• {{cite news |last1=McCutchan |first1=Ellen |last2=Campbell |first2=David |date=8 September 2023 |title=Gerard Rennick says there's no archaeological evidence to prove Indigenous Australians have been here for 60,000 years. What are the facts? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-08/fact-check-65000-years-aboriginal-history/101237936 |access-date=6 July 2024 |work=ABC News, RMIT factcheck}}
• {{cite book |last=McGregor |first=Russell |date=2012 |chapter=Governance, Not Genocide: Aboriginal Assimilation in the Postwar Era |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |volume=6 |editor-last=Moses |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |publisher=Berghahn Books |pages=290–311 |isbn=9781782381693 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.17 |jstor=j.ctt9qdg7m.17}}
• {{cite book |last=Moses |first=A. D. |author-link=A. Dirk Moses |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tB0sAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78238-169-3 |series=War and Genocide |access-date=10 November 2024}}
• {{cite book |last=Moses |first=A. Dirk |author-link=A. Dirk Moses |date=2012 |chapter=Genocide and Settler Society in Australian History |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |volume=6 |editor-last=Moses |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |publisher=Berghahn Books |pages=3–48 |isbn=9781782381693 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.6 |jstor=j.ctt9qdg7m.6}}

• {{cite book |last1=Ørsted-Jensen |first1=Robert |date=2011 |title=Frontier History Revisited – Queensland and the 'History War' |place=Cooparoo, Brisbane, Qld |publisher=Lux Mundi Publishing |isbn=9781466386822}}

• {{cite news |last=Perry |first=Michael |date=20 May 1997 |title=A Stolen Generation Cries Out |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/088.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210023605/http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/088.html |archive-date=10 December 2023 |access-date=24 November 2016 |publisher=Hartford Web Publishing |agency=Reuters}}

• {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Reynolds (historian) |title=An Indelible Stain?: The Question of Genocide in Australia's History |publisher=Penguin |year=2001 |location=Sydney |isbn=978-0-67091-220-9}}
• {{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |title=Forgotten War |publisher=NewSouth |year=2022 |isbn=9781742237596 |edition=2nd |location=Sydney}}
• {{cite book |last=Ryan |first=Lyndall |author-link=Lyndall Ryan |title=Tasmanian Aborigines |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2012 |location=Sydney |isbn=978-1-74237-068-2}}
• {{cite book |last1=Ryan |first1=Lyndall |date=2023 |chapter=Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1928 |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Ned |editor2-last=Blackhawk |editor2-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor3-last=Madley |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48643-9 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480 |pages=461–480}}

• {{cite book |last=Shipway |first=Jesse |title=The Memory of Genocide in Tasmania, 1803–2013: Scars on the Archive |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |series=Palgrave Studies in the History of Genocide |isbn=978-1-137-48443-7 |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-48443-7}}
• {{cite journal |last=Short |first=Damien |author-link=Damien Short |date=27 September 2010 |title=Australia: a continuing genocide? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2010.508647?src=recsys |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=12 |issue=1–2 |pages=45–68 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2010.508647 |pmid=20941881}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sousa |first1=Ashley Riley |title="They will be hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed!": a comparative study of genocide in California and Tasmania |year=2004 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1462352042000225949 |pages=193–209 |volume=6 |issue=2 |doi=10.1080/1462352042000225949 |s2cid=109131060}}

• {{cite journal |last=Tatz |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Tatz |date=1999 |title=Genocide in Australia |url=https://kooriweb.org/foley/resources/history/genocide.html |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=315–352 |doi=10.1080/14623529908413964 |issn=1462-3528 |via=The Koori History Project |access-date=10 November 2024 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Rebe |author1-link=Rebe Taylor |date=2023 |chapter=Genocide in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), 1803–1871 |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-first=Ned |editor2-last=Blackhawk |editor2-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor3-last=Madley |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48643-9 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480 |pages=481–507}}
• {{Cite book |last=van Krieken |first=Robert |title=The Historiography of Genocide |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=9781403992192 |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Dan |location=Baisingstoke, Hampshire |chapter=Cultural Genocide in Australia}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Veth |first1=Peter |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |last2=O'Connor |first2=Sue |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |location=Cambridge |chapter=The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view |editor-last2=MacIntyre |editor-first2=Stuart}}

• {{cite journal |last=Vines |first=Prue |date=31 January 2023 |title=Australia's (Slow) Experiment with Indigenous Customary Law in Intestacy |url=https://www.journalofcommonwealthlaw.org/article/36623-australia-s-slow-experiment-with-indigenous-customary-law-in-intestacy |journal=The Journal of Commonwealth Law |publisher=Matthew P Harrington |volume=4 |pages=43–71 |access-date=8 November 2024}}

• {{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Martin A. J. |last2=Spooner |first2=Nigel A. |last3=McDonnell |first3=Kathryn |last4=O'Connell |first4=James F. |date=January 2021 |title=Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |url-status=live |journal=Geoarchaeology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=92–108 |bibcode=2021Gearc..36...92W |doi=10.1002/gea.21822 |issn=0883-6353 |s2cid=225321249 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004091731/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |access-date=16 October 2023}}

{{refend}}

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